Chapter3MeijiExpansion [Unlocked by com

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Outline and Study Guide 1. Remarkable interpretations2. Japan after 1870: a general examination.

Sino-Japanese War, 1894-95 3. Causes of the Sino-Japanese War4. Result and Significance of the Sino-Japanese War.5. To what extent were economic factors responsible for the outbreak of the firstSino-Japanese War?

6. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5 resulted from a clash of interests betweenChina and Japan over the issue of Korea. Examine this statement.

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05 7. Russo-Japanese War 1904-05: Causes and Significance.8. Account for the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902 and discuss itshistorical significance.9. Russo-Japanese War was an inevitable result of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. Do you agree?

Overall examination of Japans imperialism in the Meiji period 10. Trace and explain the overseas expansion of Japan in the Meiji era.11. Account for Japans imperialistic activities in the late 19th century.12. Was Meiji Japans imperialistic expansion largely unplanned or part of apre-ordained design?13. Why was treaty revision so important to the Meiji Government?


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Remarkable Interpretations

A.E. Tiedemannin the 1880s the competition with the influx of foreign goods led to the search for

economic autonomy and self-sufficient, which finally contributed to the annexation of Taiwan and Korea.

A.M. Harringtonthe intention to secure Japans trade in Korea was one of the important factors for theoutbreak of the Sino-Japanese War.

Marlene Mayo:If there were no fixed ideologies, no master plans, or well-considered policies, thencertainly principles of some sort, broad purposes, ambitions, or attitudes must haveguided Japans actions in times of crisis.

Bonnie B. Oheach foreign policy crisis was absorbed into the wider goal of strengthening thecountry.The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5 was fought mainly for the long-range of securingKorean independence.For Japan, imperialism was a means of attaining equality with the Western powers,which was one of the primary goals of Meiji Japan. There were an abundance of expansionists such as ultra-nationalist societies, the advance guards of Japaneseimperialism, as well as military leaders. All of them contributed to the outbreak of

the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War.

Hilary Conroy:Mostly ad hoc.

Fukuzawa Yukichi:the Sino-Japanese War was one between a country which is trying to developcivilization and a country which disturbs the civilization. After the victory, Japancould no longer regard China as a teacher and benefactor, or speak of a commonculture, or repay an obligation stretching back over a thousand years.

Richard Storry:The 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance was valuable to Britain as a counterweight toRussian power.

Chitoshi Yanaga:Without the help of the Alliance (1902), Japan could not have possibly achieved theinternational position that she enjoyed for the next 45 years.


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Japan after 1870: a brief description

Part I. Territorial ExpansionA. 1874: Invasion of Formosa (Taiwan) and Ryukyu Islands

There was the uncertain position of the Ryukyu Islands. Ryukyu Islandswere Chinas traditional vassal states. However, Japan also had contacts with theRyukyu Islands during the Tokugawa period. In the late 1871, some Ryukyus werekilled by a few natives of Formosa. Japan immediately seized the chances bysupporting the Ryukyus and holding China responsible for the incident. Chinareplied that the murder was no business of Japan, and though Formosa was a Chinesevassal, its internal affairs were not under Chinas direct control.

Japan took this reply as Chinas abandonment of national right over the twovassals. With misunderstanding that Taiwan was not part of China, Japan in 1874with helps of certain Americans invaded Taiwan.

Soon the US withdrew and Japan was opposed by Us and Britain on the otherhand Japanese troops suffered from epidemics. Consequently, a peace treaty wasconcluded. China agreed to pay an indemnity of 500,000 taels.

Reasons for Japans expansion in Taiwan and Ryukyu Islands 1. to acquire two places for national safety, since they commanded the southern seasof Japan;2. to imitate Western imperialism and to win international respectability;3. to give an outlet for the discontented samurai;4. to turn the attention of discontent politicians from power struggle at home toadventures.

B. 1876: Expansion to Korea (The Treaty of Kanghwa)After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, three missions had been sent by the new

government to revise relations with Korea. However, Korea rejected the order, outof a dislike for Japans imitation of the West. In revenge for this insult, a few Meijileaders such as Saigo proposed sending a military expedition to attack Korea. Yetthe plan was called off by some cautious Meiji leaders who realized the backwarddomestic conditions of Japan and feared the foreign intervention. Nonetheless, asurveying team was sent to force the opening of some Korean ports. The result of

the signing of Treaty of Kanghwa.Korea was then recognized as a self-governing nation enjoying the right of equality with Japan; ambassadors were exchanged and three Korean ports wereopened.

Reasons for Japans expansion in Korea 1. Strategically, the Korean peninsula seemed to be a dagger at Japans heart.Control of Korea would make Japan safe from Western imperialism, especially fromthe threats of the Russians, who were advancing into East Asia, and also from those of the British, who were advancing westward from Canada.2. Politically, Japans international reputation would be raised if she succeeded inturning Korea into a colony or protectorate. Also, internal demands for a strongerforeign policy in Japan would be satisfied.


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3. Economically, Korea could be made to supply Japan with raw materials forindustrialization, investment opportunities for Japanese capital, and a big market forJapanese-made goods.

C. 1879 Annexation of the Ryukyu IslandsJapan finally annexed these islands.

D. The riot of 1882 and the Treaty of Chemulpo

E. The riot staged by Kim Ok-kyun in 1884 and the Li-Ito Convention1885

F. 1894-5 Sino-Japanese War, Treaty of Shimonoseki and annexation ofFormosa, Pescadores and the opening of Chongqing, Suzhou,Hangzhou and Shashi as treaty ports.

Despite the friendly Sino-Japanese Agreement in 1871, Japans invasion of Formosa in 1874 and expansion in Korea after 1876 badly affected Sino-Japaneserelations. With the Tonghak Rebellion as the immediate cause, the Sino-JapaneseWar broke out and the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed.

Why? Well, see the notes in the later part.

G. 1898: Sphere of influence in FujianIt was adjacent to Formosa, a Japanese colony since 1895.

H. 1905: the outbreak of Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) and the signingof the Treaty of PortsmouthAfter the War, Korea became Japans protectorate and the southern half of Sakhalin asher colony. Japan also got the control of the Liaodong leasehold, the SouthernManchurian Railway, and some coal mines operated by the Russians in SouthernManchuria.

Reasons for the War: 1. Strategically, the reign was important for Japans national safety.2. Politically, Japans international reputation would be raised if she were to turn thereign into a colony. Also, a stronger foreign policy might have the function of diverting the attention of those Japanese people who were dissatisfied with thegovernments internal policies. She also wanted to establish a protectorate in Korea,which was regarded as a dagger pointing at the heart of Japan, or at least, to keep off Russian influence there. To become a world power was one of the aims of the MeijiRestoration. Russia however seemed to be an obstacle to Japans dream of hegemony.3. Economically, the Northeast Asian region could be made to supply Japan withraw materials for industrialization, investment opportunities for economic growth, anda big market for Japanese-made goods.

