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CHAPTER 1
History of grapes
Grapes are one of the earliest cultivated fruits, and probably around the Black Sea
Region. It is estimated that grapes were cultivated in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq)
as far back as 6,000 B.C. their cultivation spread to Phoenicia and Egypt and by 2,000
B.C .all over the Mediterranean region.
Grapes were cultivated 6,0000 years ago in Europe. there are over 60 varieties of
grapes that are cultivated for wine making and over 50 varieties are in current
production as table grapes. Over 200 years ago, Franciscan monks brought grapes to
California for the purpose of making sacramental wine. As the population grew, more
grape varieties were introduction.40 years later, the vineyard for tables grapes was
planted
The whole point of growing grapes in those early days was making wine.
the Greeks had Dionysus, who later was renamed Bacchus by the Romans, a god
dedicated full time to matters of grapes and wine.
Cultivation of the vine began several thousand years before Christ and is mentioned
many times in the Old Testament. The ancient Egyptians made wine; the early Greeks
exported it on a considerable scale.
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During the Roman Empire vine cultivation was extended to such a degree that a surplus
ensued, and in AD 92 the emperor Domitian decreed that half the vines outside Italy be
uprooted. When replanting was later permitted, vineyards extended into northern France
and Germany and even into southern England.
The middle Ages, AD c.400-1200, saw little progress in viticulture. From about 1200,
monasteries kept alive the art of wine making. Later the nobility also owned extensive
vineyards. The French Revolution and the secularization of the German vineyards by
Napoleon, however, removed many vineyards from ecclesiastical hands.
From the beginning of the 13th century, the wines of Bordeaux (an area under the
English crown from 1152 to 1435) were commonly shipped to England, the Hanseatic
ports, and the Low Countries. By the 14th century wines from Spain
and Portugal were also widely exported. Drinking habits were largely
governed by changing fashions at court, political relations with
producing countries, and changing rates of excise duty. During the 18th
century heavy duties on French wines and an English alliance with
Portugal led to a sharp rise in English consumption of Portuguese
wines.
For convenience in commerce, the Bordeaux merchants classified their finest red wines
as early as 1725, but it was not until 1855 that such a classification, based on the market
price for each wine, received official recognition. The wines of the Médoc district were
divided into five classes, or crus. The 1855 classification stands today with only one
recent significant change.
During the middle and second half of the 19th century the European vineyards suffered
from a series of disastrous diseases and pests, particularly mildew, or Oidium, and the
plant louse, Phylloxera. First discovered in 1863, Phylloxera spread across Europe,
destroying the vines by attacking their roots. Not until about 1880 was the grafting of
European vine species onto immune American rootstock accepted as the only viable
solution. Selective replanting also led to improved grapes.
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Simultaneously, a movement began to ensure the authenticity of wine, culminating
(1936) in France when the appellation controlée (quality control) law, now the model for
similar legislation in other countries, came into effect. The law allows only wine made
from grapes grown in the Champagne region, for example, to be called champagne.
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CHAPTER 2
The vine
The vine belongs to the Ampelidaceae family, as does the Virginia creeper and other
climbing berry-bearing growths (but not common ivy). It is only the genus Vitis(vine)
that interests the wine-maker. There are five families of wine-producing vines: Vitis
vinifera, Vitis riparia, Vitis ruspestris, Vitis labrusca and Vitis berlandieri. Of those, Vitis
vinifera (wine-bearing vine) produces all the noble grapes associated with European
vineyards but are now used throughout the world, with just a few exceptions. These are
in the east coast of America and Canada where other species are cultivated because they
are more suited to the terrain and climatic conditions.
Composition of the vine
The vine consists of:
Roots These are for anchorage and for absorbing nutrients and moisture from the
earth. The root system is large and can reach to a depth of about 12 m (13 yds)
Leaves Chlorophyll is the green matter in the leaves and is necessary for photosynthesis.
When sunlight falls on them, carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere through
the leaves into the plant where it combines with water, absorbed through the roots, to
make sugar. The sap which is circulating in the vine takes the sugar and stores it within
the grape. Leaves also shade the grapes in very hot climate.
Flowers Vine flowers are very small, They self-pollinate from May to June in the
northern hemisphere and from November to December in the southern hemisphere.
Flowering lasts about ten days when, hopefully, the weather remains warm and dry. Frost
is the great enemy- if it arrives during the flowering, unprotected vines will not bear
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grapes. Frosts can be combated by smoke and heat devices and by spraying the vines
with water.
Grapes The grapes from after pollination. At first they are small, hard and green, but as
they ripen, they swell out and change color in August and September. They should be
fully ripe 100 days after flowering. A ton of grapes produces 675 liters (148 gallons),
equivalent to 960 bottles of wine.
Composition of the grape
Stalk When the stalk is used it imparts tannic acid to wine. It is mostly used in the
making of big, flavorsome red wine and is not used when making white and light wines.
Tannin is a necessary ingredient as it acts as a preservative and antioxidant. If over-used,
it makes the wine astringent as nasty. It is recognized on the palate by its tongue-furring
properties.
Skin The outer skin or cuticle has a whitish downy or cloudy coat known as bloom. This
waxy substance contains wild yeasts and wine yeasts, millions of minute enzymes which
contribute to the fermentation process. It also contains other micro organisms such as
bacteria, principally the acetobacter which is a potential danger to wine. If uncontrolled,
it can turn wine into vinegar. The inside of the skin imparts color which is extracted
during fermentation.
PIPS Crushed pips impart tannic acid, oils and water. If left uncrushed, they do not
contribute to vinification.
PULP The flesh of the grape provides the juice, also known as must, which is essential
for fermentation. The must contains
1. 78%-80% water;
2. 10%-25% sugar;
3. 5%-6% acids.
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As we can see, water makes up the bulk.
Sugar is formed in the grape by sunlight and is of two kinds: grape sugar(dextrose and
glucose) and fruit juice (laevulose and fructose). They are found in about equal
quantities.
Tartaric, malic, tannic and citric acids in the must help to preserve wine and to keep it
fresh, brilliant and give balance. Esters are formed when the acids come in contact with
alcohol and it is these that give wine its aroma or bouquet.
The must (unfermented grape juice) will also have trace elements of nitrogenous
compounds such as albumen, peptones, amides, ammonium salts and nitrates, as well as
potassium, phosphoric acid and calcium, all of which have influence on the eventual taste
of the wine.
Annual cycle of work in the vineyards in the northern hemisphere
January The year starts with pruning the vines and general maintenance to walls, posts
and wire used for vine training.
February Pruning, to regulate quality, continues and cuttings are taken for grafting.
Machinery is cleaned, oiled and put in good working order.
March Pruning is completed and ploughing begins to aerate the soil. This allows roots
to breathe and facilitates free drainage of water to the roots. Bench grafting takes place.
That means American root stock and Vitis vinifera scions are joined together in a nursery
rather than a vineyard.
April Ploughing is completed, weeding continues and year-old cuttings are planted out.
May Vines are treated with copper sulphate against mildew Vine suckers are removed
June The vines flower and treatment spraying continues
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July Weeding and spraying continues. Overlong green shoots are pinched back.
August weeding as before and trimming of the vines to allow maximum sunshine to the
grape bunches. Wine-making apparatus is prepared. Grapes swell and begin to change
color.
September Grapes continue to swell and color deepens. White grapes change to yellow-
green. Black grapes change from yellow-green to violet or deep purple. Sunshine is badly
needed now to finish the ripening. Refract meters are taken into the vineyards to gauge
the sugar level within the grapes. That, and the acidity level, will decide when the harvest
can begin. Traditionally the grape should be perfectly ripe and ready 100 days after
flowering. Bands of pickers will be contracted and the vintage usually starts about the
third week in September, depending on location.
October The cellar master finishes making the wine. Fermentation can take from six
days weeks depending on the style of wine. Vineyard are deep ploughed and fertilized
with chemicals to compensate for any deficiencies.
November More fertilizing. Long shoots are cut off and the base of the vines are
chilled up with soil for protection against snow and frost.
December Wine equipment is cleaned and stored away. Deep ploughing of soil
continues. Minor pruning commences and the cycles of work begin again.
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FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY
Soil
Vineyards usually thrive where other crops struggle. Poor soils rich in minerals
are best for the vine as they provide nutrients such as phosphate, iron, potassium,
magnesium and calcium all of which contribute to the final taste of the wine. Flavoured
soils are chalk, limestone, slate, sand, schist, gravel, pebbles, clay, alluvial and volcanic.
These soils have good drainage and moisture retention to keep the vine roots healthy.
Drainage is especially important, as the vine does not like having wet feet. Soil is
analyzed annually and any chemical deficiency is compensated for.
Climate
The vine needs a good balance of moisture and heat. Temperature should
average 14-160 C (57-60 0 f). The lowest annual average temperature necessary for the
vine to flourish is 10 0 C(50 0f). It is estimated that the vine needs about 68 cm (27 in) of
rain per year mainly in winter and spring and at least 1,400 hours of sunshine.
The main climatic types are as follows
Arid Desert landscape, no rain for all or most of the year. Very hot summers , mild
winters.
Semi-arid No rain for more than half the year; rivers dry in the summer. Very hot
summers, cold winters.
Continental Hot summers, cold winters , rain for more than six months of the year.
Temperate Rain all the year round, hot summers, cold winters, wet springs and
autumns.
Maritime Rain all the year round, high humidity. Cooling breezes.
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Micro-climate
A micro-climate is a particular and usually beneficial weather pattern
which prevails in a single vineyard or a group of vineyards or within a small region. It
could be to do with hills or mountains protecting the vine from heavy winds, or even a
break in the mountain range allowing the air to freshen and fan the vines in very hot
weather. Sometimes the angle of the sun especially the clear brilliant morning sun will
strike on vineyard more favorable than another. The rise and fall of the terrain will also
have an effect, as will location besides water for ground moisture and reflected heat.
These subtle differences in atmospheric conditions, allied to the quality of the soil and
the grape variety used are the reason why some vineyards have such outstanding
reputations.
Bio-climate
This is the relationship of soil and climate in a specific vineyard. Such
knowledge can be used to obtain stable yields of high quality grapes.
Aspect
Vineyards are ideally planted on south facing slopes where they point at the sun and
benefit from maximum sunshine and good drainage. Siting is of prime importance to
capture the sunlight for photosynthesis and good ripening. Some vineyard are sized up to
243m (266 yds) or more on mountainsides, while many of the great vineyards are located
in river valleys and along lakesides benefiting from humidity and reflected heat.
winter (pruning)
There are four basic choices
1.Cane pruning ( The most skilled)
2.Spur pruning ( easier and quicker )
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3.Machine pruning ( effectively spur pruning)
4.Minimal pruning ( effectively no pruning at all during winter )
Mechanical pruning is after followed by a certain amount of hand pruning or cleaning up
in all cases late pruning will delay the development of the buds and result in a more even
bed-break.
Spring (planting)
The optimum time for planting is in early spring as the ground is starting to warm up yet
still retain good moisture. If the rooting are planted too early the roots may not new
world vine are sometime kept in cool stores and planted in early summer.
Foliage sprays
The first of the lime.sulphur sprays are applied at woolly-bud stage ( as the buds swell
and soften ) to guard against fungal disease. Organic growers or those wishing to
minimize spraying will still accept the use of these sprays and Bordeauox mixture.
Working the soil
There is an increasing recognition of the choice between the traditional agricultural
practice of ploughing the soil and of leaning it untilled - relying in the latter case on the
use of herbicides to control unwanted weed or excessive grass growth.
