MotivationMotivation Theories
Motivation is the willingness to put forth effort in pursuit of organisational objectives.
Taylorism – Taylor’s Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor wrote the book Principles of Scientific Management. In it he outlined his
view point that the scientific method, which provides a logical framework for the analysis
of problems, could be applied to the management process. The method consists of:
Defining the problem;
Gathering data;
Analyzing the data;
Developing alternatives;
Selecting the best alternative.
Taylor believed that the use of the scientific method would direct the manager to the most
efficient way work could be performed. Taylor’s philosophy is summarized as follows:
Taylor proposed applying the scientific method to the practice of management to
find the one best way to perform work.
He suggested the use of scientific approaches to select employees who are best
suited to perform a given job.
He advanced the proposition that employees should be provided with scientific
education, training and development.
He encouraged friendly interaction and cooperation between management and
employees, but with a clear separation of duties between managers and workers.
He advocated that managers take charge of all work that they are better prepared
to accomplish, ending the pattern of placing most of the work and the greater part
of the responsibility on the workers.
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Taylor believed that scientific management practices would benefit not only the employer,
through increased output, but the workers as well, through increased income.
Thus Taylor felt that workers were motivated purely by money. Thus he would advocate a
performance related pay structure in a services-oriented organisation, and a piece-rate
pay scheme (paid a certain fixed amount for very unit produced) in a manufacturing unit.
Question
The ideas and principles established by the well-known theorist F.W.Taylor have
implications for both operations and management even today. Describe briefly FIVE
of these ideas and principles.
Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Effect
Elton Mayo and his associates conducted their famous Hawthorne studies in the 1920s
and 1930s at Western Electric’s Hawthorne facility, in Chicago, USA. Their research
demonstrated that the attitudes and feelings of workers significantly influence
productivity. This illogic of sentiments turned out to be just as important as Taylor’s logic
of efficiency.
The Hawthorne Effect is the hypothesis that workers were motivated and their
productivity improved by having their working conditions improved – paid lunch breaks,
shorter working hours and attention being paid to their work by management personnel.
Team spirit and group dynamics should be promoted.
People’s attitude should be analysed during recruitment process.
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Hawthorne Experiment
Elton Mayo’s team conducted a number of experiments involving six female workers. Over
the course of five years, Mayo’s team altered the female workers’ working conditions and
monitored how the change in working conditions affected the workers morale and
productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in working hours, rest
brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were explained to the workers
prior to implementation.
Hawthorne Experiment Results
At the end of the five year period, the female worker’s working conditions, reverted back
to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers morale and
productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments. The
combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the workers
productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led Mayo to
conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than physical
working condition.
Hawthorne Experiment conclusions
After analysing the results from the Hawthorne experiments Mayo concluded that
workers were motivated by more than self interest and the following had an impact too:
1. Psychological Contract
There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is
expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract.
2. Interest in Workers
A worker’s motivation can be increased by showing an interest in them. Mayo classified
studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest in the workers.
3. Work is a Group Activity
Work is a group activity, team work can increase a worker’s motivation as it allows people
to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work
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groups are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and
formal groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the
worker’s habits and attitudes.
4. Social Aspect of Work
Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female
workers socialising during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation.
5. Recognise Workers
Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging.
6. Communication
The communication between workers and management influences workers’ morale and
productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with
management.
Conclusion
The traditional view of how to motivate employees is that you offer monetary rewards
(pay increases, bonuses etc) for work completion. However the Hawthorne experiments
may suggest that motivation is more complicated than that. Advocates of the "Hawthorne
Effect" will state that the Hawthorne experiment results show that motivation can be
improved through improving working relationships and social interraction.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow stated that individuals are motivated to satisfy certain unsatisfied
needs. His theory of human motivation is based on the following assumptions:
Unsatisfied needs motivate or influence behaviour
Satisfied needs doe not motivate behaviour.
Needs are arranged in a hierarchy.