I. 1910: Treaty of Annexation: Korea was regarded as colony to Japan.


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Part II: Rise of international status

A. 1895 Sino-Japanese War, emerged as an Asian power and replaced China as the leading

state in East Asia. Nonetheless, as H. Borton points out, Japan was still consideredby the Western powers as a backward,, semifeudal, inferior country.

B. 1897&1898 Scramble for concession: ranked equally with powers in China. In Beasleys words,Japan then, as the western powers had done since the mid-19th century, imposed theTreaty port system to China to show her superiority.

C. 1889&1900 i. Japan joined with the Western powers to attack China due to the Boxer Uprising,which implied the equal status of Japan with the European Powers.ii. Japan supported the Open Door Policy proposed by the US, which recognized theestablished status quo and opportunity of the powers in China.

D. 1902Anglo-Japanese Alliance: an important step towards the status as the world power.The alliances gave Japan on a footing of equality with the greatest of the powers andshe became the watchdog of Britain in the Far East which enhanced Japans furtheraggression on Asia.

E. 1905Russo-Japanese War: gave Japan a first-class membership among the westernimperialist powers. It was because she had defeated the largest land power and hadacquired Liaodong, which she had been forced to give up in the Triple Interventionten years ago. It was the first time an Asian country was able to defeat a Europeanpower. Japan even became a good example to the local nationalists in thePhilippines, Vietnam and Indonesia of successful modernization.

F. 1914-22Japan entered the War not because of her obligation in the Anglo-Japanese Alliancebut her ambition in China. The war gave Japan an opportunity to rise as a greatpower. Japan not only became the supreme power in the Far East, but was alsoregarded as one of the Big Five along with Britain, France, the U.S. and Italy.


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Causes of the Sino-Japanese War

1. Strategic factors i. Russia recognized Vladivostok as a base for the accommodation and Russian

extension to the borders of Korea were to pose a threat to Japans security which shewas in no position to take counter-action. The nature of this threat was indicated asearly as 1861 when Russia marine landed on the Island of Tsushima.ii. Koreas geographical position was seen as the land bridge between Japan andAsiatic mainland. Therefore, Korea had often been one of the most buffering of international problem,. It was a constant threat to Japans security because it was adagger pointed at the heart of Japan if controlled by a hostile power.

2. Political factorsi. International crises could be used to pacify the people especially the samuraibecause their privileges were deprived after 1868 and the government intended todivert their attention to the focus of Korea. In addition, the numerousanti-government within Japan could also be calmed down. For example, Saigo andItagakis Peoples Right Movement urged for representative government and resentedthe domination of Satsuma and Choshu clans in the government.ii. Japan became confident for the previous decade had been growth in the size andefficiency of her army and navy. A well-disciplined and well-trained army and navywere available. Her outward expansion served as a chance to show her muscles andto make territorial grasp. It was also because of her desire to achieve the aim of letting herself be raised to equal status with the western powers that pushed her to

start her expansion.iii. The growth of nationalism and expansionism also account for this. For example,in 1880, aikoku had been influential among the Japanese. In 1881 a patrioticsociety named Genyosha was formed to promote expansionist idea and stir upnationalist opinion. Korea became an important focus of their efforts. China,Manchuria and Korea were thought to be natural outlet for Japans ambition.Survival was impossible without a continental foothold.iv. In the era of Social Darwinism when other Powers tried to fetch as much territoryas possible, it was urgent for Japan to keep pace with them before it was too late.They believed that what is the lost to Europe should be compensate in Asia.According to Beasley, the Treaty Port System had negative effects on Japan in thesense that expansion and getting treaty ports were means of national independence andsuperiority.

3. Economic factorsi. Japans modernization and achievement in economic aspects strengthened herdetermination and growing self-confidence in outward expansion. A sense of nationalpride was created as a result if her marvelous improvement in a short time.ii. Her modernization also led to a great demand for land, raw material and market.The Japanese had developed shipping and trade interests in Korea which was thus avaluable market for Japanese capital and imports.

iii. During this period, Japan experienced increasing population growth, thereforethere was a great demand to accommodate the growing population in Japan. Korea


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was an export place of rice and an ideal outlets of overpopulation. Korea was animportant rice producer and Japan hoped to enlarge the food supply of the Japanesepeople through control of the countrys economy. This was feasible only throughpolitical domination. Japan made a start in 1894 by successfully persuading Korea

to suspend her decree forbidding the export of rice.

4. Unstable situation in KoreaIn the third quarter of the 19th century, following the Kanghwa Treaty 1876, Koreawas regarded by Japan as an independent country with its own king and separategovernment. For many centuries, however, Korea had had a close relation to Chinathan to Japan. Both China and Japan regarded with suspicion any moves by theother within the Korean peninsular. In the unstable political situation of Korea, therewas rivalry between Yi (conservative and anti-foreign) and Min (pro-Japanese)factions which not only aroused jealousy between China and Japan but such situationmight be exploited by Russia. Japan would never entertain the idea of Russiancontrol over Korea. Such disturbances created more opportunities for Sino-Japaneseconflicts, which in the end led to war.i. An internal power struggle and the Treaty of Chemulpo 1882 In the Korean court, there was a serious factional struggle between the pro-JapaneseMin faction supported by the queen and the pro-Chinese Yi faction supported byTaewongun. This power struggle led to a clash in 1882, in which the Japaneselegation was burnt and some Japanese advisers were killed. Both China and Japansent troops to help restore peace in Korea. However, Japan made use of this chance toconclude another treaty with Korea, namely the Treaty of Chemulpo. Japan obtainedfrom Korea an indemnity and an apology, and the right to travel outside the treatyports. Most importantly, Japan was give the right to station troops at her legation inSeoul.ii. Li-Ito Convention After 1882, the queens faction became more friendly with China and was no longerpro-Japanese. at the same time, progressive party under Kim Ok-kyun emerged.It was an extremely pro-Japanese party. In December 1884, Kim staged a coup andcaptured the king. However, the Chinese troops under Yuan managed to put downthe revolt. Kim had to leave Korea for Japan. Again the Japanese legation wasburnt in the confusion. The Li-Ito convention was then signed by Li representingChina and Ito representing Japan in 1885. In this agreement, China and Japanpromised to withdraw their troops from Korea and if troops were to be sent, either

country had to inform the other first. Thus, Japan was given an equal position to thatof China in Korea.