In frost- prone areas a Billiard table smooth. Base surface between the vines allow air
circulation and hence protection a variety of plants to grow there. Thus providing a
natural food chair (protecting the grapes ) and adding nitrogen to the soil.
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Canopy trimming and training
Directing and later in the season limiting the exuberant new growth is of critical
important in establishing the balance of the vine and achieving appropriate exposure of
the grape Bunches to sunlight traditionally a skilled hand job. it can now be done by a
machines which can lift wires and shoots or weave support strings through the canopy
(3) Summer
Irrigation
This period of flowering and fruit set a critical time in which the vine needs warm calm
weather and in which the intervention of the grower is limited. Irrigation will begin at
this in dry regions in the new world
Vine maintenance
a) Foliage sprays
In cool humid regions to prevent botrytis attacking during flowering such attack destroys
the grapes before they can begin to form
The vine also need to be sprayed regularly against odium and mildews. Bordeaux
mixture ( a solution of copper sulghatelime and water) or systemic fungicides are
frequently used. These latter chemical sprays are absorbed in to the sap stream of the
plant unfortunately fungal diseases rapidly develop resistance to specific chemicals
making it necessary to vary the formula.
b) Trimming the vine
Though out the growing season the comes must be trimmed and the remaining foliage
raised and attached to the trellis wires to allow the maximum sunlight to reach the leaves
and grapes
Working the soil
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While the area under the vine will not be disturbed traditional growers still lightly plough
the soil between the rows of vine in order to prevent runoff and thus conserve moisture.
Pest control
Caterpillars, moths and towards ripening birds have to be controlled other pests to which
vine and grapes are lost include rabbits, foxes, snails.
(4) AUTUMN
Harvest
The choice ties between the speed and economy of machine harvesting ( where the
vineyard permits it ) and the gentler, slower and more controllable hand-picking.
Post-Harvesting sprays
At approximately 50% leaf fall a spray is applied to kill mildew spores which would
other wise establish themselves on the vine over winter.
Working the soil and appliations of fertilizers
Traditional growers will work manure and fertilizer in to th soil and bank the soil up
under the vine. These by also protecting them from frost. The choice lies with the type
and amount of fertilizers on steep sites to counter any run-off the soil may be brought
back up the hill side.
Vineyard maintenance
Between the end of harvest and the commencement of pruning much vineyard
maintenance is carries out pruning are removed and either burnt or chopped up and
incorporated in to the soil and trellising is checked
CHAPTER 3
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Regions in France
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Bordeaux
Bordeaux tends to be seen as a talisman of order and immutability, but analysis of
its vineyard throws awakes some surprising facts. Cabernet Sauvignon, for instance, the
vine variety regarded as Bordeaux’s greatest and much-traveled ambassador has a
relatively recent history in the Gironde. While Pinot noir was made, drunk, enjoyed and
chronicled in burgundy as early as the fourteenth century and possible long before,
Cabernet Sauvignon emerged to inject quality into the substantially white-grape vine-
century. Merlot was becoming established in st-Emilion only at about the same time, and
took several decades to cross the Gironde.
Today, planting of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Gironde départment form a much
smaller proportion of the total than most connoisseurs would imagine-les than 18percent
while Merlot covers 32percent of available vineyard land. Only in the Médoc and
southeastern half of the Entre-Deux-Mers is Cabernet Sauvignon rather than Merlot the
dominant re grape variety –just, in the Médoc the split is Cabernet Sauvignon 52percent,
Cabernet Franc 8percnt and merlot 40 percent, and in St-Emilion, Pomerol.Fronsac,
Bourg and Blaye, Merlot outweighs Cabernet Sauvignon by more than five to one.
Cabernet Franc is quantitatively important only in St-Emilion and Fronsac.
Currently, these three major planted in the Gironde, nearly 90percent of all dark
grapes planted in the Gironde,and their proportions are carefully adjusted in each district
within the départment to take account of local microclimates. There are signs of a
growing realization, however, that some of the traditional, if difficult, varieties
such as Petit Verdot and Carmenère could repay perseverance by providing
valuable “seasoning”.
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Perhaps much more interesting than the relative importance of the red varieties is
the role still played by various while varieties, some of them not very distinguished .the
last census of the Girondin vignoble showed that plantings of Trebbiano or Ugni Blanc
were as high as 6500 hectares (16,250acres), making it the second most planted white
vine variety after Sémillon,whose166000 hectares(41,500acres) put it only just behind
Cabernet Sauvignon in area covered. Nearly two-thirds of the Ugni Blanc area was in the
Hauts de Gironde (Bourg and Blaye bordering on the cognac vineyards of the Charentes,
which are also dominated by Ugni Blanc. There were a further 2,000 hectares
(5,000acres) of vineyard producing thin, tart Ugni Blanc wine in Enter-Deux-Mers.
That other alembic-directed white variety of western France,
Colombard ,occupies a total Girondin area more than half as important as that of Ugni
Blanc wine in Enter-Deux-Mers.
That other alembic-directed white variety of western France, Colombard, occupies a total
of Girondin area more than half as important as that of Ugni Blanc, while planting of
Merlot Blanc, not a variety of which the wine lover is taught much covered a good 1,700
hectares(4250acres) of Bordeaux vineyard.
In 1979,Sauvignon planting were only one-eighth those of sémillion-an
unexpected statistic in view of the number of Sauvignon-dominated white Bordeaux that
are now available.
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The Loire
Even superficially, the Loire valley presents a vary diverse pattern of cine
plantings ,from Sauvignon Blanc around the major bend in the river through Chenin
Blanc, Cabernet France and Gamay in the middle of the seaward stretch to Muscadet or
Melon de Bourgogne at the river mouth. Closer inspection reveals an even more
confused picture, with unexpected high reliance on hybrids
As recently as 1979,no fewer than 23 different vine varieties covered more than
100 hectors (250acres) of the Loire total of well over 60,000 hectares (150000 acres) of
vineyards .Variety such as Grolleau, Arbois Pineau d’Aunis and Folle Blanche, none of
them exactly of great fame, are among the Loire’s most popular And, just to add further
diversity, all sorts of Loire satellite regions ,Haut-Poitou or St-pourςain-sur-Sioule, for
example , are now emerging as viticultural entities –usually with their very own variety
profile.
In 1979 the hybrids plantet, Chambourcin, Villard Noir and Bacos Noir and Blanc
accounted for 6,000 hectares (15,000acres), or 10 percent of all Loire vines.
Many of these have doubtless have doubtless been grubbed up in the late few
years, but their continued importance illustrates well just how much very ordinary wine
is made in the Loire. In vignerons nor for their resistance to winter cold ,but for their
resistance to or recovery from spring frost.The change in the balance of grapes varieties
has provided the real drama in the
Loire in the last decade or so. Although the total vignoble of the Loire-et-Cher
département at the easternmost tip of the main Loire wine region has shrunk,Gamay and
Sauvignon doubled their area in the seventies at the expense of Arbois, Pineau d’Aunis
Chenin and Plantet These planting have firmly established the two varietals from what
might be called Greater Touraine.Meanwhile plantings of Gamay in Indre-et-Loire
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around the town of Tours itself have actually declined; and the département has become
yet more polarizes as a producer of
Chenin/Bourgueil district .Grolleau is in decline here
In Anjou country, Grolleau, mainstay of France’s most exported rosé, has been
holding its own, while Cabernet Franc has been catching up on Chenin.Chenin Blanc
remains the great mystery of the Loire valley. Delicious as the best of its an
inconveniently early budding and late-ripening variety for a wine region so far from the
equator. Some Chardonnay has been creeping in to Anjou Blanc, to figure in official
statistics.
An increase in plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon was already noticeable by 1979
when there were more than 1,300 hectares (3,250acres) in the middle of the Loire
vignoble compared with only 400(1,000 acres) in the reds of both Anjou and
Saumur, and its success adds weight to the view that Cabernet Sauvignon could
thrive much better in St-Emilion and Pomerol than most growers believe.
Around the month of the Loire, the Muscadet grape Melon represents one vine in
every two and has been gradually increasing its importance to the detriment of the Folle
lanche or Gros Plant Nantais .All sorts of other varieties are grown on the fringes of the
main Muscadet vineyard, however, including some Gamay and Cabernet Franc as well as
an array of hybrid.
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Alsace
Alsace must occupy a vary special place in a work of this sort .Not only do its
winemakers show more concern to get pure grape flavour into the bottle than any of their
counterparts else where, they have also worshipped vine varietal labeling.
Every act in a quality-conscious Alsace wine cellar is designed to reserve natural
varietal aroma; no nuance is masked by the deliberate maintenance of residual sugar.
And a good bottle of wine from Alsace (good, happily, being typical) sings out its grape
of inspiration on the label as well as in the glass. Alsace was the last major French wine
region to join the Appellation Contrôléé party and did so with just one basic appellation
to be predicated only by grape variety.
Today the region’s vines are a happy combination of French and German
influence but it is worth considering that if it were still German, as it was at the turn of
the century, then Muller-Thurgau (of which there is not a single vine today) would
presumably reign supreme.
Although the world’s connoisseurs tend to think of Alsace as a homogeneous
wine region there is a sharp viticultural distinction between the Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin
départements ,or between those vineyards on the flatter land north of Sélestat and the
more obviously Vosgienne wineland to the south.
In the coarser soils of the vineyards of the Plaine d’ Alsace in Bas-Rhin Silvaner
(sylvaner) has been the most popular variety, but Riesling and now Pinot
Blanc are fast catching up as wine consumers become disaffected with the
some hat austere character of Silvaner (though give it an aroma and you almost
have Sauvignon Blanc).Up and well into the lee of the Vosges,Gewűrztraminer is
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quantitatively the most important vine, grown to produce sufficient of Alsace’s
most distinctive wine to meet the demands of visitors from across the Rhine. It is
here, in the concentration of the finest ,steepest sites that by far the highest
proportion of each of the region’s cépages nobles is grown
Although the range of varieties allowed in this relatively small wine region is
wide for northern France, Alsace vine growers are backed by sufficient history so that
they can match variety to site with a precision that would be the envy of many in the
world’s newer wine regions. Even in an area as tiny as the commune of Riquewihr
(population 2,000),for instance it is well-known that steep, chalky Schoenenbourg
vineyard is for Riesling, the heavier soils and gentler elevation of sporen for
Gewűrztraminer.
Although Pinots Gris and Noir fascinate Alsace enthusiasts, and constitute major
items on the wine lists of the regions excellent restaurants these varieties are planted in
only very limited quantity –through Pinot Noir plantings have been increasing over the
last few years, just as they have further along the frontier of red wine possibility in
Germany.
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Even in 1982 Pinot Noir plantings covered less than a third of the total area
planted with Alsace’s most important varieties – Gewűrztraminer, Riesling, Silvaner and
what is usually called Pinot Blanc.
For some reason, Alsace chooses to hide the identity of one of its most planted
grapes varieties. Auxerrois is rarely seen on a label, yet it constitutes nearly half the
blend of many a wine sold as Pinot Blanc Auxerrios covers for Pinot Blanc’s meanness
in poor years, but gets little public recognition for it, even though plantings of both
Auxerrois and true Pinot Blanc have been increasing at the expenses of Silvaner since
1979.
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Champagne
Perhaps the most surprising fact to emerge from viticultural analysis of the
Champagne regions the supremacy of Meunier, in quantitative terms at least. About 50
percent of all Champagne vineyards in the major Marne heartland shown here were
planted with Meunier in1979, while the much nobler Pinot Noir accounted for only 24
percent and Chardonnay 26 percent.