Needs at any level of the hierarchy emerge as a significant motivator only when the
lower-level needs are reasonably well satisfied.
Maslow’s advice to managers was to focus motivational efforts on the lowest-level
category of needs that is substantially satisfied.
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Maslow stated that an average person might be:
85% satisfied in physiological needs
70% satisfied in safety and security needs
50% satisfied in love and belonginess
40% satisfied in esteem needs and
10% satisfied in self-actualisation
The above information implies that the manager of the average person should pay
attention to the love and belonginess, and self-esteem needs.
Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Certain studies suggest that needs fall into only two or three distinct categories, not
five.
Some critics say that the order of fulfilment may not always be the same.
According to Maslow, a need that has been relatively well satisfied ceases to
motivate. But this may not be true of self-esteem and self-actualisation needs.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory6
He attempted to find out what motivated people at work
Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors, Herzberg, stated were capable of creating dissatisfaction but not positive
motivation. They relate to the job context – the interrelated conditions in which the job is
done. These factors related to the bottom three levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and
include:
Pay
Status
Security
Working conditions
Fringe benefits
Policies and administrative practices
Interpersonal relations
Herzberg concluded that hygiene factors cannot promote motivation but can cause
dissatisfaction. Herzberg suggested that an organisation that meets only the hygiene
needs of its employees will eliminate dissatisfaction but will not get superior
performance. 7
Motivators
Motivators include challenging work, recognition for accomplishment, and the feeling of
achievement. Herzberg’s motivators are concerned mainly with the job content (internal
to the job). They would be aligned to Maslow’s top two levels in the hierarchy of needs
and are as follows:
Meaningful and challenging work.
Recognition for accomplishment
Feeling of achievement
Increased responsibility
Opportunities for growth and advancement.
The job itself.
Herzberg contended that most managers give inadequate attention to the motivators,
focusing instead on employee pay, benefits, and working conditions. Hygiene factors tend
to be tangible and measurable. Motivators, on the other hand, are intangible and generally
unquantifiable.
But hygiene factors, Herzberg said, cannot produce positive motivation. To achieve
excellence, he believed, organisations must satisfy the needs related to both hygiene
factors and motivators. The obvious implication is that management should show
relatively more concern for providing challenging work, increased responsibility,
recognition and other motivators.
According to Herzberg, management should focus on rearranging work so that motivator
factors could take effect. He suggested three ways in which this could be done:
1. Job Enlargement
2. Job Rotation
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3. Job Enrichment
1. Job enlargement involves expanding the job of an employee that has them doing more
work of a similar nature to what they already do.
2. Job rotation involves allowing employees to change the nature of their job periodically.
3. Job Enrichment involves giving the job-holder more decision-making responsibility;
greater freedom about how the job should be done; Encourage employee feedback in the
planning process and be seen to reflect that feedback in real change; and give the
employee regular feedback
Question
Explain the relationship between Frederick Herzberg's dual (two) factor motivation theory and job enrichment
McGregor’s Theory X Theory Y
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Theory X is the assumption that people dislike work and responsibility, lack ambition and
creative ability and mainly want security and money. McGregor pointed out that
managers who hold such a view think they must coerce, control and threaten employees
in order to motivate them.
Theory Y is the assumption that expending physical and mental effort is natural; that
people can be self-directed if achievement brings rewards and that most can exercise
imagination, ingenuity and creativity and learn to seek responsibility.
Thus McGregor believed that employees do not require coercion or excessive control to
perform effectively.
Theory X managers may follow:
Centralised decision-making
Productivity is driven by threats to the labour force
Singular tasks set
Consistent monitoring of the workforce (narrow span of control)
Fixed working contracts and schedules
Loyalty/seniority is more valued.
Theory Y managers may follow:
Decentralised/ Participative decision-making
Job enrichment – level of responsibility given to the employees will be high.
Workers are seen as sources of innovation.