5. Chinas attitudeChina only asserted the fact that Korea was a dependency of China but neverrecognized Korea as a part of China. Such an attitude invited foreign ambition inKorea and later caused the signing of Treaty of Kanghwa. But after 1876, China wasdetermined to play a role in Korean affairs and therefore frustrated Japan. Chinaintended to persist in its overlordship of Korea, Japan became obsessed with herdesire to control Korea.

6. Immediate Causes


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a. The assassination of Kim Ok-kyunKim had left Korea for Japan after the failure of the 1884 coup detat. However, hewent to Shanghai in 1894 and was murdered by a pro-Chinese Korean. With thehelp of China, his body was dismembered and shipped back to Korea for public

exhibition. This angered the Japanese because Kim was pro-Japanese and receivedJapanese aid. Thus, strong anti-Chinese feeling was stirred up in Japan.

b. The Tonghak Uprising in KoreaMeanwhile, an uprising, known as the Tonghak Rebellion, broke out against both theKorean government and Chinese domination. Members of the Tonghak movementwere ultra-conservative who were opposed to reform n general, whether pro-Chineseor pro-Japanese. It is not clear whether the uprising was encouraged by Japan, butonce started, the rebellion created international problems. Having informed eachother as required by the Li-Ito Convention of 1885, China and Japan sent troops toKorea. Although the revolt was quickly put down, the Chinese and Japanese troops

did not withdraw. Japan proposed the carrying out of joint reforms in Korea. Chinarefused. Then, China planned to appoint a Chinese supervisor over the Korean royalfamily. Japan responded by attacking the Korean palace and capturing the king byforce. On August 1, China and Japan declared war on each other.


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Results of the Sino-Japanese War

A. Treaty of Shimonoseki 1895

1. The recognition of Korea as an independence nation, no longer a vassal-stateunder China. (For the sake of national safety, to satisfy the demands of the Japanesearmy.)2. Formosa, the Pescadores, and the Liaodong Peninsula ceded to Japan. ( For thesake of national safety, to satisfy the demands of the Japanese navy.)3. The opening of Chongqing, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Shashi as treaty ports. (Togain British friendship by giving Britain economic benefits, so that Britain would notraise opposition against the other Japanese gains in the treaty.)4. An indemnity of 200 million taels to be given to Japan within a seven-yearperiod. ( To cover the vast sums of money spent by Japan on the war-efforts, and topromote industrialization in Japan.)5. The rights of Japanese to open factories and set up industries in the treaty ports inChina. Goods manufactured by Japan in China to be free from all taxes. (Toexploit Chinas rich resources for Japans industrial growth.)6. The most-favored-nation clause and extra-territorial privileges given to Japan.(What Japan had aimed to get from China since 1871, to make Japan equal ininternational position with the Western powers, and to gain for Japan what otherpowers enjoyed in China.)

B. Triple Intervention It was six days after the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki that Russia, France

and Germany joined together to inform Japan that the possession of Liaodong wouldendanger the general peace of East Asia. Japan was advised to return the peninsulato China. At first, Japan considered the possibility of ignoring the TripleIntervention. Later, however she feared that further delay and complication wouldresult in more foreign intervention. She thus decided to return Liaodong to China.As compensation, China had to pay 30 million taels more.

Reasons for the Powers interventiona. Russiai. The setbacks in the Crimean War (1854-56) and the Congress of Berlin (1878)made Russia concentrate on expansion in the Far East. But Japans annexationwould challenge Russias interests there.ii. She had for long wanted Liaodong herself, especially Dalian and Port Arthur,which were excellent ice-free ports for Russian ships.iii. Russia wanted to construct the Trans-Siberian Railway through Manchuria andconnected it with a branch from the Liaodong Peninsula.

b. Germany

i. To keep Russia occupied in the Far East so as to reduce Russian pressure inEurope and test the effectiveness of the new Franco-Russian Alliance.


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on the new land were soon covered by her exploitation of the people there.2. Besides, before 1895 Japan stressed the development of light industries becauseshe was in lack of both capital and raw materials. The import of iron ore from Chinaenabled the establishment of a modernized iron and steel factory in 1897. While the

opening of the Chinese market considerably enhanced Japans export to China, whichin turn facilitated the rapid development of Japanese industries. For example,Japans textile industry doubled from 1895 to 1899.

II. On China Political effects1. ReformThe defeat revealed the inefficiency and insufficiency of the SSM which aimed atstrengthening China militarily, and later, economically. The first response of theChinese to foreign challenge was bankrupt. Many Chinese such as Kang Youwei

and Liang Qichao demanded for a more comprehensive reform modeled after MeijiModernization and Gangxuehui was founded. The Reformers then launched theHDR and the LQR.

2. RevolutionThe corruption and inefficiency of the Qing government convinced people like SunYatsen that revolution from below, rather that reform from above, was necessary torescue the Chinese nation. In 1895, Sun staged his first revolutionary uprising inGuangdong.

3. Scramble for ConcessionThe defeat of China by a tiny country revealed the weakness of China. In an age of world-wide imperialistic expansions, the fate of China was sealed. Using theassistance in the Triple Intervention as an excuse, Germany asked China to leaseQingdao as Germanys sphere of influence. When China declined, other powersfollowed suit. From this point of view, the Sino-Japanese War marked the first stepof China becoming a semi-colonial state.

Economic effects --Oppression of Chinese industriesBecause of the most-favored-nation clause, the right to establish factories andindustries in China was enjoyed not only by Japan but all other treaty powers as well.

In this way, China suffered from further economic imperialism. In this way, Chinasuffered from further economic imperialism. The young and weak Chineseindustries could not compete with foreign ones. Economic modernization wasdifficult to carry out.


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To what extent were economic factors responsible for theoutbreak of the first Sino-Japanese War?

The first Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 resulted in a humiliating defeat of China.

It is difficult to put one respect to explain the war, as Beasley said, it is multi-origin.Nonetheless, economic consideration to a large extent should be responsible for thewar.

The Meiji Restoration started in l868 onwards tried to modernize and strengthenJapan. Japan advocated her industrialization immediately by the period of restoration. The government first introduced the strategic industries and later bothheavy industries like shipbuilding and light industries developed too, like textile.Especially the light industries developed rapidly and soundly. Raw materials,therefore was required because of the lack of materials in Japan. Korea, which wasrich in raw materials and was near to Japan, became a desired place for Japan to get

raw materials. However, Korea at that time was isolated from all fore foreigncontact. Korea did not prefer any diplomatic or trading relationship with othercountries. But opening of Korea was benefited to Japan so as to get raw materialsand to be an overseas market for the Japanese manufacture good. Moreover, theproximity of Korea also meant a cheap transportation. That the reasons why Japantried every means to open Korea. Although Japan sent expedition to force the openof Korea, and a Treaty of Kanghwa was signed between Japan and Korea, Japan couldnot completely fulfill her economic desires in Korea. A complete control over Koreawas thus desired by Japan.