The area of marne vineyard increased enormously in the seventies, by about a
tideland this expansion has increased apace in the eighties, too Plantings of Chardonnay
increased significantly more than those of the dark grapes, as one would expect at a time
when the (surely tautological?) Blanc de Blanc style came into its own, not only for
champagne but also for still wine of all kinds.
The general principle on which varieties have been chosen by the vignerons
of champagne, however, is that the most capricious vine of the there .Pinot Noir, is
planted wherever there is more than half a chance of its ripening properly. the
Meunier is planted wherever the lane is so vulnerable to spring frosts that
Chardonnay would be at risk and Pinot Noir impossible .It is the only variety for
the low-lying vineyards of the vallée de la Marne and those in the Aisne
département
The vineyards of the Aube to the south on the other hand are considerably
warmer than the Marne average and 2,700 of the 3,400 hectares(6,750 of the
8,500acres) are planted with Pinot Noir this means that once the encépagement of
the Aube and Aisne is included in the overall cuvée ,the Pinot Noir’s contribution
increases to 30 percent Meunier’s decreases to44 percent and Chardonnay’s
remains at 26 percent .other varieties such as Petit Meslier and Arbane are there
as mere smatterings.
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There are subtle variations on the general principle outlined above, however.
Wherever the chalk underlay of the countryside is at its most exposed, Chardonnay is the
natural choice. Thus, the Côte des Blancs to the south of Epernay, the very similar Côte
de Sézanne to the southwest and the Chardonnay planting around the northern
escarpment of the Montagne de Reims are where Champagne’s best white grapes are to
be found
Pinot Noir is at its greatest concentration on the southern slopes of the
Montahene de Reims because that is where the vineyards enjoy maximum
exposure to the sunshine and warmth. The stricture that Meunier is not allowed in
the most august sites in the top crus is hardly needed since there is every economic
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incentive for growers to plant the two cépages nobles for which an extra
franc a kilo is automatically paid.
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The philosophically minded will wonder why it is these three grapes, which have
been chosen as ingredients for the world’s most famous fizz. As has been outlined above,
Pinot Noir at least is far from ideal for this climate, and Meunier has its detractors even
in the region itself. Put those facts together with the difficultly of producing white wine
from black grapes , and the difficulty some tasters have in distinguishing Blanc de Blancs
champagnes from the more usual Blanc de Blanc champagne from the more usual Blanc
de Noire et Blanc, and one sometimes wonders why Chardonnay is not more widespread
in the region
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Burgundy
The Burgundian is the original proponent of varietals wines , although if you said
that to him he would have not a clue what you were talking about. For centuries –longer
than in any other tine wine region made them, with only a few temporary hiccups, from
one grape variety alone.
In Burgundy, red means Pinot Noir and white means Chardonnay. Chablis to the
north is faithful to Chardonnay but on the Côte d’Or, France’s most concentrated stretch
of top-quality vineyard, more than seven in every to vines is Pinot Noir. This may
surprise those makers and drinkers of wine in the newer wine regions who are so
besotted with Chardonnay. It certainly helps to explain the astronomical prices of fine
white burgundy.
Who can blame the Burundians for their tenacity with Pinot Noir when they
appear to have almost executive rights to its successful cultivation? While Chardonnay
has shown itself an enthusiastic traveler and adapted well in almost every country which
claims to be a wine producer. Only a handful of non-Burgundy Pinot Noirs have so far
shown anything like the quality deemed normal in the thin strip of vineyards from Dijon
to Chagny. Devotion to Pinot Noir seems only sensible.
Some pinot Noir plant material has been of very disappointing quality , however,
with predictable results in the bottle. It took the seventies’ experience of the world’s
connoisseurs, and Burgundy’s vignerons, the importance of clonal selection.
There had been hints that quality was not uppermost in every vine grower’s
heart ever since the vignoble had been so intricately parcellated after the
Revolution. In the first half of this century even those working the precious Côte
d’Or Vineyards were tempted by the disease resistance and high sugar levels
offered by the likes of Oberlin, Plantet and Baco Noir. In 1968 these three
varieties still occupied 10 percent of available Côte d’Or vineyard land, although
they have been substantially grubbed up by now. Even Gamay and Aligoté have
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
been declining in the Côte d’Or and now represent only about 10 percent of total
vines.
Aligoté, Burgundy’s definitely second white-vine variety, seems to be on the way
out. It is being replaced by the more lucrative Chardonnay throughout Burgundy. This
has been particularly. This has been particularly obvious in the Côte Chalonnaise and the
Mâconnais where Chardonnay has almost overtaken
Gamay to become the most planted variety. Point Noir accounts for about a
quarter of total vineyard land in the area between the Côte d’Or and Beaujolais proper. In
the seventies much of the 1,000-odd hectares Gamays Teinturiers was replanted with
Pinot Noir.
Gamay Teinturiers were never a specialty of the heartland of the Beaujolais
region, which is doggedly Gamay county and presents the wine lover with as successful
an illustration of matching variety to region a he will ever encounter. Is
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
it significant that true Gamay has traveled so little and so unhappily from
its base in the Beaujolais hills?
Burgundy is distinguished, if that is the right word , by its exceptionally high cine
density: up to 13,0000 plants per hectare now , and at one time even more
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
CHAPTER4
French red grape varieties
Cabernet Franc
Recent studies in ampelography, using the
relatively new application of DNA fingerprinting,
have determined that cabernet franc is one of the
genetic parents of cabernet sauvignon (the other is
sauvignon blanc). Both cabernet varieties are
among the five major grapes of Bordeaux. The
differences between franc and sauvignon become
apparent when grown and fermented in close
proximity.
Cabernet franc vines bear thinner-skinned, earlier-ripening grapes with
lower overall acidity, when compared to cabernet sauvignon. Yields are similar,
although cabernet franc normally buds and ripens somewhat earlier. Consequently
vineyards in climates where rain is a harvest-time threat often plant this grape, in
place of or in addition to cabernet sauvignon. Cabernet franc vines survive cold
winters better than cabernet sauvignon, but are more susceptible to being
damaged by Spring frosts.
France has by far the most cabernet franc plantings of any wine producing
nation with over 35,000 acres. There are significant plantings of cabernet franc in
St. Emilion, the Loire Valley (where it is known as Breton), and south west
France (aka Bouchy). There are cabernet franc vineyards in Romania, Hungary,
the Balkans, and the Friuli region of north eastern Italy (aka cabernet frank). New
plantings in the 1990s in Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina show promise.
In the United States, cabernet franc is planted in Long Island, New York, and in
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Washington state. California has about 2,000 acres, mostly planted since 1980,
over half in Napa and Sonoma.
Depending a great deal on vineyard practices, the flavor profile of
Cabernet Franc may be both fruitier and sometimes more herbal or
vegetative than Cabernet Sauvignon, although lighter in both color and
tannins. Over-cropping and underexposure each tend to accentuate the
vegetative flavor elements. Typically somewhat spicy in aroma and often
reminiscent of plums and especially violets, Cabernet Franc is more often
used as a secondary or tertiary element in varietally-blended red wines, such
as Bordeaux or Meritage, instead of as a stand-alone varietal bottling.
Cabernet Franc Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: raspberry,
cherry, plum, strawberry
Oak (light): vanilla,
coconut, sweet wood
Floral: violet Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,
toast, tar
Herbal: bell pepper,
stems
Bottle Age: musk,
mushroom, earth, cedar, cigar box
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Cabernet Sauvignon
Cabernet Sauvignon makes the most dependable
candidate for aging, more often improving into a truly
great wine than any other single varietal. With age, its
distinctive black currant aroma can develop bouquet
nuances of cedar, violets, leather, or cigar box and its
typically tannic edge may soften and smooth
considerably.
It is the most widely planted and significant
among the five dominant varieties in the Medoc district of France's Bordeaux
region, as well as the most successful red wine produced in California.
Long thought to be an ancient variety, recent genetic studies at U.C. Davis
have determined that Cabernet Sauvignon is actually the hybrid offspring of
Sauvignon Blanc and Cabernet Franc.
Cabernet sauvignon berries are small, spherical with black, thick and very
tough skin. This toughness makes the grapes fairly resistant to disease and
spoilage and able to withstand some autumn rains with little damage. It is a mid
to late season ripener. These growth characteristics, along with its flavor appeal
have made Cabernet Sauvignon one of the most popular red wine varieties
worldwide.
The best growing sites for producing quality wines from Cabernet
Sauvignon are in moderately warm, semi-arid regions providing a long growing
season, on well-drained, not-too-fertile soils. Vineyards in Sonoma County's
Alexander Valley, much of the Napa Valley, and around the Paso Robles area of
the Central Coast have consistently produced the highest-rated California
examples.
Typically, Cabernet Sauvignon wines smell like black currants with a
degree of bell pepper or weediness, varying in intensity with climatic conditions,
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
viticulture practices, and vinification techniques. Climates and vintages that are
either too cool or too warm, rich soils, too little sun exposure, premature
harvesting, and extended maceration are factors that may lead to more vegetative,
less fruity character in the resulting wine.
In the mouth, Cabernet can have liveliness and even a degree of richness,
yet usually finishes with firm astringency. Some of the aroma and flavor
descriptors most typically found in Cabernet Sauvignon are:
Cabernet Sauvignon Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: black currant,
blackberry, black cherry
Oak (light): vanilla, coconut,
sweet wood
Herbal: bell pepper,
asparagus (methoxy-
pyrazine), green olive
Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast,
tar
Spice: ginger, green
peppercorn, pimento
Bottle Age: cedar, cigar box,
musk, mushroom, earth, leather
Cabernet Sauvignon began to emerge as America's most popular varietal
red wine in the mid-60s. By the late 1980s, it had replaced "burgundy" as a
consumer's generic term for red wine (as had Chardonnay, replacing "chablis" as
the equivalent for generic white wine). This popularity was based partly on the
flavor appeal of the grape and partly on its status or snob-appeal as a "collector's"
wine. Indeed Cabernet Sauvignon is the wine most subject to inflationary climb,
as fans, collectors, and the Nouveau Riche bid the supply ever upward.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Carignan
The most widely-planted red wine grape in
France is Carignan (sometimes spelled Carignane in
the US, a.k.a. Carginano in Italy and Cariñena or
Mazeulo in Spain). Planting became widespread in
France during the 1960s, when Algeria gained its
independence and was no longer an inexpensive
source of ripe grapes. Most Carignan is confined to
the Languedoc and southeastern France and is
gradually being replaced with more distinctive and
aromatic varieties.
Carignan buds and ripens quite late, so is not
prone to spring frosts, but requires a long season. A vigorous, though not really
hardy vine, it is very sensitive to downy mildew and powdery mildew (a.k.a.
oidium). Carignan has but a single characteristic to recommend it for planting:
high yields. An acre of Carignan may easily produce 10 to 12 tons of grapes.
The berries are bluish-black, round and fairly large, with fairly thick,
astringent skins. They hang in large, rather compact clusters that are short-
stemmed, difficult to harvest, and susceptible to grape worms. They also rot
easily.
Like Pinot Noir, Sangiovese, and Grenache, Carignan is a somewhat
unstable species, with the tendency to mutate. The French recognize and approve
over 25 separate clones.
Carignan mostly produces wines that have high color, acidity, and tannin,
without displaying much distinct flavor or personality and with very little appeal.
Only a few growers carefully manage vine vigor and limit crop size to produce
interesting, distinctive wines from this grape. As with many other varietals, older
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
carignan vines seem to produce wines with generally more character and less
brutality.