Low supervision of workers (wide span of control)
Flexible working practices
McClelland’s Needs Theory
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The research of David McClelland emphasises that certain needs are learned and socially
acquired as the individual interacts with the environment. McClelland’s needs theory is
concerned with how individual needs and environmental factors combine to form three
basic human needs:
Need for achievement
Need for Power
Need for affiliation.
Need for achievement – A person with a high need for achievement is one who:
Wants to take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
Is objective-oriented.
Seeks a challenge and establishes moderate, realistic and attainable objectives that
involve risk but are not impossible to attain.
Desires concrete feedback on performance.
Has a high level of energy and is willing to work hard.
Need for Power – A high need for power means that an individual seeks to influence or
control others. Such an individual tends to be one whom
Is concerned with acquiring, exercising or retaining power or influence over others.
Likes to compete with others in situations that allow him or her to be dominant.
Enjoys confrontation with others.
Need for affiliation – A high need for affiliation is related to a desire for affection and for
establishing friendly relationships. A person with a high need for affiliation tends to be
one who:
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Seeks to establish and maintain friendships and close emotional relationships with
others.
Wants to be liked by others.
Enjoys social activities.
Seeks a sense of belonging by joining groups or organizations.
To varying degrees, each person possesses all three needs; however, one of the needs
tends to be more characteristic of the individual than the other two.
McClelland concluded that the most effective managers have:
High need for power
Moderate need for achievement
Low need for affiliation
These managers tend to use their power in a participative manner for the good of the
organisation. They have a moderate need for achievement, one not strong enough to
interfere with the management process.
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
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Expectancy theory is the approach to motivation that attempts to explain behaviour in
terms of an individual’s objectives and choices and the expectations of achieving the
objectives.
Vroom argued that when faced with alternative approaches to dealing with a certain task
individuals choose the option with the greatest motivation force.
Motivation force is composed of three parts:
1. Expectancy – refers to a person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead
to performance. A person who perceives that he or she will produce more by
working harder has a high expectancy that hard work leads to productivity.
2. Instrumentality – refers to a person’s perception of the probability that certain
outcomes, positive or negative, will be attached to performance. A person that
perceives he or she will receive greater pay or benefits for producing well has high
instrumentality.
3. Valence – refers to a person’s perception of the value of the projected outcomes –
that is, how much the person likes or dislikes receiving those outcomes.
An individual with high esteem needs generally will attach a high valence to a new
job title or a promotion.
An individual with strong security needs will value pension and retirement
programs or the awarding of tenure.
An individual with self-actualization needs will view challenging jobs or increased
responsibility as motivating because of the high valence.
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
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Question
Expectancy Theory has several implications for managers. Suggest two.
Adams’ Equity Theory
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Equity Theory is the motivation theory that people assess their performance and attitudes
by comparing both their contribution to work and the benefits they derive from it to the
contributions and benefits of comparison others whom they select and who in reality may
be like or unlike them.
Equity Theory further states that a person is motivated in proportion to the perceived
fairness of the rewards received for a certain amount of effort as compared to what others
receive.
“I’m going to stop working so hard – I work harder than Susan and she gets all the bonuses”
According to Equity Theory, individuals are motivated to reduce any perceived inequity.
They strive to make the ratios of outcomes to inputs equal.
When inequity exists, the person making the comparison strives to make the ratios equal
by changing either the outcomes or the inputs.
Psychological Contracts
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A psychological contract exists between individuals in an organization and the
organization itself. Handy suggested that they are based on what each party wants and
what they are prepared to give for it.
Three types of psychological contract can be identified:
1. Coercive contract – this is a contract in which the individual considers that they
are being forced to contribute their efforts and energies involuntarily, and that the
rewards they receive in return are inadequate compensation.
2. Calculative contract – this is a contract, accepted voluntarily by the individual, in
which they expect to do their job in exchange for a readily identifiable set of
rewards. With such psychological contracts, motivation can only be increased if the
rewards to the individual are improved. If the organization attempts to demand
greater efforts without increasing the rewards, the psychological contract will
revert to a coercive one, and motivation may become negative.