Besides provided raw materials, Korea could be market for the influx of Japanese

manufacture goods. Industries developed rapidly in Japan, however, the tradebetween Japan needed some markets overseas. On the other hand, the stability andprogress made by the Meiji government led to a rapid rise of population. Japan gotthe tendency of rising in population from the l9th century onwards, and the densepopulation in small Japan caused a lot of economic problems. For instance, therewas the insufficient farmlands for the increasing population and the capital and cropsproduced by the arable farmland could not keep pace with the increasing population.That's why Japan tried to find some place for her rising population's settlement.Korea, which is so close to Japan, is an ideal place. Also, Korea was a rich ricegrowing countries.

China, since the l840s, gradually became a semi colony of the foreign countries.However, the main interest of the foreigners were in commercial field, i.e. theywanted to establish trade with China. Japan, also wanted to get a share in China'scommercial field. Korea was just a stepping stone for Japan to China. On the otherhand, China wanted to maintain the economically independence of Korea, because anythreat of Korea also meant a threat to China.

To say that the economic factor should be totally responsible for the war is nottrue, as Beasley correctly puts, economic worry of the Japanese was about theprospect rather than reality. The economic development in Japan, compared with the

1920s and 1930s, was not so crucial to both the Japanese and the government. AsE.O. Reischauer points out, businessmen before 1904 did not want expansion nor they


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were interested in Manchuria. The evidence is that Korea only accounted for lessthan 2% of Japans total export. It is obvious that economic parties alone could notexert such a great pressure to the Meiji government to fight a war against the strongestAsian country at that time. To a lesser extent, the Sino-Japanese War was even

caused by other factors.

The geographical position of Korea was one of the important consideration. Itwas dangerous to Japans stability if Korea was controlled by any other powers.Therefore, Japan wanted Korea as far as possible so as to consolidate her ownpolitical stability. As a matter of fact, Japan's interest was not in Korea but in China.Control of Korea could act as a stepping stone to attack China, so Korea wasimportant to Japan in anyway. That's why the Sino-Japanese war was a war foughtover the Korea problem but by China and Japan. To China, Korea was also importantboth because of her proximity and because Korea was the last tribute state of China.

China got over-lordship in Korea and Korea was the most Confucian tribute state.She didn't want to lose Korea. Moreover, according to China, Japan had no right inKorea., so she did not want to compromise with Japan in Korea question. AfterChina's troops were sent to suppress the internal revolts she did not agree to imposeany reforms on Korea together with Japan, and she would not withdraw her troops notuntil Japan herself did so. This conflict led to the outbreak of the war. Furthermore,China cleared that she had the duty to protect Korea from Japan's challenge for Koreawas her tribute state. That's why China went to war with Japan.

On the other hand, China did want to test her ability after the Self-strengthening

movement. Self-strengthening movement started in l860 advocated learning fromthe western military and technological superiority. The armies and navies, werereinforced, reorganized and modernized by the government. Army and navy wasbuilt up in China. China was confident in winning the war as well as because Japanwas once her tribute state, she believed that Japan was inferior.

Japan, on the other hand, also modernized and strengthened her army and navy inwestern line. Japan also wanted to test her ability and the Sino-Japanese Warprovided her a chance to do so. Moreover, after the abolition of feudalism and theintroduction of the universal conscription laws, the former samurai were remaineddiscontented. In l877, there was a Satsuma Rebellion to show their discontentfeeling. Together with the harshness existed in Japan by the industrialization peopleremain discontented. In order to silence the discontented people inside, a war wasavailable and a glorious expansion foreign relationship was useful. This also led towar.

One aim for Japan's modernization was mainly to gain equality and abolished theunequal treaties with the foreigners. The expansionism of Japan was her will to gainequal status with the foreigners. Also it is the outbreak of her nationalism. Of course, we cannot ignore the anti-Chinese feeling in Japan. And the conflict betweenthe Pro-Chinese and Pro-Japanese in Korea contributed to this anti-Chinese feeling.

All in all, economic factors, although an important factor, was not the mostimportant one. Without the accumulation of other hostile factors war would notbreak out just because of the economic factors. Nonetheless, to a large extent it


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caused the war.


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The Russo-Japanese War 1904-5: Causes and significance

The primary reason for Japan to go to war with Russia was to check the Russianexpansion in the Far East, especially Korea and Manchuria. While the

Anglo-Japanese Alliance invited her to further expand and finally led to the outbreak of the war.

A. Causes of the War 1. Russias expansion of power into the Far East and Japans rise as amodern stateRussias eastward advance in the second half of the 19th century met with Japanssuccessful efforts at modernization during the period. Thus conflicts between thetwo countries seemed unavoidable.

2. Triple Intervention as a national humiliation to Japan The Triple Intervention badly affected Russo-Japanese relations. Before Japanreturned Liaodong to China, the Russian felt had twice threatened to attack theJapanese navy. Hatred towards Russia grew quickly in Japan. They regarded it as anational humiliation and revenge was almost inevitable. Nonetheless, shortly afterthe Triple Intervention, the Tenno issued a special prescript calling on his subjects toavoid careless and foolish acts of revenge on Russia. Thus many Japanese felt thatthey must gashin shotan (persevere through hardship for the sake of revenge). Theywere waiting for a chance to teach the Russians a lesson. Some influential militaryofficers, such as Yamagata and Katsura, were famous for their anti-Russian attitude.Japan then accelerated her industrial and military build-up. For example, the number

of Japanese warships increased from 28 (1894) to 76 (1903). Such preparationsundoubtedly strengthened the Japanese attitude towards Russia. A militant spirit wasgrowing in Japan.

3. Imperialist rivalries between Russia and Japan in Korea Although Korea finally became an independent state after the Sino-Japanese War, theexclusive Japanese domination over Korea aroused widespread anti-Japanese feelingsamong many Koreans. Russia cleverly made use of such feelings. Pretending to bea protector of Korean independence, she was able to win over the pro-Russian factionof the Korean Min queen. Between 1896 and 1898, Korean affairs were conductedunder the influence of Russian policy. The Russians, instead of Japanese, gained alot of benefits, including mining rights, rights to the construction of telegraphs, and a25-year lumber monopoly. Russian loans, advisers and military instructors were sentto Korea. This aroused widespread Japanese discontent due to national security andeconomic reasons. It is true that a 1898 agreement stating the non-intervention of Korean affairs was signed between Japan and Russia. Nonetheless, Russia stillexpanded her power in Korea and accordingly a Russo-Korean Bank was set up andRussian soldiers were sent to the Russo-Korean border to undertake military spying.Considering the national security and pressure from patriotic society such as the Black Dragon Society, a strong foreign policy was adopted. After the signing of theAnglo-Japanese Alliance, Japan was regarded as world power and dared enough to

challenge Russia.4. Imperialist rivalries between Russia and Japan in Manchuria


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In Manchuria, Russia and Japan rivaled each other for imperialist interests. In 1896,a Russo-Chinese treaty was signed for the outward purpose of joint defense againstJapan. As rewards, Russia received from China the right to build the ChineseEastern Railway. In 1898, Russia even obtained Port Arthur and Dalian on Liaodong,

the very territories that she forced Japan to return to China in 1895. Also, the SouthManchurian Railway was built to link up the Chinese Eastern Railway with Liaodongnorth-south. Using railways as such, Russia hoped to start a peaceful economicpenetration into North China.The occupation of Manchuria after the Allied Expedition further alarmed Japan.Increasing Russo-Japanese conflicts finally led to war between the two countries in1904.