Thus, Carignan frequently becomes a wine for blending or, on its own, for
inexpensive everyday consumption. The whole cluster fermentation technique of
carbonic maceration can somewhat improve its tendency toward harshness. Oak
treatments, on the other hand, seem merely to exacerbate the variety's underlying
toughness, while adding little to either its complexity or interest.
l Carignan Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: cherry,
strawberry, raspberry
Carbonic Maceration: banana,
bubblegum, cotton candy (spun sugar)
Floral: violet,
rose petal
Oak (light): vanilla, coconut,
sweet wood; (heavy) oak, smoke,
toast, tar, anise, licorice
Cinsaut
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Cinsaut (or Cinsault) is most often used as a blending grape with other types.
France has more Cinsaut planted (50,000 hectares) than Cabernet Sauvignon and
there is as much Cinsaut acreage planted in its former backdoor wine colony of
Algeria.
Cinsaut is one of those "grower" varieties that easily produces a very large crop of
6 to 10 tons per acre. At this crop level, it shows little flavor distinction. When
properly managed to crop from just 2 to 4 tons per acre, it can produce quite
flavorful wines of strong aroma and easy quaffability.
The tight bunches rot easily, so it does best in drier climes. The Cinsaut vine is
fairly drought tolerant and has a fairly short growing season. With cluster stems
that easily detatch from the vine, Cinsaut adapts well to machine harvesting.
It is one of the most often planted varieties in Southern France, Algeria and
Morocco, and is a major red variety in South Africa, Corsica, and Lebanon. The
North African plantings were particularly important when, as colonies of France,
their wine was shipped across the Mediterranean for blending. The grape was
originally known as "Hermitage" in South Africa (although French Hermitage has
none in its blend). When a South African professor crossed the grape with Pinot
Noir, he therefore named it Pinotage (now the Top Red there). There are also
Cinsaut plantings in Australia, although it has yet to achieve popularity there.
Wine made from cinsaut grapes can have great perfume and supple texture. Fairly
low in tannin, it is often made into rosé by itself or blended, to brighten the fruit
and tone down the harsher edges of carignan, in particular. Although officially
sanctioned in Châteauneuf du Pape, it is used by only a few producers in their
blends.
Cinsault Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Fruit: strawberry Terroir: musk, meat
Floral: Oak (light): sweet wood,
vanilla
Spice: Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,
toast, tar
Herbal: Bottle Age:
Gamay Noir
Gamay noir is the primary black grape of France's
Beaujolais region, where the wines are typically
fermented, spared from aging, and consumed young
to appreciate their fresh, fruity qualities, with more
tang than tannin.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
In 1395, the Duke of Burgundy, Phillip the Bold, ordered Gamay vineyards to be
torn out and banned the variety evermore from being planted in the vineyards of
Burgundy, so that it would not compete with Pinot Noir. Although this decree
nearly erradicated Gamay altogether, it found a new home to the south in
Beaujolais.
The name is so closely associated with Beaujolais, that many vineyard plantings
and wines, in California especially, were incorrectly identified as the variety
"Gamay Beaujolais" for many years (an illegal practice after 2007). Gamay is
also planted, but is less significant, in the Loire, Rhône, Jura and Savoie
appellations of France.
Although gamay noir vines grow with moderate vigor in many soil types, it seems
partial to granite and limestone soils. Gamay can be quite productive, averaging
five to seven tons per acre. Heavy crop loads may slow growth to below average,
as well as reduce fruit quality, so crop thinning is often used to control this
tendency.
Gamay begins its annual cycle early as grapes go, budding and flowering early
and may therefore become victim to early Spring frosts. Ripening is usually early
to mid-season. Both the clusters and juicy berries of gamay noir are large and it is
a relatively easy variety to pick, with relatively thin but tough skins. The true full
name of this grape is Gamay Noir à Jus Blanc; there are, however, some clones
of teinturier gamays, with colored rather than clear juice.
Generally light in color with hue that usually is more blue-purple than red, wines
made from gamay noir can be very fragrant, full of fruit and fresh, floral esters.
Frequently tart in their youth, wines made from gamay noir tend nonetheless to
be short lived. Like its distant cousins, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, Gamay tends
to easily lose its varietal aroma and flavor identity when blended with another
grape variety. Both red wines and rosés are typically produced from unblended
gamay noir.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
The technique of carbonic maceration is quite often used to enhance the fruitiness
of this grape. The fruit is placed whole, uncrushed, in the fermenting vessel and
the fermentation begins within the individual berries, trapping the forming
bubbles of carbon dioxide until the grape bursts. The resulting wine has a lighter,
yet brighter color, a "banana", "candy" or "bubblegum" quality in the fruity
aroma, often accompanied by a slight petillance or "tickle" to the texture.
l Gamay Noir Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: cherry,
strawberry, raspberry
Carbonic Maceration: banana,
bubblegum, cotton candy (spun
sugar)
Floral: violet,
rose petal
Oak (rarely): vanilla, coconut,
sweet wood, oak, smoke, toast, tar
Gewürztraminer
Gewürztraminer is one of the most pungent
wine varietals, easy for even the beginning
taster to recognize by its heady, aromatic scent.
While the French have achieved the greatest
success with this grape and its name may be
German, the history of Gewürztraminer began
in Italy's Tyrollean Alps, near the village of
Termeno (Tramin) in Alto Adige.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Since the Middle Ages, the parent variety traminer has grown there. Traminer
also is grown widely throughout Eastern Europe, but neither abundantly nor very
successfully. With hardly any of the characteristic of its spicy offspring, traminer
berries are pale green and make much less interesting or appealing wine, hardly
scented at all.
Like pinot noir, however, traminer vines do have a propensity to mutate.
One of these mutations, a few centuries ago, resulted in a vine that produces dark
pinkish-brown, spotted berries and makes very distinctive and heady wine.
The French began calling this prized clone traminer musqué, traminer parfumé,
or traminer aromatique; the Germans roter traminer; and the Italians traminer
rosé, traminer rosso, or termener aromatico. In the late 19th century, the
Alsatians began calling this vine gewürztraminer, although it wasn't until 1973
that this name was officially sanctioned. Wine texts often report that "gewürz"
translates from German as "spicy", but considering the list of various synonyms,
the more likely contextual meaning is "perfumed".Alsace has achieved the most
success with Gewürztraminer. Even here some producers give it less priority than
other varietals and make accordingly dull wines. Those houses that pay specific
attention to and take particular pride in their Gewürztraminer include Léon Beyer,
Schlumberger, and Zind-Humbrecht.
While the gewürztraminer vine is prized for its wine, it can be despised for its
viticultural difficulty. It buds early in the Spring, so it is particularly susceptible
to damage from frost. Gewürztraminer also has weak defenses against viral vine
infections. Even healthy vines are not very productive, with small clusters, so
there is a great temptation for growers to over-crop, which results in dilute,
lightweight wine.
The berries, with their thick and tough skins, can attain high sugar levels of
amazing concentration. Alcohol levels, therefore, can get quite high in dry
versions. Conversely, low acidity and high pH in Gewürztraminer are
problematic. Close monitoring and precise harvest timing are critical. Early
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
picking retains acid, but without long "hang time" distinctive varietal character
fails to develop. Pleasant results are nearly impossible in warm climates.
At the Colmar viticultural station in Alsace and at Geisenheim in Germany work
is underway developing clones that bud and ripen later, produce larger fruit
clusters, with more consistent and greater production levels and that are virus-
free. The challenge is to gain these improvements in economy while retaining
gewürztraminer's unique character and intensity.
The dark pink color of gewürztraminer grapes results in wines colored from light
to dark golden yellow with a copper tone, depending upon the fruit ripeness.
Gewürztraminer is quite full-bodied, more so than most any other white wine
type. In fact, the combination of its strong, heady, perfumey scent, exotic lychee-
nut flavor and heavy-oily texture can be overwhelming and tiring to many
palates. There is a slight tendency to bitterness that seems exacerbated by
ripeness, so a light touch is needed at the wine press. Many makers finish their
Gewürztraminer with a mask of residual sugar. Gewürztraminer can be made into
an excellent dessert wine, in fact.
The most frequently encountered (but not exclusive) smell and/or flavor
elements found in Gewürztraminer-based wines include:
Gewürztraminer Smell and/or Flavor Elements
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Floral: rose petal, gardenia,
honeysuckle
Petroleum: terpene, diesel
Fruity: lychee, linalool,
peach, mango
Wood: oak (not usually)
Aggressive: spice, perfume Late Harvest: Botrytis, honey,
sweet cabbage
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Gewürztraminer wines are an excellent match for fresh fruit and cheeses and a
good complement to many simple fish and chicken dishes, especially recipes that
include capsaicin (hot pepper) spices, oriental five spice, or even curry.
Due to limited popularity and viticultural and production difficulties,
gewürztraminer acreage has remained relatively static in most world appellations
for several years. Encouraging signs of new success come from fairly recent
plantings in New Zealand 1(apparently since 1990, NZ Gewürztraminer acreage
has see-sawed from a low of 210 to as much as 540 acres) and the Pacific
Northwest (Oregon total 182 acres; Washington, 330 ac).
The nominees for Best Supporting Appellation in California Gewürztraminer
(1,670 acres total) are: Mendocino County (298 ac), Monterey County (716 ac),
Russian River Valley, and Sonoma County (175 ac). California wineries that have
consistently produced outstanding results are so few that they bear mentioning:
Navarro grows Gewürztraminer in Mendocino and makes stellar and award-
winning wines in both dry and dessert styles. Thomas Fogarty makes an excellent
dry style from Monterey County grapes. Fetzer makes a lightly-sweet version that
is always serviceable and reasonably-priced and, occasionally, an excellent
example.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Grenache
Grenache noir is the world's most widely
planted grape used to make red wine,
sometimes made into a stand-alone varietal,
frequently as a rosé, but most often as a
backbone of red blends.
Used as a component in some Northern
Rhône reds, nearly exclusively for Rhône
rosés and as the primary component in
nearly all Southern Rhône red blends, Grenache is probably most notable as the
base varietal for Chateauneuf du Pape, Cotes du Rhône and Gigondas. In spite of
its fame coming from French wines, Spain is most likely this grape's origin1.
Grenache is known by local names (alicante, carignane rousse) in the
Mediterranean regions of France. Particularly important in the areas of the
Languedoc and Rousillon, there are also variants with different colored berries:
white grenache blanc, and pink grenache rose or grenache gris. Nearly three
times as much grenache is planted in Spain as in France. The spanish know this
grape and wine as garnacha or garnacha tinta and it is the dominant red wine
variety in the Rioja and Catalonia. The grape is known in Italy as cannonau.
In the New World, Australia has extensive plantings of Grenache and has been
very successful making full-bodied Grenache-dominated red blends. Until
surpassed by plantings of merlot in the past decade, Grenache was the third most
planted red variety in California after Zinfandel and Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of
this acreage is in the Central Valley and used to produce bulk rather than
premium wine.
An abundant producer of fruit, grenache habitually will "alternate" a crop of 8 to
10 tons per acre one year and 14 to 16 tons the next. The vine is very sturdy and
woody, lends itself well to head or spur pruning, and survives arid and drought
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
conditions better than less vigorous vines. Cool and damp conditions can cause
"deadarm" disease in grenache, however, and its compact and well-filled clusters
are quite prone to rot. Grenache is also susceptible to shatter or coulure.
The grenache grape is relatively low in both pigment and malic acid, and oxidizes
readily. Although some 100% varietal wines are produced from grenache,
particularly in Spain's Rioja and from some "old vines" plantings in California, it
is mostly used to "fill out" red blends and soften harsher partners, such as syrah
and carignan.