3. Co-operative contract – this is a contract in which the individual identifies
themselves with the organization and its goals, so that they actively seek to
contribute further to the achievement of those goals. Motivation comes out of
success at work, a sense of achievement, and self-fulfilment.
Psychological contracts are particularly relevant when considering staff turnover and
retention rates. Employees are more likely to stay and be loyal to an organization where
they perceive to have a co-operative contract rather than a coercive one.
Question
An individual employee's productivity level is influenced by a number of factors including those within the control of the organisation and those unique to a particular individual. Describe briefly FIVE factors unique to a particular individual that are likely to influence an employee's productivity
Reward Systems Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
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Employee rewards are usually classified under two broad headings i.e. intrinsic rewards
and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards spring from the job itself and include things such
as autonomy, responsibility and challenge. Extrinsic rewards are more tangible in nature
and include pay, job security and working conditions. The relative importance of intrinsic
over extrinsic rewards and vice versa is a much debated area, rooted in the various
theories of motivation.
An organisation’s reward system will attempt to incorporate the motivational principles
underlying the various theories in an attempt to improve or reinforce performance.
Lawler (1977) concluded that five key factors influence satisfaction with a reward:
Satisfaction with a reward depends on the amount received versus the amount the
individual feels he or she should receive
Comparisons with what happens to others influence people’s feelings of satisfaction
Employees’ satisfaction with both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards received from
their jobs affects overall job satisfaction; individuals who are dissatisfied with the
reward system are likely to express dissatisfaction with the jobs overall.
People differ widely in the rewards they desire and in what value they attach to
those rewards. Effective reward systems should meet workers’ needs
Many extrinsic rewards satisfy workers only because they lead to other rewards; for
example, increased pay may satisfy because of what it can buy
Contribution of an effective reward system to strategy achievement
Armstrong (1991) highlights a number of areas where an effective reward system can
make a significant contribution to the achievement of corporate and functional objectives:
Develop a positive culture
Underline the organisation’s values, especially those concerned with excellence,
performance, teamwork and quality
Convey a message to prospective high-calibre employees that the organisation will
satisfy their reward expectations
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Ensure that the right mix and levels of reward are provided in line with the culture
of the organisation, the needs of the business, the needs of employers and economic,
competitive, and market environment in which the business operates
Link reward policies, systems and procedures to the key business and human
resource strategies for innovation, growth, development and the pursuit of
excellence.
Develop a strong orientation towards the achievement of sustained high levels of
performance throughout the organisation by recognising successful performance
and increases in levels of competence, contributing to the process of improving,
enhancing and energising all employees
Indicate to existing employees what types of behaviour will be rewarded and how
this will take place, thus increasing motivation and improving performance.
Factors influencing reward levels There are many factors, which influence the type of reward system found in an
organisation.
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1. Comparable rates/levels elsewhere: these influence an organisation’s ability to
attract and retain employees
2. Labour market conditions: if the labour market exhibits tight properties e.g. skill
shortages, limited labour mobility, this tends to push wages upwards. The converse
occurs in situations where the labour market is loose and where a skills surplus
exists
3. Government action: will assert a strong influence on pay levels, both indirectly
through incomes policy and directly through what state/public sector employees
are paid
4. Organisational/technology change: organisations with advanced technology tend
to emphasise group payment systems, and organisations may use financial rewards
in order to get changes introduced
5. Existing differentials/ custom and practice: categories of employees will be
anxious to maintain their differential
6. Supranational body like European Union: the EU particularly through legislative
and equality initiatives may have a strong influence here when devising pay rates
7. Bargaining strength of trade union: the greater the trade union influence in an
organisation, the stronger will be its ability to influence both the type of payment
system and the level of payment received
8. Organisation’s ability to pay: many national pay agreements and plant level
agreements have ‘ability to pay’ clauses included in them. This may result in certain
negotiated increases not being paid.