5. Indirect encouragement by other powers Japan enjoyed the diplomatic backing of the US and of Britain- of the US because theJapanese efforts in checking Russian expansion fitted well with the Americanadvocacy of the Open Door Policy; of Britain because of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.Thus the Japanese government was brave enough to challenge the Russians, even tothe point of war. On the other hand, Germany was glad to see Russia going to warwith Britain or Japan in East Asia. Germanys policy was to encourage Russianaggression in the Far East so that Russia would be preoccupied and would be lessconcerned with Europe. In short, if the other great powers played a more neutral partin the Russo-Japanese conflicts, war between Russia and Japan might still be avoided.

6. Growing pro-war attitude in Russia and JapanFrom 1895 until 1904, Japan gave up active participation in international affairs and

concentrated on building up her military, especially naval, strength. In society,anti-Russian nationalist organizations appeared. For example, one of them, theBlack Dragon Society, advocated military resistance against the Russian expansion.On the Russian side, pro-war statesmen were in control of government and had wonover the Czar by 1903. They believed that an easy victory over Japan would helpstrengthen social support for the declining Czarist rule. War became desirable if notinevitable.

7. Failure of Russia and Japan to reach any peaceful settlement As early was in 1900 the Meiji government, in an attempt to reach a peaceful

with Russia, proposed a solution but was rejected by Russia. In the early 1902,Russias foreign policy in the East Asia even lacked clear and definite goals. As aresult, Russo-Japanese negotiation for a peaceful settlement went badly. There wasmuch misunderstanding between Russia and Japan. In late 1903, communicationswere exchanged between Russia and Japan in quick succession in an attempt to reacha peaceful solution. Russia suggested Japan to create a neutral zone in North Korea.Knowing that this would only leave the Russians in complete control of the region,Japan responded by re-stating her original proposal: Russian domination inManchuria and Japanese control over Korea. By this Russian domination inManchuria, however, Japan only meant that Russia should hold the Manchurianrailways but not all Manchurian territories. Negotiations between the two countries

failed and war became inevitable.


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B. Result: The Treaty of Portsmouth 1905

1. Japans political, military and economic interests in Korea were recognized byRussia.

2. With Chinas approval, the Liaodong leased areas, the South ManchurianRailway, and some mining rights- all of which formerly belonged to Russia weregiven to Japan.3. Both countries agreed to withdraw their troops from Manchuria.4. Chinas national right in and rule over Manchuria were restored.5. The southern half of Sakhalin, which Russia got from Japan in 1875, wasreturned to Japan.6. **No indemnity was to be paid to Japan by Russia.

C. Effects on Japan 1. Raised international position The Russo-Japanese War gave Japan a first class membership among the Westernimperialist powers. It was because she had defeated the largest land power and hadacquired Liaodong, which she had been forced to give up in the Triple Interventionten years ago. It was the first time an Asian country was able to defeat a Europeanpower. As H. Borton points out, though Japan had defeated China in 1894-5, Japanwas still considered by the Western powers as a backward and semi-feudal country.Such an impression was completely altered after 1905.

2. Economic advantages With exclusive control over Korea and easy influence in Manchuria, Japan wouldeasily obtain raw materials, investment opportunities as well a markets for herindustry and trade. This partly explained the industrial prosperity that Japan enjoyedafter 1905. Besides, about 78% of the war expenditure was covered by nation bondsbought by the Japanese or by foreigners, leading to postwar inflation which stimulatedindustrial development then.

3. Rise of Militarism Peter Duus: Japans victory over Russia in 1905 was the take off point of Japaneseimperialism.i. Loss of confidence in the effectiveness of peaceful diplomatic negotiations:Despite the gains that Japan made, the peace treaty aroused much discontent in Japan.Many Japanese did not know how marginal their countrys victory was. Theyconsidered the gains that their country made at the peace conference too small. Forexample, most Japanese expected that Russia should at least pay an indemnity becauseof the 0.5 million casualties in the War. The failure to obtain one from Russia led togreat disappointments. Many Japanese nationalists lost confidence in theeffectiveness of peaceful diplomacy and began to welcome aggressive, militaryactions to advance national interests.ii. Fearful of Russian revenge, the Japanese government decided on further military

build-up after 1905. The large expenses that these programs required, together withthe huge costs of the Russo-Japanese War itself, helped created economic difficulties


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and social disorder in the long run, which indirectly led to the rise of militarism later.For example, the war incurred Japan in huge war-debts, which could not have beenpaid off if the First World War had not broken out.iii. Successes in war strengthened the position and self-confidence of the military

men in Japan.iv. Territorial base for aggression. The territorial gains of Liaodong and Koreaprovided Japan with a base on the Asian mainland for later aggression against China.

4. Japans relations with the western powers was affected as well:i. With Britain: Japans victory over Russia delighted Britain. In August 1905,the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was renewed, two years before its termination. Japanwanted renewal to prevent Russian revenge, and wanted British recognition of herspecial interests in Korea. Britain wanted in return Japans recognition of herinterests in the Yangtze area, Southeast Asia, and India. Thus the scope of therenewed Alliance was extended to cover the Far East and India in general. In 1911,the Alliance was renewed for another ten years.ii. With Russia: in the first place, Japan had blocked the Russian advance and hadeffectively displaced a first class western power in Korea and South Manchuria,leaving Russia only with a foothold in North Manchuria. With the removal of Russian threat in Korea, the way was open for a Russo-Japanese rapprochement. Onthe one hand, the Russian revenge was impossible because of the renewal of theAnglo-Japanese Alliance. On the other hand, Russia turned her interests away fromthe Far East to focus on the Balkans. The two recent enemies soon made friendswith each other. In 1907, a Russo-Japanese convention was signed which, by itssecret clauses, divided Manchuria into a Russian and Japanese sphere of influence.

iii. With the United States: the specula rise of Japan as an imperial power in the FarEast alarmed the United States. America was unhappy with the Japanese gains inSouth Manchuria which was a violation of the Open Door Policy. She also worriedabout the security of her Pacific possession - the Philippines. Consequently in 1905,two arrangements were reached between Japan and the United States. Eachpromised to respect the others possessions in the Far East.iv. With France: France and Japan agreed by treaty to respect each others situationon the Asian continent, especially with respect to their spheres of influence in China.