On its own, grenache makes fleshy, heady, very fruity wines in their youth. They
tend to age rapidly, showing tawny colors and prone to oxidation or maderization
after only a relatively short time in bottle. The general character and mouthfeel of
Grenache wines are more distinctive and identifyable than any particular aromas
or flavors.
Grenache Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Character: rustic,
fleshy, sweet, dusty
Oak (light): vanilla, sweet
wood
Fruit: black currant,
blackberry
Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,
toast, tar
Bottle Age: tobacco,
dried apricot, cigar box
Partly due to its commonplace abundance and partly due to its hardiness in
warmer climates
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Merlot
Merlot is to the American wine consumer in the 1990s as "burgundy" was
in the 70s: the new generic red. A "boom" in wine consumption, combined with
the consumer trend to move away from generic wine blends and into varietals,
stimulated plantings of "new," as well as "proven" wine grapes in California
during the '70s. Merlot did not appear as a California varietal label until the end
of the decade and was not a big seller until the end of the '80s. Less than 2,000
acres existed in California in 1985; there are over 50,000 acres in 2003.
Merlot is by far the most widely planted grape of the entire Bordeaux
region and third, behind carignan and grenache as the most planted black variety
in France. However, it has a starring role in only one region, historically, north of
Bordeaux's Gironde River, where it is the basis of the wines of St. Emilion and
Pomerol. Château Petrus, which has risen in consumer stature in the past three
decades, is over 90% Merlot. South of the Gironde, however, merlot usually
plays a supporting role in typical Medoc blends with cabernet sauvignon and
cabernet franc. Château Palmer in the medoc is about 60% Merlot.
Because merlot ripens at least a week earlier than either cabernet variety,
it is "vineyard insurance" where rains are a factor at harvest. The best quality
merlot grows in rocky, arid ground, but is fairly adaptable and grows better than
the cabernets in clay-based soils, even in damp, cool climates. Since merlot both
buds and flowers early, growers' main worry is susceptibility to shatter or
coulure, brought about by frost, rain, or early heatwaves in the Spring. The berry
of merlot is relatively thin-skinned and somewhat prone to rot.
Merlot is moderately vigorous in vine growth, but must sometimes be
reined in from setting too large of a crop by judicious pruning, often followed
weeks later by cluster thinning. Merlot on fertile soil may produce eight tons per
acre, but best fruit quality is gained if the crop is kept at six tons per acre or less.
Merlot's tendencies towards both shatter and over-cropping are paradoxical.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Careful selection of both clone and site can avoid this problem, as shatter is more
serious in colder climates.
While its flavor profile is similar to Cabernet Sauvignon1, Merlot tends to
be less distinctive and slightly more herbaceous overall in both aroma and taste.
Ripeness seems critical; both under ripe and overripe grapes lean away from fruit
and towards herbaceousness. Merlot has slightly lower natural acidity than
Cabernet and generally less astringency, therefore usually a more lush mouth-
feel.
The most frequent, but not exclusive, aromas and flavors typically found
in Merlot include:
Merlot Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: currant, black
cherry, plum
Oak (light): vanilla,
coconut, sweet wood
Floral: violet, rose Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,
toast, tar
Spice: caramel,
clove, bay leaf, green
peppercorn
Bottle Age: truffle,
mushroom, earth, coffee,leather,
cedar, cigar box
Herbal: bell pepper,
green olive
.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon to mature in bottle, Merlot is held in
higher esteem by wine drinkers than by wine collectors.Syrah is richer and
darker, Pinot Noir lighter and more velvety, but Merlot has become the darling
red wine. Is it because the consumer finds Merlot easy-to-drink or is it perhaps,
because Merlot is easy-to-say? I'll have a glass of Merlot, please, while I think
about it.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Mourvèdre
Mourvèdre originated in Spain, where it is called monastrell or bobal, and, with
over 250,000 acres planted there, only grenache outnumbers its total vineyard
acreage. It is the principal black grape of the five appellations that cluster on
Spain's Southeastern Mediterranean Coast, Almansa, Valencia, Alicante, Jumilla,
and Yecla. Prior to the late Nineteenth Century phyloxera devastation, mourvédre
was also widely planted in Southern France.
There are contradictions and anomolies in the growth characteristics and
properties of mourvédre vines. Mourvédre is a very late variety in both bud break
and ripening season. It can recover quite well from Spring frosts, but sometimes
fail to survive cold Winter temperatures. It craves heat, but is drought-sensitive.
Phylloxera nearly drove mourvèdre to extinction, because the vines took so
poorly to grafting that most vineyardists deemed the results not worth the effort.
Replanting did not begin seriously until following World War II, 60 years after
the devastation, when sufficient vinestock was developed that had both adapted to
grafting and had consistent production history.
Until the late 1960s, however, the main French plantings of mourvédre were in
Provence, where it is the dominant grape in Bandol. Total mourvédre vineyards
in France increased from 2,200 acres in 1968 to nearly 14,000 by 1988.
Mourvèdre is a slow-ripening variety that develops tight bunches of grapes that
need good ventilation to avoid rot. It seems to do best in windy climates like
Southern France, and in parts of Spain and Algeria.
On their own, Mourvèdre wines tend to be deep-colored, quite tannic, somewhat
alcoholic, and have generally "spicy" aromas and, sometimes, "gamey" flavors in
their youth.
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Typical Mourvèdre Smell and/or Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Spice: thyme, clove,
cinnamon, black pepper
Oak (heavy): oak,
smoke, toast, tar, sweet wood
Faunal: gamey .
Floral: violet .
Fruit: blackberry .
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Pinot Noir
Pinot Noir is one of the oldest grape
varieties to be cultivated for the purpose of
making wine. Ancient Romans knew this grape
as Helvenacia Minor and vinified it as early as
the first century AD. Recognized worldwide as
a great wine grape, pinot noir has many alias
and is grown in Algeria, Argentina, Australia,
Austria (called Blauburgunder or
Spätburgunder), Brazil, Canada,
Czechoslovakia, England, France, Germany
(Spätburgunder), Greece, Hungary, Italy (Pinot Nero), Mexico, New Zealand,
Switzerland (Clevner, labeled "Dole" when blended with Gamay Noir), the
United States, and Yugoslavia (Burgundac).
The reputation that gets pinot noir so much attention, however, is owed to
the wines of Burgundy (Bourgogne), France. For most of wine history, this two-
mile-wide, thirty-mile-long stretch of hills, called the Côte d'Or ("Slope of
Gold"), is the only region to achieve consistent success from the pinot noir vine.
The quality of Bourgogne is due to a number of factors. Its vineyards
slope gently down toward the East, providing the vines with long sun exposure
yet avoiding afternoon heat. The soil there is very calcareous (chalky; containing
calcium carbonate), offering good drainage. Well-drained soils have a higher
average temperature, which assists ripening. Pinot noir seems to reflect more
pronounced Gout de Terroir, or flavor of the soil, than other black grape types,
making vineyard site selection a critical factor.
Difficulties plague pinot noir at every step, from propagation to even its
bottle-aging characteristics. Genetically unstable, the parent vine may produce
offspring that bear fruit that is nothing like the parent's in the size and shape of
the berry or cluster and will frequently even have different aromas, flavors, and
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
levels of productivity. There are 46 recognized clones (genetic variants) of Pinot
Noir in Dijon, France. Ampelographers estimate there are as many as 200 to
possibly 11,000 clones of pinot noir worldwide. By comparison, cabernet
sauvignon has only twelve identifiable clones.
Nearly every affliction known to affect vines is common among pinot noir
vineyards. Although quite tolerant of cold climates, it is particularly susceptible
to Spring frosts, because it is one of the earliest-leafing varieties. The
sharpshooter leafhopper finds pinot noir a perfect host. This bug carries Pierce's
Disease, which can destroy an entire vineyard in as little as three years. Leaf-roll
virus is prevalent in almost all pinot noir plantings over ten years old. The pinot
vines are not very vigorous and often lack adequate leaf cover to protect the fruit
from birds, which do much damage. Even if the grapes survive the birds, if not
picked promptly at maturity, the thin-skinned and tender berries shrivel and dry
out rapidly (notice this shriveling in the photo), resulting in a raisiny aroma and
neutral flavor.
Pinot Noir is also one of the more difficult wines to ferment. Partly due to
the presence of 18 amino acids, which are naturally balanced in this variety, Pinot
Noir ferments violently, often "boiling" up and out of its container, speeding the
process out of control. Color retention is a major problem for the thin-skinned
berries. Pinot is very prone to acetification and often loses the sometimes
promising aromas and flavors it seems to display through fermentation and aging,
as soon as it is bottled.
There is one component in which Pinot Noir seems naturally quite rich,
three to four times higher compared to other varieties, especially when it is grown
in cooler and more humid climates: resveratrol. While this may not affect the
aspects of sensory enjoyment, it may draw the attention of health-conscious
consumers.
Pinot Noir shows some promise and has a possible future in the
Willamette Valley of Oregon, the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, and in
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New Zealand, although all may prove to have growing seasons that are generally
too short and too humid for consistently outstanding results.
The popular image persists that California Pinot Noir is a light, fruity
wine of no consequence, but California vintners over the past twenty years have
been improving site and clonal selections, viticultural methods, and vinification
techniques to increase their record of success. The nominees for Best Supporting
Appellation in California Pinot Noir are much the same as for Chardonnay: Santa
Maria Valley (Santa Barbara County); Russian River Valley (Sonoma County);
Carneros (in both Sonoma and Napa Counties); Anderson Valley (Mendocino
County); as well as the Pinnacles (Monterey County) and, recently, Santa Lucia
Highlands (Monterey County).
Great Pinot Noir creates a lasting impression on the palate and in the
memory. Its aroma can be intense with a ripe-grape, vaguely pepperminty or
black cherry aroma. Ripe tomato, mushroom, and barnyard are also common
descriptors for identifying Pinot Noir. It is full-bodied and rich but not heavy,
high in alcohol, yet neither acidic nor tannic, with substantial flavor despite its
delicacy. The most appealing quality of Pinot Noir may be its soft, velvety
texture. When right, it is like liquid silk, gently caressing the palate. Pinot does
not have the longevity in the bottle of the darker red wines and tends to reach its
peak at five to eight years past the vintage.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Pinot Noir Smell and Flavor Descriptors
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit:
cherry, strawberry,
raspberry, ripe
tomato
Terroir: mushroom, earth, barnyard,
truffle, leather, meat
Floral:
violet, rose petal
Oak (light): vanilla, coconut, sweet
wood
Spice:
peppermint,
rosemary,
cinnamon, caraway
Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast, tar
Herbal:
rhubarb, beet,
oregano, green
tomato, green tea,
black olive
Bottle Age: cedar, cigar box
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Syrah
Syrah is the only grape used to make the famous Rhône
wines of Côte Rotie and Hermitage, but also forms the
backbone of most Rhône blends, including Chateauneuf du
Pape.
Although cultivated since antiquity, competing
claims to the origin of this variety gave credit to it either
being transplanted from Persia, near the similarly-titled city
of Shiraz or to being a native plant of France. Starting in 1998, combined
research of the University of California at Davis and the French National
Agronomy Archives in Montpellier proved syrah is indeed indigenous to France.
DNA profiling proved syrah to be a genetic cross of two relatively obscure
varieties, mondeuse blanc and dureza.
More than half the world's total Syrah acreage is planted in France, but it
is also a successful grape in Australia (called Shiraz or Hermitage), South Africa
and California. Syrah is a fairly new variety in California, first introduced in
1971. Some of the state's vines were propagated from Hermitage and some from
Australian cuttings. It is also one of California's most rapidly increasing varieties.