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Characteristics of different payment systems The money, which a person receives for carrying out work is a major source of motivation
and therefore it is imperative that the organisation maintains an appropriate and
equitable wage and salary structure. A pay structure consists of the rates paid for jobs
within an organisation. The ideal structure should have the minimum number of grades
required to accommodate the differentiated levels of skill and responsibility that exist in
the organisation.
Pay is part of the reward system and can be a motivator in certain circumstances.
However, this depends on the value individuals ascribe to pay and the way in which
incentive schemes are implemented. Pay is usually considered a hygiene factor.
Employees need an income to live and most probably have two basic concerns – to earn
enough money and that their pay should be fair.
Payment Systems
At the organisational (strategic) level, payment systems have the following goals.
Aid recruitment
Retain employees
Reward employees for performance
At the managerial level, payment systems are used to:
Attract and retain staff of a suitable quality
Reward and motivate employees fairly and consistently
Further the organization’s objectives by providing competitive rewards
Encourage performance and progression through development
Recognize non-performance factors such as skill and competence
Ensure salary costs are controlled.
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The assumption behind most payment systems is that money is the prime motivating
factor. As Herzberg suggested it is more likely to be a cause of dissatisfaction. As
expectancy theory indicates, pay is only likely to motivate a worker to improved
performance if there is a clear and consistent link between performance and monetary
reward and if monetary reward is valued.
Pay differentials are often key to determining salaries for employees. To calculate pay
differentials an organization should refer to market rates for the roles and decide a policy
of how its pay levels will reflect the market rate. The points-factor evaluation scheme and
ranking/market method may be used in determining pay rates.
Types of Financial Reward
1: Salary
A salary is a form of periodic payment from an employer to an employee, which may be
specified in an employment contract. It is contrasted with piece wages, where each job,
hour or other unit is paid separately, rather than on a periodic basis. From the point of a
view of running a business, salary can also be viewed as the cost of acquiring and
retaining human resources for running operations, and is then termed personnel expense
or salary expense. In accounting, salaries are recorded in payroll accounts.
2: Wages
A wage is monetary compensation (or remuneration) paid by an employer to an employee
in exchange for work done. Payment may be calculated as a fixed amount for each task
completed (a task wage or piece rate), or at an hourly or daily rate, or based on an easily
measured quantity of work done.
3: Commission
The payment of commission as remuneration for services rendered or products sold is a
common way to reward sales people. Payments often will be calculated on the basis of a
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percentage of the goods sold. This is a way for firms to solve the principal–agent problem,
by attempting to realign employees' interests with those of the firm.[1]
4: Profit-related Pay
Profit-related pay exists where there is an element of reward linked to some definition of
profit and where both will rise and fall together. Although group-based, the expectation is
that such schemes will improve employee motivation. This will be done directly by the
incentive to produce more to raise profits, but also by educating employees in the role of
markets, costs and prices.
5: Fringe Payments
Employee benefits and benefits in kind (also called fringe benefits, perquisites, or perks)
include various types of non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to
their normal wages or salaries.[1] In instances where an employee exchanges (cash) wages
for some other form of benefit is generally referred to as a 'salary packaging' or 'salary
exchange' arrangement. In most countries, most kinds of employee benefits are taxable to
at least some degree.
Examples of these benefits include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid),
group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement
benefits, day-care, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social
security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits.
6: Incentive Schemes
The purpose of incentive schemes is to improve performance by linking it to reward. It is
believed that performance incentives take effect in several ways.
Staff members’ effort and attention are directed to where they are most needed –
performance
Commitment and motivation are enhanced. This is particularly important when
there are cultural obstacles to improvement.
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Achievement can be rewarded separately from effort, with advantages for the
recruitment and retention of high quality employees.
A further advantage is that labour costs are linked to organizational performance.
Schemes may be based on individual performance or on group performance.