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Account for the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902and discuss its historical significance

On January 30, 1902, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed and it was a

turning point of Meiji international status. Reasons for the signing of theAnglo-Japanese Alliance 1902 were manifold:

1. Amicable Anglo-Japanese relations really provided a favorablecondition for the alliance Several factors were favorable for a mutual agreement between the two countries.As Beasley said, Britain was regarded by Japan as a tutor in her modernization andthis had helped to create a group in Tokyo that favored closer ties. A number of propagandists had openly advocated the case for alliance. The most important oneshould be Captain Frank who was the owner of the Japan Mail and the Tokyocorrespondent of the Times . Others such as Okuma Shigenbobu shared the samefeeling. Moreover, Britains refusal to join the Triple Intervention in 1895 had donesomething to wipe out the memory of her earlier opposition to treaty revision, whileher giving up of extraterriority in Japan and the effective cooperation between the twocountries during the Boxer Expedition in 1900 were all impressed.

2. Emergence of a common enemy could not be ignored Russia was regarded as the common enemy. During the late 19th century, theRussian advance in the Far East intensified. In 1895, Russia championed the TripleIntervention to force Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China. In 1900, Sheoccupied Manchuria during the Boxer Uprising, and refused to withdraw

notwithstanding international protest. In the meantime, Russia was also active inKorea. Such expansion surely alarmed both Britain and Japan. The former fearedthat her interests in China might be jeopardized if the Russian occupation of Manchuria were proved to be permanent. The latter saw it blocking her best route tothe mainland and also a threat to Korea, especially with the Russian activities in Korea.Hence, an alliance desired to check Russian ambition was desirable to both countries.

3. Japans consideration was another factorSurely, Japan had her own reasons to join with Britain. Firstly, a majorconsideration was to gain an ally to neutralize the Franco-Russian Alliance in theevent of a showdown with Russia. Japan hated Russia very much since the TripleIntervention was a national humiliation to her. But in case of war she would need anally to checkmate Russia to prevent another Triple Intervention. Secondly,although Japan rose as an Asian Power after the Sino-Japanese War, she was stillregarded by many Powers as a semi-feudal and backward country in the world. Tofurther increase her prestige an alliance with the major western power was hencedesirable. Thirdly, there were powerful personalities in the official circle such asYamagata and Katsura who were strongly anti-Russian and desired an ally withBritain. Lastly, there was the failure of Ito to reach an agreement with Russia. Inlate 1901, Ito, the Prime Minister who advocated an alliance with Russia to solve theKorean deadlock, paid a private visit to St. Petersburg but failed to secure any

meaningful concessions from Russia. This being the case, war seemed inevitableand imminent, and an alliance with Britain the more demanding.


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4. Britains consideration was also an important factor:After 1895, Britain was re-considering her Splendid Isolation Policy which had beenin operation since 1823. By 1895, there had already been two hostile blocs in

Europe, namely the Triple Alliance of 1882 and the Dual Alliance of 1894. In theTriple Intervention and the Boer Wars, Britain suffered from her isolation policy andshe felt the danger of being isolated. Hence she tried to break her isolation.Moreover, since Russian monopoly of Korean, Manchuria and Chinese interests wasnothing but a threat to the Sino-British trade and British political influence since theOpium War, Britain urgently needed an ally in the Far East to check the expansion of Russia. The only possibility left at that time was Japan. However, Britain wasapprehensive of a possible Russo-Japanese agreement in the Far East as witnessedfrom Itos visit to Russia. Should this be the case, Britains position in the Far Eastwould be gravely jeopardized. In this circumstances, an alliance with Japan was amust to Britain.

The historical significance of the Alliance is noteworthy:1. Rise of international status of Japan The conclusion of the alliance served to raise the international status of Japan.Having become the leading Asian power after defeating China in 1895, Japan thenrank equal with a major western power. The Alliance indicated that Japanesestrength then became an essential element in the maintenance of naval balance in theFar East. Surely, it indirectly helped Japan in her negotiation for the recovery of tariff autonomy by 1911. Thats why Chitoshi Yanaga stresses that without the helpof the Alliance, Japan could not have possibly achieved the international position that

she enjoyed for the next 45 years.

2. Further expansion of JapanInoue Kiyosu comments that since 1902 Japan had become the watchdog of Britain inthe Far East. Such relations enhanced Japans further expansion. For example, thealliance specifically recognized Japans special interest in Korea which meant Britainquietly endorsed Japans claim to be the only arbiter of Koreas fate. It encouragedJapans annexation of Korea in 1910. Besides, with the support of Britain and afterthe defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan openly took over the Russianspecial rights in south Manchuria without Chinas prior consent. During the FirstWorld War, Japans aggression on China intensified, as evidenced from her seizure of Shandong and the presentation of the Twenty-One Demands. It is thus true to saythat the alliance was an invitation to aggression.

3. Confrontation with Russia The alliance at its outset was an anti-Russian agreement. As Beasley said, it was awarning instead of a provocation to Russia. Japan found that the alliance enabledher to deal with Russia on more equal terms and was then courage enough to foughtwith Russia in 1904. From such point of view, the alliance was a catalyst for theRusso-Japanese War.

4. Growing contacts with other PowersThe alliance was also a warning to France, Russias ally since 1894. In 1907, aFranco-Japanese agreement was reached and it assured mutual respect of each others


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sphere of influence in the Far East. To the United States, the spectacular rise of Japan focused American attention on the security f her Pacific possession- thePhilippines. After 1905 the two countries signed two agreements to define theirmutual interests in the Pacific. In brief, the United States agreed not to interfere with

Japans special interests in Korea and Japan in return, denied any aggressive designson the Philippines. Significantly, the United States began to take Japan in her Pacificconsiderations.


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Was Meiji Japans imperialistic expansion largely unplannedor part of a pre-ordained design?

Before the arrival of Perry in 1853, Japan was still a country that closed its door

to the Western Powers. Within several ten years, it began its expansion- acquiringRyukyus, Formosa, Korea, defeating China and Russia- and turned to be an activeparticipant in colony-seeking in the turn of the century. This generates a greatincentive to have on investigation into this change of Japans foreign policies as wellas the question whether its imperialistic expansion was planned or not. RobertPollard and George Kerrtend to argue that Japans imperialistic expansion in Meiji erahad already been planned while others such as Hyman Kublin and Hilary Conroyargued for the other side. Yet, few of them, if any, try to find out that whetherJapans imperialistic expansion was a natural trend motivated by the concurrentinternal and external circumstances and that the Meiji foreign policy makers, althoughlargely without plan, were working within this natural trend which guided them toimperialistic expansion.