In 1984, there were less than 100 acres. Syrah now accounts for 12,700 vineyard
acres, almost half of which is less than three years old and not yet bearing fruit.
Syrah vines are relatively productive, yet not too vigorous. Like Merlot, it
is sensitive to coulure, and although Syrah buds fairly late, it is a mid-season
ripener. Syrah requires heat to get fully ripe, but can lose varietal character when
even slightly overripe. The berry is thick-skinned and dark, almost black.
Syrah forms intense wines, with deep violet, nearly black color, chewy
texture and richness, and often alcoholic strength, with aromas that tend to be
more spicy than fruity.
Syrah Smell and Flavor Descriptors
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Varietal Aromas/Flavors: Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: black currant,
blackberry
Terroir: musk, civet,
truffle, earth
Floral: grass Oak (light): vanilla,
coconut, sweet wood
Spice: black pepper,
licorice, clove, thyme, bay leaf
Oak (heavy): oak,
smoke, toast, tar
Herbal: sandalwood, cedar Bottle Age: cedar,
cigar box, earth, leather
Each time our tasting panel reviews Syrah, we conclude that, for both
sensual appeal and great value, we should drink this varietal more often.
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CHAPTER 5
French white grape varietiesChardonnay
Rich is the word that best both describes
Chardonnay and explains its popularity. Its
aroma is distinct, yet delicate, difficult to
characterize, easier to recognize. It often smells
like apples, lemons, peaches or tropical fruits.
Its delicacy is such that even a small percentage
of another varietal blended into a Chardonnay
will often completely dominate its aroma and
flavor. Oak commonly takes over Chardonnay if the wine is fermented or aged in
new barrels or for too long in seasoned ones.
This delicacy also allows Chardonnay to absorb the influences of both
vinification technique and appellation of origin. In the Chablis region of France,
it is the only grape permitted and it renders a "crisp, flinty" wine. In the
Meursault appellation, chardonnay takes on a lush, ripe, "fleshy", "buttery"
quality. Even in quality sparkling wines and French Champagne, it is the major
varietal used. California Chardonnay is every bit as variable and possibly even
more exciting because of the effusive varietal quality it develops there. In spite of
this variety in style, Chardonnay is unmistakable in the mouth because of its
impeccable sugar/acid balance, its full body, and its easy smoothness.
Researchers at the University of California at Davis used DNA profiling
in 1999 to prove that Chardonnay originated as a cross of an obscure, ancient, and
nearly extinct variety called gouais blanc with a member of the "pinot" family,
quite likely pinot noir (although ampelographic research has not yet been able to
pinpoint this).
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Vineyards in France are commonly planted with an intermingling of
chardonnay and pinot blanc vines, so that "pinot" has often been attached to
chardonnay, incorrectly. In spite of its heritage, Chardonnay is not considered a
member of the "pinot" grape family (pinot noir, pinot blanc, pinot gris, etc.).
California has achieved real success growing chardonnay and popularity of its
wine. It has also been a successful grape in Australia, where it also is sometimes
misnamed "pinot chardonnay".
Unfortunately, chardonnay vines are shy-bearing and susceptible to a
myriad of maladies. Chardonnay berries are relatively small, thin-skinned, fragile,
and oxidize easily. This makes chardonnay somewhat more sensitive to
winemaking techniques and more difficult to handle from harvest to bottling than
most other grape types.
Different wine making techniques also produce wide variances in the
Chardonnay flavor profile. Such techniques as barrel fermentation, proportion of
new to old cooperage, lees stirring, and partial, complete, or prevention of
malolactic fermentation generate controversy and lively discussion among
winemakers.
Chardonnay's intrinsic blank canvas quality also allows its flavors to be
dramatically affected by differences in soil, climate, and vineyard practices. Not
uncommon among wine grapes, the chardonnay vine also has a tendency to
mutate and research has identified over 400 clonal variants. Each clone has
chardonnay family traits, but displays individually specific tendencies in such
characteristics as length of ripening cycle, crop load, berry and cluster size, acid
retention, etc., therefore producing wines with various flavor differences.
The widespread popularity of varietally-labeled Chardonnay wines
spurred many new California plantings in the early 1970s. The most commonly
planted clone was the "Wente" clone (UCD 2A) and, later, clone 108, isolated at
UC Davis from vines grown in Carneros. Due to this grape's blank canvas nature
and the proliferation of new vineyard sources using essentially only two clones,
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
regional variations in Chardonnay wines became more apparent than perhaps in
any other varietal wine in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
In the 1990s, California vintners began paying much more attention to
matching, not only varieties but also clones, to specific microclimates and
vineyard sites. Many new vineyards and re-plantings since then, especially in
cooler regions, have propogated the "Dijon" clones (particularly 75, 76, 78, 95
and 96), the "Espiguette" clone (352) or, in fewer locations, "Champagne" clones.
The most common (but not exclusive) smell and/or flavor elements found
in chardonnay-based wines include:
Chardonnay Smell and Flavor Elements
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Stone Fruits:
apple, pear, peach,
apricot
Malolactic: butter, cream,
hazelnut
Citric Fruits:
lemon, lime, orange,
tangerine
Oak (light): vanilla,
sweet wood, coconut
Tropical Fruits:
pineapple, banana,
mango, guava, kiwi
Oak (heavy): oak, smoke,
toast, lees, yeast
Floral: acacia,
hawthorn
Terroir: flint, mineral,
mint
Chenin Blanc
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
At the beginning of the 1970s,
Americans began to discover that
California's better wines are labeled by
the predominate grape variety. Made in
the style of the day, fragrant and lightly
sweet, and also easy to pronounce,
Chenin Blanc quickly became the best-
selling wine of the era.
As wine popularity rocketed,
Chenin Blanc helped to introduce another, completely unpopular, wine
phenomenon that became the varietal's 1sales death knell: allocation. The "boom"
in wine, especially white varietals, caught most producers by surprise. Charles
Krug was the top-selling brand and, from 1972 to 1977, the winery completely
controlled the chain of supply, using the demand for whites as a reward to buyers
of the 2less-popular reds.
Chenin blanc is arguably the most versatile of all wine grape varieties.
Crisp, dry table wines, light sparkling wines, long-lived, unctuous, nectar-like
dessert wines, and even brandy are all produced in various areas of the wine
world, all of chenin blanc.
It might even be said that chenin blanc is France's most successful export
variety, if only considering the vine rather than the wine. Although the native
region for chenin is the Loire Valley (where the grape is often called Pineau de la
Loire), there is less planted in all of France than in most wine-producing countries
of the New World. It is planted as Pinot Blanco in Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and
Argentina, where there are over 10,000 acres of chenin blanc. Nearly a third of
vines in South Africa are chenin blanc, where it is also called Steen. In California,
it is the third most widely planted white wine grape. Australia has close to 1,500
acres and New Zealand 500.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Resistance to many diseases, vine vigor, and the tendency to early bud break and
late ripening suits chenin blanc to grow in climates too warm for many vinifera
types. The vine grows well in many soil types and can be very vigorous in either
sandy loam or clay loam. Production is fairly consistent at from five to eight tons
per acre. At three or four years old, the vines tend to overproduce and may set
crops too large to fully ripen in the coolest areas. Chenin blanc grapes are
susceptible to both bunch rot and sun burn.
In spite of its wide plantings and potential flavor palates, most chenin
blanc is made into serviceable, but generally bland wine. A general tendency to
over-irrigate and overcrop further reduce most Chenin Blanc to the forgettable.
Careful viticultural practices easily overcome chenin blanc's weaknesses and can
result in excellent wine.
. When conditions are right, Botrytis cinerea adds additional complexity
and intensity.The most frequently encountered (but not exclusive) smell and/or
flavor elements found in Chenin Blanc-based wines include:
Chenin Blanc Smell and/or Flavor Elements
Varietal Aromas/Flavors: Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Floral: honey, honeysuckle .
Fruity: quince, melon, esp.
Honeydew, cantaloupe
Wood: vanilla, sweet wood, oak
(not usually)
Aggressive: iodine, "gym socks" Mineral: flint, smoke
Herbal: grass, hay .
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Pinot Gris
Pinot gris (or pinot grigio, as it is known in
Italy) probably is the best-known "white"
variant-clone of Pinot Noir. Ripe pinot gris
grapes may be described as having colors
from bluish grey to light pinkish brown.
Clusters with a variety of colors are not
unusual.
The variety can attain a very high level
of sweetness, but will begin to lose acid
rapidly when near to fully ripe. Sometimes it
is used to add richness and to lighten, when blended with Pinot Noir.
Some pinot gris is grown in Burgundy, where it may be called pinot
beurot. Where planted in Germany, it is known as ruländer. It is of little
commercial significance in either locale. Friuli, in Italy, produces the largest
quantity, but only two appellations have Pinot Gris stars in the wine quality
galaxy: Alsace, France, the traditional base of Pinot Gris appreciation and
Oregon, the newest Pinot Gris area to come to light.
In Alsace, the pinot gris grape is called tokay d'Alsace (no relation to the
Hungarian Tokay). The Alsatians value it as a full-bodied wine that can stand up
to food without introducing any flavors of its own. In Italy, Pinot Grigio can be
quite distinguished, coming from some producers, especially in the Friuli region,
who devote attention to growing and vinifying. Unfortunately for its reputation,
there are many other Italian Pinot Grigio makers that overcrop and harvest early
to produce crisp, but vapid wines.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
There are winemakers in the United States who are putting serious efforts
into growing and producing Pinot Gris. Nearly 1,620 acres are planted in
California, mostly in the Central and South coastal areas. Both quality and sales
have been erratic thus far. Many Oregon wineries, on the other hand, have had
good success and are moving steadily away from making Chardonnay while
increasing production of Pinot Gris. In the 2000 vintage, Pinot Gris total
plantings (1270 acres) and quantity crushed (2917 tons) surpassed Chardonnay
(1125 acres, 2523 tons) for the first time.
Pinot Gris / Pinot Grigio is usually delicately fragrant and mildly floral
with lightly lemon-citrus flavors. Depending upon ripeness at harvest and
vinification technique, Pinot Gris can be tangy and light, or quite rich, round and
full bodied. Made in an appropriate style, it is one dry white wine that may even
age well.
Pinot Gris Smell and/or Flavor Elements
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruit: lemon,
apple, pear
Oak: vanilla, sweet wood,
almond, smoke
Floral: (vague) Malolactic (unusual): butter,
cream
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Sauvignon Blanc
Classic white-wine producer variety commonly
planted in the Bordeaux and eastern Loire regions of
France. Shows vigorous growth and is late maturing.
Members of the cépage are now thought by some to
be descendants of the ancient Fié variety once
common in the Loire region of France. A recent
(2002) DNA study suggests derivation from an earlier
Traminer cross, eg: Sauvignon Rose below, that must
have mutated to a later state. The sauvignon cépage apparently derives the latter part of
its name from the color of its skin. Other members include the recent (4-97) genetic
parental link to Cabernet Sauvignon and other mutations known as the Sauvignon Noir,
Sauvignon Jaune and Sauvignon Rose. The last named variety is also known as
Sauvignon Gris. In the Styria region of Austria the named variety is occasionally referred
to as the Muskat-Sylvaner.