There are three main types of incentive scheme:
Performance related pay (prp)
Bonus schemes
Profit-sharing
(a) Performance related pay
The most common individual PRP scheme for wage earners is straight piecework;
payment of a fixed amount per unit produced, or operation completed. The SMART
criteria should be applied:
Key results will be identified and specified, for which merit awards will be paid
There will be a clear model for evaluating performance and knowing when, or if,
targets have been reached and payments earned.
The exact conditions and amounts of awards can be made clear to the employee, to
avoid uncertainty and later resentment.
For service and other departments, a PRP scheme may involve bonuses for achievement
of key results, or points schemes, where points are awarded for performance on various
criteria. However, Otley discovered that employees become de-motivated if they fail to
meet targets, resulting in a high degree of performance reduction.
(b) Bonus schemes
Bonus schemes are supplementary to basic salary, and have been found to be popular
with entrepreneurial types, usually in marketing and sales. Bonuses are both incentives
and rewards.
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Group incentive schemes typically offer for a group, which achieves or exceeds specified
targets. Typically, bonuses would be calculated monthly on the basis of improvements in
output per man per hour against standard, or value-added.
(c) Profit sharing schemes and employee shareholders
Profit-sharing schemes offer employees perhaps in the form of shares in the company,
related directly to profits. The formula for determining the amounts may vary, but in
recent years a straightforward distribution of a percentage of profits above a given target
has given way to a value-added related concept.
Profit sharing is in general based on the belief that all employees can contribute to
profitability and that that contribution should be recognized. If it is, the argument runs,
the effects may include profit-consciousness and motivation in employees, commitment to
the future prosperity of the organization and so on.
The actual incentive value and effect on productivity may be wasted, however, if the
scheme is badly designed.
a) A perceivably significant sum should be made available to employees once
shareholders have received appropriate return on their investment
b) There should be a clear, and not overly delayed, link between performance and
reward.
c) The scheme should only be introduced if profit forecasts indicate a reasonable
chance of achieving the target.
d) The greatest effect on productivity arising from the scheme may in fact arise from
its use as a focal point for discussion with employees, about the relationship
between their performance and results as well as areas and targets for
improvement.
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Difficulties associated with incentive schemes
Incentive schemes have the following potential difficulties:
1. Increased earnings simply may not be an incentive to some individuals. An
individual who already enjoys a good income may be more concerned with
increasing leisure time.
2. Workers are unlikely to be in complete control of results: external factors such as
general economic climate, interest rates and exchange rates may play a part in
profitability. In these cases, the relationship between an individual’s efforts and
their reward may be indistinct.
3. Greater specialisation in production processes means that particular employees
cannot be specifically credited with the success of particular products. This may
lead to frustration amongst employees who think their own profitable work is being
adversely affected by inefficiencies elsewhere in the organisation.
4. Even if employees are motivated by money, the effects may not be altogether
desirable. An instrumental orientation may encourage self-interested performance
at the expense of teamwork. It may encourage quantity over quality and a drive for
lowering standards so that targets are met.
5. It is often all too easy to manipulate the rules of the incentive scheme, especially
where there are allowances for waiting time, when production is help up by factors
beyond the control of the people concerned.
6. Poorly designed schemes can produce labour cost increases out of proportion to
output improvements.
Question
Identify one type of employee you would expect to be paid with each of these systems.7.
System Example of employeeFlat rate only Individual incentive Group incentive Company wide incentive Merit rating Gain sharing Piecework
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Types of non-financial rewards
Job redesign, rotation, enlargement and enrichment
a) Job redesign aims to improve performance through increasing the understanding
and motivation of employees. Job redesign also aims to ensure that an individual’s
job suits them in terms of what motivates them and their need for personal growth
and development.
b) Job rotation allows for a little variety by moving a person from one task to another.
Employees often do this spontaneously. Job rotation permits the development of
extra skills, but does not develop depth of skill.
c) Job enlargement increases the width of the job by adding extra, usually related,
tasks. It is not particularly popular with workers.
d) Job enrichment increases the depth of responsibility by adding elements of
planning and control to the job, therefore increasing its meaning and challenge. The
worker achieves greater autonomy and growth in the role.