As a matter of fact, the Japanese imperialistic expansion was by and largeunplanned. This can be shown by Japans shifting foreign policies as a result of complicated interaction among domestic politics, foreign policies and internationalcontext. The Japanese inconsistent pattern of activities in Korea suggests that theMeiji oligarchs were without plan. Early in 1873, there was a debate on Seikanronwhich Saigo spoke for to propose a military conquest of Korea that on the one handwas strategically vital to Japan and on the other could provide a outlet for restivesamurai. But Iwakura accentuated that firstly, it was more important to concentrateinto internal construction than to engage in foreign war, secondly, Japan was

unprepared for a war with China, and thirdly, a war between China and Japan, if protracted would weaken and probably destroy Japans modernization and also benefitRussia. In fact, Japans attention as at that time upon treaty revision and soIwakuras group won the debate. Hence, Japans restrained foreign policies towardsKorea which can be examined by the fact that Japans influence in Korea was waningduring 1885-1894. It was only after Yamagata had warned that Russia Asianrailroad building program was a severe menace to Japans national security thatJapans Korean policy stiffened. This split of opinion in the inner circle of Japansforeign policy makers, preoccupation in internal modernization and construction aswell as treaty revision prevented the Meiji oligarchs to have any detailed plan forimperialistic expansion.

It may be apt to say that on the whole, the Meiji oligarchs possessed a basiclong-term aim: to struggle for treaty revision and equal status with the foreign powers.They did not have a concrete plan to schedule when and how to expand, conquer andto annex. This can be seen in Japans unpreparedness after the seizure of Formosa in1895. In fact, the Meiji leaders were realistic and practical enough to insist on thepriority of internal construction in order to achieve the goal of fukoku kyohei and atthe same time to prevent external entanglement if possible. But as Beasleymentioned, although the Meiji oligarchs were firm to maintain what was believed tobe good foreign policies, but sometimes, they had to sanction as much of the extremistpolicies as they could in order to placate critics and pressure on the Meiji government.

The expedition sent to Formosa was one such example. Furthermore, after 1904, thepower of the Genro was gradually weakened by the death of the elder leaders and the


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rise of the second generation leaders such as Kono Hironaka, who were susceptible tothe pressure of public opinion which was led by political activist and demanded theMeiji government to pursue a stiffen foreign policy. This fluctuation of Japansforeign policies which was largely a reflection of changing domestic politics was a

vindication of the fact that Meiji Japans expansion was without plan.As Meiji Japans imperialistic expansion was largely unprepared, is it possiblethat the Meiji statesmen at that time were circumstance by internal and internationalsituation and trend which anyone in office could not diverge from the road toexpansion? in reality, traditional concern about national security and expansion,fundamental requirement to expand, current focus or the existing international context,long-term political objectives as well as tactics can be regarded as elementscontributed to this trend.

Although not Tokugawa foreign policy, there had been an intellectual currenturging territorial expansion. Sato argued for a global imperialism in which allcountries \would come under Japans Shinto influence. The most influential one wasYoshida who advocated territorial expansion as a Heavenly task against Westernencroachment. They actually engendered a messianic conflict of the Japanese whowere given a sense of superiority to their less-favored neighbors as well as sacreddestiny of expansion. During the Meiji era, there were also Fukuzawa who thoughtthat in the existing international jungle where strong devoured weak. Japan had theresponsibility to protect East Asian countries and to reconstruct them against Westernimperialism even by means of invasion into these countries as well as Okakura whoargued that Japans national mission was to help and to reconstruct its neighboringcountries and to form a single mighty web against Western aggression. This doesnot mean that this intellectual trend guided Meiji foreign policies. Yet, it did create a

tremendous public opinion which demanded for a strong foreign policy. Althoughthe oligarchs were shielded by constitution from pressure of public opinion, theysometimes had to sanction their demands in order to avoid over-alienation of thepublic and to placate opposition. This is especially valid because the Meijigovernment was founded on the ideological basis of sonno-joi which the governmenthad achieved the former one but was still unable to achieve the latter.

The Meiji leaders had to take domestic demands into account. This may beexplained by Akiras thesis stating that the Meiji leaders always had a sense of insecurity which was rooted in traditional fear of shifting loyalties by theself-alienating elite, and this fear was intensified by quick transformation of Japansnational life during the Meiji era. On top of that, this fear could be projected oninternational level. The above mentioned psychological factor was furthercomplicated by geopolitical background: Korea as a question of national security,and the economic factors. Korea was regarded by Japan as a dagger pointing toJapans heart and because of its geographical proximity, if it was occupied by thewestern powers, it would jeopardize Japans security. Yamagata even stated clearlyin 1888 that they had to keep Korea free of danger of occupation by one of the greatnations of Europe. The Meiji oligarchs had to keep continuous concern about Koreawith regard to Japans national security. On the other hand, economic factor,although not a determinant of Meiji Japans foreign policy, has also to be mentioned.It is obvious that overseas expansion could provide a solution to Japans urgent need

for financial and economic resources for internal modernization. Meanwhile, thefulfillment of these needs was facilitated by the fundamental requirement: militaryestablishment or Army and Navy building.


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Someone may argues that Meiji Japan was an authoritarian state and theoligarchs possessed excruciatingly great power. They could plan for imperialisticaggression without fear. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that there was also divisionand internal rivalry between groups within the decision-making circle. Different

men in the dominant position would have different timing and pace in foreign policiesas well as instruments in handling foreign questions. Yet, they had a common point-being statesmen in office, they had to take up opinion and to grant limited concessionsto the people in foreign policy in order to prevent over-alienation from the mass, theyhad to pay attention to Japans national security and to be concerned with Japans lineof interests, They might not have a plan to guide them to extend Japans territorialpossession via aggression but had to follow the road circumscribed by thecircumstances- a trend toward territorial expansion.

This circumstance-thesis can also be proved by the Meiji oligarchs long termobjective to gain equal footing with the Western powers and international context.The Japanese regarded Western Powers looking down them, as symbolized by theunequal treaties, as humiliation. For a long time, they tried their very best to strugglefor equal status with the Western Powers o the one hand via legal reform andnegotiation to terminate unequal treaties, and on the other hand to prove to theWestern Powers that it was as strong as them. It is clear that their actions wereinfluenced by their perception of international interaction which was handled by mightat that time. After the Sino-Japanese War, the Meiji statesmen became aware thatinternational problems could be settled by force. The Triple Intervention in 1895and the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-5 further confirmed this conviction. This wasbecause it was a period in which the Western imperialist powers struggle to gaincolonial possession intensified that Japan had to follow suit in order to gain the

recognition of equal status.In a nutshell, Meiji Japans imperialistic expansion was largely unplanned. TheMeiji oligarchs did have a long term objective to struggle for the attainment of equalfooting and even as a world power. Yet, there is no evidence showing that theforeign policy makers had detailed schedule which guided them to engage inimperialist expansion step by step. The foreign policies of Meiji Japan were by andlarge a response of an interweaving between domestic and international circumstances.These two specific forces at that specific time pushed the wheel of Japans foreignpolicies toward imperialistic expansion and the Meiji oligarchs, though havingauthoritarian power, had to do the job.