All versions of the cépage show a tendency towards a grassy, herbaceous flavor in the
grapewine, often referred to as "gooseberry" by professional tasters, when the grapes are
grown in temperate regions. In warmer regions, the flavors and aromas tend to be more
citruslike, (e.g: grapefruit or pear), plus the characteristic "earthy" taste. New Zealand
has had much success with the grape in recent years.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Sauvignon Blanc Smell and Flavor Elements
Varietal Aromas/Flavors: Processing
Bouquets/Flavors:
Herbaceous: grass, weeds, lemon-grass,
gooseberry
vanilla, sweet wood
Vegetal: bell pepper, green olive,
asparagus, capsicum
butter, cream
Fruity: grapefruit, lime, melon oak, smoke, toast
Aggressive: mineral, "catbox" flint
With naturally high acidity, Sauvignon Blanc is always tangy, tart, nervy,
racy, or zesty, and this character pervades even sweet and dessert versions,
keeping them from being cloying and sticky-tasting.
Dry-style Sauvignon or Fumé Blancs are very versatile in accompanying
foods and can handle components such as tomatoes, bell peppers, cilantro, raw
garlic, smoked cheeses or other pungent flavors that would clash with or
overpower many Chardonnays and almost all other dry whites. In fact, Sauvignon
Blanc is probably the best dry white wine to accompany the greatest variety of
foods.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Semillon
Semillon grapes make up 80% of the blend in
the most expensive and famous dessert wine in
the world, Château d'Yquem. Semillon seems
the favorite foil of Botrytis Cinerea, the noble
rot which concentrates the sugars and flavors
and intensifies the aromas for d'Yquem and
the other "late-harvest" dessert wines of
Monbazillac and Sauternes. These wines hold
up spectacularly in antiquity, unique in the
spectrum of unfortified wines.
Consistently productive at six to eight tons per acre and of vigorous vines,
semillon is easy to cultivate. It is fairly resistant to common vine diseases, with
the notable exception of rot, which most often is hoped to be the noble type and
not the destructive strain. This viticultural profile has led to widespread
propagation and popularity of semillon vineyards.
While semillon is the majority white variety in Bordeaux, Graves, and
Sauternes, more grows in Chile than anywhere else on earth. Early in the
viticultural development of Australia, semillon (often incorrectly labeled as
Riesling) dominated as the major white variety, although the vineyards are mostly
Chardonnay and sauvignon blanc today.
California has an ongoing checkered relationship with Semillon. Acreage
has fluctuated up and down over the past several decades, from 1,200 acres in
1961, to 2,800 acres in 1981, to currently over 1,500 acres planted.
Most California Semillon today is blended with Sauvignon Blanc and
rendered dry, but an experimental dessert wine created a sensation in the middle
of the 20th Century.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
In 1956, winemaker Myron Nightingale, then of Cresta Blanca winery,
made a dessert wine by spraying spores of Botrytis cinerea on semillon and
sauvignon blanc grapes to produce French Sauternes-like results. The wine was a
breakthrough success in the industry, because the California climate had always
been considered too arid for the Noble Mold to naturally exist at a high enough
population level to any beneficial effect.1 Financial problems caused Cresta
Blanca to change hands and production ceased after the 1966 vintage.
The ripe semillon berry is a rich yellow color at maturity, although
increasing sun exposure may turn it amber-pink. In warmer climates, there is
always danger of sunburn and raisining. If processed as a dry or semidry table
wine, the thin skins and tender, juicy pulp require speedy but gentle handling.
Semillon Smell and Flavor Elements
Varietal
Aromas/Flavors:
Processing Bouquets/Flavors:
Fruity: fig,
lemon, pear
Botrytis: apricot, quince, peach,
honey, pineapple, vanilla, candy
Spice: saffron Malolactic: butter, cream
Herbal: grass,
weeds
Oak (light): vanilla, sweet wood
Vegetal: bell
pepper, asparagus
Oak (heavy): oak, smoke, toast
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Wines dominated by Semillon may lack much youthful aroma, but have
fairly full body and tend to be low in acidity, even "fat" at times. This is the
flavor profile of a supporting role grape, rather than a star, and most Semillon is
blended. Semillon is the soft, subtle, rich Yin to balance the Yang of Sauvignon
Blanc, which can be aromatically aggressive and acidic. Semillon even works
well when blended with that notoriously standoffish loner, Chardonnay,
providing weight and richness without diverting aromatic delicacy.
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
Viognier
Viognier seemed literally an endangered variety
only a few years ago, but seems to be recovering
worldwide in both popularity and acreage. Less
than 35 acres remained planted in all of France, its
homeland, in the late 1960s. Its newest realm,
California, has 2,001 acres as of 2002 (although a
considerable portion is not yet mature enough to
bear a commercial crop) and there are also
relatively new plantings in Australia and Brazil, as
well as other U.S. plantings in Colorado, New
York, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, and
Washington.
The major drawback of the viognier grape is that it is a very shy producer
and somewhat difficult to grow. Although drought tolerant, it is easily infected
with powdery mildew in damp conditions or humid climates. Like many other
varietals, viognier must be harvested at its peak of maturity in order to display its
unique aroma and flavor character. The grape's tendency to develop high sugar
but low acid can result in wines with neutral, merely vinous flavors and high
alcohol. These cultivation problems and producer desires to capitalize on the
grape's somewhat rarity combine to make many Viognier wines relatively
expensive.
Viognier is the only grape used for the Northern Rhône appellations
Condrieu and Château-Grillet (one of France's smallest appellation contrôlée,
with less than ten acres and only one owner). Viognier is also sometimes used to
add fragrance and to soften and lighten the syrah in Côte Rotie. Plantings of
viognier in France have expanded in recent years from the Rhône (1830 acres), to
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Specialization Project “French Grape Varieties “
the Languedoc (3440 ac.) to smaller plantings in Roussillon (212 ac.) and
Provence (272 ac.).
Probably the main attraction of Viognier is its potentially powerful, rich,
and complex aroma that often seems like overripe apricots mixed with orange
blossoms or acacia. With as distinctive and sweet an aroma-flavor profile as
Gewürztraminer, Viognier is nevertheless usually made in a dry style and seems
to appeal more to the typical Chardonnay drinker. The distinctive Viognier
perfume holds up even when blended with a large portion of other grapes. The
fruit usually has very deep color, but is somewhat low in acidity. As California
wineries experiment with Viognier-Chardonnays, Viognier-Chenin Blancs, and
Viognier-Colombards, this may be the grape's ultimate destiny, as a blender.
Both Chardonnay and Viognier share tropical fruit flavors and a creamy
mouthfeel. Even with little or no wood aging, Viognier can be as full-bodied as
an oaky Chardonnay, but has much more distinctive fruit character. It also has a
Viognier smell and Flavor Elements
Varietal Aromas/ Flavors: Processing Bouquets/Flavors
Floral: orange blossom, acacia, violet, foneyMalolactic: butter, cream
Spice: anise, mint Oak(light): vanilla, sweet wood
Herbal: mown hay, tobacco
Viognier alcohol easily gets out-of-hand, so some vintners leave a touch
of residual sugar to mask the heat. The combination of heady aromas and sweet-
hot flavors may be overbearing to some palates. Even for those who favor
Viognier's brash personality, a little can go a long way and a single glass may
satiate one's wine thirst. There are also occasional late-harvest and dessert
versions made that can be as headily-intriguing as the finest Sauternes.
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Because the prime appeal of Viognier is its fresh and striking aroma, it is a wine
that should be consumed young in most instances. The exception is Château
Grillet, where the grapes are harvested early and the wine kept in oak for several
months prior to bottling; this wine has a reputation for aging up to two decades.
As to food matches, Viognier works well with dishes that might normally
call for Gewürztraminer. Spicy dishes, such as spicy oriental stir-frys and even
curry, especially Thai-style which is made with coconut milk, may be
accompanied and complemented by Viognier. Also fruit salsas, atop grilled fish
or chicken, can be miraculously tasty with Viognier.
CHAPTER-6
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Hybrid Varieties
ARRILOBA:
Variety derived from a Raffiat de Monade x Sauvignon Blanc cross, released around
1960 by the INRA, France. Currently grown by select vineyards in the Landes region of
France where it is used to create a white wine described as rich and golden. (No other
details as yet).
AUBIN BLANC:
Recently DNA checks have revealed this variety to possibly be the result of a Gouais
Blanc x Traminer cross. No other information on this variety other than it was grown in
the Moselle river area of France.
AUXERROIS BLANC:
Local name for variety, used for white wine production, grown in the northeast Moselle
and Alsace regions of France. Used to produce mildly acidic wines that add a honied
intensity to blends with the Pinot Blanc in the better vintage years. Is one of the 16
known varieties possibly directly descended from the ancient Pinot cepage x Gouais
Blanc cross. .
BACHET NOIR:
Francois Noir is one of the 16 known direct possible descendants of the ancient Pinot
cepage x Gouais Blanc cross that resulted in this red-wine creating variety.
BALZAC:
Has several synonym names including Limousin Blanc. Recent DNA checks revealed
that this variety is possibly derived from a Gouais Blanc x Chenin Blanc cross. No other
details at present.
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BARESANA:
Table/Wine grape cultivar derived from a Golden Hamburg x Muscat of Alexandria
variety cross. Has about a dozen synonym names including Golden Champion and White
Tokay. Widely grown in Europe and other cool climate regions.
BEAUNOIR:
It is Chardonnay-like white-wine creating variety that is one of the known 16 possible
descendants of a Pinot cepage x Gouais Blanc ancient variety crossing and has several
synonym names including Cep Gris, Mourillon and Pinot d'Ai. .
BOUCHY:
Local name for the Cabernet Franc grape grown in the Pyrenees region of France. Makes
one of four wines blended to produce a full-bodied red wine called "Madiran". The
others are Courbu Noir, Pinenc and Tannat. .
CABERNET DORIO:
Vinifera variety, synonym name developed and subsequently released in November,
1999 by the Weinsberg/Württemberg Research Station, Baden, Germany. Derived from a
Cabernet Sauvignon x Dornfelder cross. Red wine is recommended for fine fruitiness
with velvety, distinctive taste.
CABERNET CUBIN:
Has synonym name WE 70-281-35. Developed and subsequently released in November,
1999, this V.vinifera cross is reported as derived from Cabernet Sauvignon x Lemberger
parentage by the Weinsberg/Württemberg Research Station, Baden, Germany. Red wine
is claimed to be rich in fruit aromas and requiring oak cask ageing/vinification.
CALADOC:
Derived from a Grenache x Malbec cross for use in the Mediterranean climate of the
coastal regions of southern France. Having similarities to the former parent cultivar it is
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reported as being used in limited amounts as a red wine tannin/aroma enhancing agent in
the lesser wines of the region.
CARMINOIR:
Variety resulting from a Pinot Noir x Cabernet Sauvignon cross.
CHARMONT:
White-wine producing variety with Chasselas x Chardonnay pedigree grown in the
Valais district of Switzerland.
COUNOISE:
Semi-classic grape grown in the southern Rhone and Pyrenees regions of France and
used in the red wine blends of Chateauneuf-du-Pape or Banyuls, and other local wines of
those regions to create aroma and acidic freshness. Thought by some to be of unknown
Spanish grape origin.
DAMERON:
Has several synonym names including Pinot Rouge. Is possibly derived from a Pinot
cepage x Gouais Blanc cross that occurred in the distant past. No other details as yet
other than this variety is grown in France and can be made into red wine.
DORAL:
Variety resulting from a Chasselas x Chardonnay cross. No other details as yet other than
it is used to create white wines in Switzerland. .
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FLORA:
Has synonym name California H59-90. Reported to be a selected cross of Semillon x
Traminer Rot created by H. Olmo for white wine production. Currently grown in
California, Australia and some other countries on a limited scale.