Team working and empowerment
Empowerment involves giving people greater control over their working lives. Organising
the labour force into teams with a high degree of autonomy can achieve this. This means
that employees plan their own work, take their own decisions and solve their own
problems. Teams are set targets to achieve and may receive rewards for doing so.
Empowered teams are an increasingly popular method of organising employees at work.
Question
Discuss what an organisation could do to motivate its workforce without offering
financial incentives
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Teamwork
A team meets the following criteria:
The output of the group is greater than the sum of the outputs of the individuals e.g.
a team can engage in creative processes (idea generation) far more effectively than
a collection of individuals;
A greater range of options can be considered by exploiting differences in individual
thought processes
Decision-making by the team is likely to be better
Other characteristics of teams include:
More openness to taking risks, as the risk is shared between the team rather than
carried by one individual
Higher overall level of motivation, as there is an inherent responsibility to others in
the team and a desire not to let them down
Better support for the individuals within the team, who are more likely to be
included in a greater range of activities than they would normally be exposed to, but
without them having to work alone.
Typically, a team consists of 2 to 20 people, though most managers recognize that
effectiveness will decrease once the numbers go above 10.
Life cycles of Teams Stage Characteristics Collection The bringing together of individuals into a
group with a collective task or problem to solve. The participants have a degree of eagerness and initial enthusiasm and generally rely on the authority and hierarchy to provide a degree of certainty in this uncertain environment. They will use
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this initial phase to establish themselves and find what is expected of them
Entrenchment As the group starts work they begin to find out where each person stands on various issues. The entrenchment comes when people arrive with pre-conceived ideas as to how the project should be proceeding and are unwilling to be persuaded of the merits of allowing the group to decide on the course of action. This phase can be very destructive and is generally fairly unproductive. The reasons for this unproductiveness are issues such as disillusionment with the goals of the project, competition for power or attention within the group, or general confusion as the work being undertaken bears little relationship to the goals of the project.
Resolution/accommodation The disagreements begin to be resolved, and characteristics such as mutual trust, harmony, self-esteem and confidence are seen. This is where the team starts to put the negative social effects aside and move to being more productive.
Synergy Based on Ansoff (1969) synergy is defined as the output of the whole is greater than what would be obtained from the component parts, otherwise stated as 2+2=5. This is the peak of effectiveness of the team, leadership is shared, and there is a new motivation to complete the tasks at hand.
Decline At some point the team will hit an event when its effectiveness starts to decline – this can be through the nature of the task being undertaken not changing or the focus of the activities being allowed to move towards a social group.
Break-up If this occurs naturally before the task is finished, there can be problems in getting a new team to take up the remaining work. They will be expected to get ‘up to speed’ very quickly and have an additional pressure on them. Where the group finishes its task and it is during one of the earlier stages of development, either in resolution
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or synergy, the effects on future projects can be highly beneficial as the participants go away with good memories of the work they have done
Effective Teamwork
Larson and Lafasto (1989) identify eight characteristics, most of which are under the
control of the project manager, which can ensure that project success, at least as far as can
be managed through the team, is achieved. These are:
1. A clear, elevating goal – a sense of mission must be created through the
development of an objective which is understood, important, worthwhile and
personally or collectively challenging;
2. Provide a results-driven structure – the structure and composition of the team
should be commensurate with the task being undertaken
3. Competent team members – need to balance personal with technical competence
4. Unified commitment – create the environment of ‘doing what has to be done to
succeed’
5. Foster a collaborative climate – encourage reliance on others within the team
6. Standards of excellence – through individual standards, team pressure, knowledge
of the consequences of failure;
7. External support and recognition – where good work is performed, recognize it.
It is likely to be absent from the other stakeholders, so will be the responsibility of
the project manager to provide it
8. Institute principled leadership
Question
29
Suggest four problems associated with team activities
30