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Account for Japans imperialistic activities in the late 19thcentury

With the country practicing isolationism prior to the period and territorial and

economic expansion hereafter, the Meiji Restoration could be deemed as the turningpoint in Japans history. The imperialistic activities in the 19th centuries includedthe expansion of Japan influences in Formosa, Pescadores, Ryukyu Islands, Fujian aswell as Korea. We can see that China was the target of expansion, or exploitation.She fell as the victim of Japanese expansionist policy, not only because of theexposure of her weakness in numerous defeats, but in virtue of the fact that it offereda convenient territory for its neighbors ambition as well. As W.G. Beasley pointsout, the origin of Japanese imperialism was a matter of blind elephant, that we canexplain in different aspects.

Nationalism is without doubt a key to understand the 19th century Japaneseexpansionism. For centuries, the Japanese were disciplined by their religious andphilosophical belief in Shintoism. In 1889 the importance of this was openlyconfirmed when it was declared in the Article I and III of the Meiji Constitution as thestate religion. Generally speaking Shintoism contains three vital elements, includinga religious devotion to the throne, a belief in the divine sacrifice for the state, as wellas the concept of the superiority of the Japanese race. The deep-seated allegiance tothe Shinto religion meant an unquestioning obedience to the Tenno. Thus, it was notsurprising to see the outburst of patriotism among the emotional Japanese, theyobeyed the divine edicts of patriotism willing to sacrifice their lives for the cause of the country. Nonetheless, the nationalistic feeling was restricted at the outset to the

ruling class, in particular the samurai and the daimyo. Not until the educationalreform in the 1880s, when Shintoism was used as a basis of indoctrination, did itbecome widespread. When the humiliation in the form of intrusion of theWesterners and the signing of unequal treaties at gunpoint went beyond the tolerationof the Japanese, national consciousness or patriotism spread further wider. TheSat-Cho clans tried to expel the foreigners and abolish the unilateral treaties, but asthe endeavor failed the patriotic spirit turned into imitation of whatever useful of theWest and the adoption of an imperialistic attitude towards China. That is whatBeasley called the effect of Treaty port system, in which on the one hand Japansuffered from the Western treaty port imperialism, on the other hand the patrioticfeeling made them believe that by means of imposing unequal treaties to the inferiorcountries could bring her national glory.

Furthermore, the Sino-Japanese War was partly the outcome of Ito Hirobumisintention to rally the cabinet and the Diet by utilizing the overwhelming supportedprinciple of nationalism expressed in terms of imperialism. Therefore, one can saythat nationalism was a momentous force diving the Japanese to employ animperialistic policy towards China.

Other factors such as political, military, strategic and economic, wereconditioned by this spirit. Without this driving force at back they were insignificantand they in turn sponsored the expansion. First it included the setting of a

constitutional government and the introduction of Western political concepts. TheWestern concept injected new elements into the political thought of the Meiji leaders.


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Apart from this, different parties emerged. Nonetheless, this adoption and copyingof democratic politics from the West was superficial and conformed to the pureutilitarian thought of the Japanese authority. Their only real intention was to win theesteem of the Western countries and get Japan accepted as equal Yet, without any

previous experiences, this first attempt at setting up a modern government soon gaverise to various difficulties and confusion. Those so-called political parties, in reality,comprised personal followers of a few individuals, such as Okuma Shigenobu andItagaki Taisuke, who were held together by the personality of the part head, ratherthan by a belief in any common set of public policies. Owing to this individualisticnature, a constant struggle between the clan leaders in the cabinet and the partiescontrolling the House of Representatives occurred in the years from 1889 to 1894.This dissension undermined the overall unity of the government, but the spirit of patriotism remained intact, In order to ease his struggle with the radicals and tobring the cabinet and the Diet together, Ito, the conservative party head and the PrimeMinister of 1890, decided to launch the Korean campaign. Political rivalry at homewas cleverly exported abroad in the form of imperialism through the channel of national consciousness. Afterwards, the Korean issue led to a war with China, andthis helped bridge the gap in the government.

On the other hand, although large-scale reforms in the army and navy, whichmade the island country become militarily stronger in a short time, were initiatedpurely out of the fear of being colonized by the Westerners, the anti-treaty feeling andthe feeling of being regarded as unequal by the Western powers urged the Japanese todemonstrate their strength by competing with the Western aims in China. Theoverwhelming participation of the Japanese in the suppression of the Boxer Uprising

in China showed this obviously. And actually, military success in the Sino-JapaneseWar also stimulated their imperialistic policy towards China.

On top of that, Japans going to war with China on the Korean question was due,partly, to its strategic condition. The Japanese thought they could take over byaggression the surrounding Ryukyu Islands, Formosa and Korea, and thus build uptheir line of security. For this strategy, the position of the Korean peninsula wasespecially important. It assumed the shape of a dagger pointing at the heart of Japan.If it was occupied by a rival, the safety of the Japanese would be in danger. On thecontrary, if it was occupied by Japan itself, it would serve as a stepping stone for thesmall modernizing state to conquer Manchuria and China. Hence, in order to get ridof its strategic weakness, Japan took up an imperialistic policy towards China.

Lastly, following Hobson and Lenins contention that imperialism is always aresult of capitalism, economic reasons also played a role in promoting Japan to beimperialistic. In order to pension off the declassed samurai to implement variouseconomic reforms, a huge sum of money was needed. Aside from this,. the tariff, asstated in the unequal treaties, favoring the Westerners, was another economic problemof Japan. The financial difficulties were aggravated as the Japanese, with theintention of ending all the unequal treaties as soon as possible, took a rapid butabnormal trend of economic development. In consequence, despite the loans from

abroad, Japan had to expand territory and economically into its neighboring countriesfor capital and resources.


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2In conclusion, to account for Japans imperialism in the late ninetieth century, the

particular background and the inherent spirit of the people should be considered.Nonetheless, without the strategic weakness and the political backwardness of Japanin the period under review as well as the inherent patriotic nature of the Japanese, the

process of modernization certainly could not have gone so far as to meet the countryto adopt so drastic a measure as military and economic expansion.

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Chapter3MeijiExpansion [Unlocked by com