FORTA:
Derived from a Silvaner x Madeleine Angevine cross. Frost-hardy in a good site.
Reported as having sugars and acidity higher than Müller-Thurgau. Used to make a
varietal white wine claimed to have profile similarities to Pinot Gris. .
FRANC NOIR DE LA HAUTE SAÔNE:
Variety possibly derived from a Pinot cepage x Gouais Blanc cross. Has several synonym
names including Plant Jacquot.
GARANOIR:
Variety derived from a Gamay Noir x Reichensteiner cross. Has synonym names Granoir
and Pully B-28. Created in 1970, along with Gamaret, the two wines can be blended to
make a red wine of character that.
KANZLER:
Winegrape derived from a Müller-Thurgau x Silvaner cross that was released in 1927.
Has synonym name Alzey S.3983. Possessed of moderate vigor, crop potential, despite
wood hardening deficiencies. Claimed to produce a white wine with a delicate bouquet,
rich in extract and having a fruity flavor.
KOZMA CSVT 55:
V.vinifera variety red-skin grape claimed to be derived from a Rayon d'Or x Perle von
Csaba cross .
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MARCELAN:
Recently developed variety, derived from a Grenache x Cabernet Sauvignon cross,
grown in France.
MÜLLER-THURGAU:
Early ripening cross once thought to have been developed from Sylvaner and Riesling
but some authorities now contend, based on DNA analysis (2002), that there is a high
degree of genetic similarity between the varieties Chasselas de Courtiller and Madeleine
Royale .
MUSCAT HAMBURG:
According to the Geilweilerhof (Genres) database, see above, this variety was derived
from a Schiava Grossa x Muscat of Alexandria cross. Has over 30 synonym names,
including Black Hamburg (see comments re. Schiava Grossa synonym name), Black
Muscat, Golden Hamburg, Hampton Court Vine, Queen's Arbor and Venn's Seedling..
NEVA MUNSON:
T.V. Munson variety reported to be derived from a Neosho x Herbemont cross. Claimed to
have some resistance to Pierce's Disease. No other details as yet.
NEW YORK MUSCAT
Derived from a Muscat Hamburg x Ontario cross. Moderately hardy with loose, large-
berried clusters that have good Muscat profile and little if any labrusca flavor. Reports
from some areas indicate moderate vigor with a tendency to low productivity. Claimed to
make a pleasing red or whit.
NITODEL:
T.V. Munson variety derived from a Salado x Pense cross. Has synonym name Nitodal.
No other details as yet.
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PINOTAGE:
Derived from the crossing of Pinot Noir x Cinsaut. Used to make a popular, hearty red
wine that ages well - (and often requires it). Also grown in some quantity on New
Zealand's North Island .
ROMULUS:
Has synonym name NY 15291. Reported as derived from a Ontario x Thompson
Seedless cross and mainly used as a tablegrape. No other details as yet.
RUBY:
Reported as a Keuka x Ontario cross developed around the mid-1930's at the Geneva
Institute of N.Y.
SCHUYLER: Is a cross between Zinfandel and Ontario varieties.
SOLARIS:
Derived from a Merzling x (Saperavi Severny x Muscat Ottonel) cross.
ST. FRANCIS: Complex American/Vinifera variety derived from a Muench x Gros Guillaume cross.
TARHEEL: Complex V.rotundifolia (ie. Muscadine) cultivar. Derived from a Luola x (Eden x (Eden x V. Munsonia)) cross.
TETRA: Derived from a Herbert x Worden cross. This hybrid variety is widely grown in Georgia .
WAYNE: Reported to be an early ripening cross of the Ontario x Mills varieties.
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CHAPTER 7
Disease to The Grapes
Angular Leaf Scorch
Type of Pest: Disease
Frequency of Occurrence: Angular leaf scorch is most likely to become a problem
when high rainfall occurs during the period of early shoot growth.
Damage Caused: Disease symptoms occur mainly on the leaves and first appear as faint
chlorotic spots. Lesions enlarge and change from yellow to reddish-brown, eventually
killing the tissue. Lesions are confined by major veins and can have a yellow, red, or
absent margin. Infected leaves often fall prematurely.
% Acres Affected: 35%
Pest Life Cycles: The fungus survives winter in infected leaves on the vineyard floor.
Mature spores are ready for discharge in spring when grape buds begin to grow. During
rainfall, spores are released into the air from fruiting structures and susceptible tissue is
infected.
Timing of Control: Fungicides should be applied prior to rainfall, beginning at the 3-
inch stage and continuing through fruit set. Angular leaf scorch is typically only a
problem during years with extremely wet springs.
Yield Losses: Premature loss of leaves is detrimental to sugar accumulation in berries
but is more detrimental to overall vine health in cold sensitive varieties.
Cultural Control Practices: Cultural practices that increase air circulation can reduce
duration’s of leaf wetness that favor disease development. Destruction of leaf litter by
cultivation, before bud break, can also reduce disease incidence.
Biological Control Practices: None available at this time
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Post-Harvest Control Practices: None
Other Issues: There is no currently labeled fungicide to control this disease. However,
mancozeb utilized to control other diseases on grapes will control angular leaf scorch.
Black Rot
Type of Pest: Disease
Frequency of Occurrence: 3- to 5-inch shoot growth through approximately
August 1
Damage Caused: Black rot is one of the most serious diseases of grapes in the
eastern United States. This disease can cause substantial crop loss under the
appropriate environmental conditions. All green tissues of the vine are susceptible
to infection.
% Acres Affected: 40%
Pest Life Cycles: The black rot fungus overwinters primarily in mummified fruit
on the vineyard floor or fruit retained within the vine. It can also overwinter
within cane lesions. Spores within cane lesions are available for infection starting
at bud break; however, the vast majority of spores (those within mummified fruit)
first become available about 2-3 weeks after bud break, then reach peak levels
from about 1-2 weeks before bloom until about 1-2 weeks after, depending on the
year. Rain triggers the release of infective spores from mummies, and infection
occurs if susceptible tissues remain wet for a sufficient length of time, which
depends on temperature. Pycnidia develop within lesions caused by current
season infections and release a new crop of spores during the summer. It is this
secondary round of spore release and infection that is responsible for the majority
of fruit rot damage. Thus, if very few current season infections are present,
protective sprays can usually be stopped once most of the overwintering inoculum
has been depleted (about the time berries become pea-sized). However, if more
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than a few current infections (and new spores) are present, protection must be
maintained until fruit begin to ripen.
Timing of Control: Disease severity the previous year and varietal susceptibility
to black rot are the major factor in determining how early protection is required.
Under heavy disease pressure protectant application could begin as early as 3-inch
shoot growth on susceptible varieties. However, the two most important sprays
are the immediate prebloom and 10 to 14-days later at the immediate postbloom.
Yield Losses: 50% in years of frequent early rainfall which favors development
of primary infections.
Cultural Control Practices: Removal of mummified clusters during pruning
significantly reduces disease pressure for the coming season; spring cultivation to
bury mummies also can contribute to a reduction of inoculum. Cultural practices
that open the canopy are beneficial because they increase air circulation and
improve spray coverage.
Biological Control Practices: None available at this time
Post-Harvest Control Practices: Removal of mummified berries during pruning
Banded Grape Bug
Type of Pest: Insect
Frequency of Occurrence: Sporadic pest of grapes. When present damage
occurs between mid-May and early June
Damage Caused: Feeding injury results in floret drop, reduced berry set, and
reduced cluster number
% Acres Affected: 10%
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Pest Life Cycles: Nymphs of this insect emerge in the spring and feed, using
their sucking and piercing mouth parts, on flowers and young berries. Injury by
small nymphs, occurring between 3- to 5-inch shoot growth (around May 15) and
early June, results in floret drop, reduced berry set, and reduced cluster number.
Subsequent feeding by larger nymphs and adults does not affect cluster
development. This injury only occurs in the early prebloom stages (between 5-
and 10-inch shoot growth). Subsequent feeding by nymphs does not reduce berry
set. Adults appear to be predaceous and do not cause injury to berries. This pest is
sporadic and does not require treatment in most years.
Timing of Control: 3- to 10-inch shoot growth
Yield Losses: Up to 100% reduction in area infested by this pest through loss of
florets. Reduction of crop size of 50% is typical when banded grape bug exceeds
the economic threshold of 1 nymph per 10 shoots
Grape Cane Gallmakers
Type of Pest: Insect
Frequency of Occurrence: Early spring
Damage Caused: Gall-like swellings on canes are caused by the oviposition
injury. Galls are usually twice as thick as the cane and 2.5 to 4 cm long. In newly
planted vineyards gallmaker can destroy canes necessary for developing a training
system, resulting in an extra year being necessary before a crop can be harvested
from the vine. Galls usually have little effect on vigor and growth of mature vines
but they can weaken the mechanical strength of the cane and cause breakage. In
cases of severe infestations, shoot length can be severely stunted resulting in the
loss of the crop on infested canes and the loss of the shoot for canopy
management for next year.
% Acres Affected: 10-15%
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Pest Life Cycles: The grape cane gallmakers has only one generation per year.
Timing of Control: 4 to 6-inches of shoot growth
Yield Losses: In newly planted vineyards gallmaker can destroy canes necessary
for developing a training system, resulting in an extra year being necessary before
a crop can be harvested from the vine. Galls usually have little effect on vigor and
growth of mature vines but they can weaken the mechanical strength of the cane
and cause breakage. In cases of severe infestations, shoot length can be severely
stunted resulting in the loss of the crop on infested canes and the loss of the shoot
for canopy management for next year.
Regional Differences: Grape Cane Gallmakers appear to be most common in the
part of the county along Lake Erie.
Cultural Control Practices: Removal of infected canes below the galls during
dormant pruning. This is not always feasible if infestation was severe or if canes
are needed to maintain training system.
Biological Control Practices: None available
Post-Harvest Control Practices: Removal of infected canes below the galls
during dormant pruning. This is not always feasible if infestation was severe or if
canes are needed to maintain training system.
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Broadleaf weeds
Type of Pest: Weed
Frequency of Occurrence: Yearly, throughout the season
Damage Caused: Weeds compete directly with the vine for water and nutrients. Weed
growth under the row in vineyards has been shown to be responsible for stunted vine size
and crop reduction.
% Acres Affected: 100%
Pest Life Cycles: Variable due to species of broadleaf weed
Timing of Control: Prior to emergence, prebloom
Yield Losses: Up to 30% dependent on species of weeds present and degree of ground
surface covered. Reduction in vine size due to competition of weeds for water and
nutrients can result in decreased yield capacity over the next several growing seasons.
Cultural Control Practices: The practice of "hilling up" or pushing a berm of soil
against the vine and "pulling away", or the removal of the berm, can reduce weed
populations under the row. However, these practices are labor intensive and less cost
efficient than traditional pesticide based practices.
Biological Control Practices: None available
Post-Harvest Control Practices: Not applicable
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Grasses
Type of Pest: Weed
Frequency of Occurrence: Yearly, throughout the season
Damage Caused: Weeds compete directly with the vine for water and nutrients. Weed
growth under, and between, the row in vineyards has been shown to be responsible for
stunted vine size and crop reduction.
% Acres Affected: 100%
Pest Life Cycles: Variable due to species of grass
Timing of Control: Prior to emergence, prebloom
Yield Losses: Up to 30% dependent on species of weeds present and degree of ground
surface covered. Reduction in vine size due to competition of weeds for water and
nutrients can result in decreased yield capacity over the next several growing seasons.
Cultural Control Practices:
Biological Control Practices: None available
Post-Harvest Control Practices: Not applicable
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