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CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Process of WritingWriting is the process of expressing ideas
from the writer to the reader; the reader understands what the
writer means in his writing. According to Teitelbaun (1996), there
are eight stages in writing process they are: Targeting, Gathering
Information, Brainstorming, Filtering Organizing, Drafting,
Revising, and Finalizing.First, targeting is the process of
determining who will be the audience of the writing text. If you
are writing, you are writing to do something and you cannot
accomplish that purpose without keeping it clearly in your mind.
Second, gathering information is the process of getting information
related to the topic which will be written. The different sources
of information are useful for different purposes and the writer
need to choose sources wisely. Third, brainstorming is the process
of generating as many ideas as possible without worrying the ideas
are good or not, the writer can make decision about the ideas which
will be written later. Fourth, filtering is the process of looking
what ideas which will be written based on ideas in brainstorming
process. Fifth, organizing is the process of grouping ideas related
to each part of ideas which will be written. Sixth, drafting is the
process of selecting ideas which will be written. Seventh, revising
is the process of going back over the draft and improving it, it
thus producing a new draft. In this section, there are two useful
strategies can be done by the writer, the writer get comments from
other people on the draft and put it down for a day or two and then
reread it. Last, finalizing is the process of dealing the detail of
grammar, mechanics, and format of the writing.Writing is the
process of transferring idea in written. In other opinion, Reid
(1994: 14) says that the processes of writing paragraph are as
follows:1. Choosing a subject2. Identifying the audience3.
Narrowing the subject to a topic.4. Collecting some ideas about the
topic5. Listing details about some most important one you want to
communicate6. Stating the main idea of paragraph.7. Writing the
paragraph by using the detail listed 8. Limiting the ideas into the
most important ones.For the writers are important to take a note
that writing is a process not a product. This means that writing is
never complete; that is, it is always possible to review and revise
and review and revise again. Alice (1999: 3) states that the
writing processes are as follows:Stage I: PrewritingStep 1:
Choosing and narrowing a topicStep 2: BrainstormingStage II: The
Writing Process Planning (Outlining) -Step 1: Making Sub-listsStep
2: Writing the topic sentenceStep 3: OutliningStage III: The
Writing Process Writing and Revising Draft Step 1: Writing the
first rough draftStep 2: Revising content and organizationStep 3:
Proofreading the second draftStep 4: Writing the final copy to hand
it Stages In Writing
3. Writing2. OrganizingGetting Ideas
5. Editing4. Revising
Sharing Feedback Sharing FeedbackIn addition, Langan (1988:
22-34) asserts that writing has some of stages to build written
form effectively, as follows:1. Pre writingPre writing is first
stage in writing process and it is as a way to think on paper and
to gradually discovery just what ideas you want to develop. Pre
writing that stage will help you to think, develop a topic and get
word on paper. There some techniques that writer uses in prewriting
like: free writing, questioning, make a list and preparing a
scratch outline and important thing that by pre writing, the writer
free to write something based on their ideas. According to Oshima
and Hogue (1999:3) in pre writing will focus not only in choosing
and narrowing the topic, the writer free to choose the topic and
after that they must narrow it, but also in pre writing writer can
generate ideas based on that topic. In pre writing, there are three
techniques to brainstorm the ideas namely: Listing is brainstorming
techniques in which you think about topic quickly make a list of
whatever word or phrases come into mind. Second, Free Writing is a
brainstorming technique activity that writes freely about the
topic. The purpose of free writing is to generate as many ideas as
possible and to write without worrying about appropriateness,
grammar, spelling, logic, and organization and writer more free to
writing down their ideas. Third, Clustering is another
brainstorming activity that you generate ideas about the topic by
drawing a balloon around it.2. Writing a draftIn writing a draft,
the writer should prepare to put in additional thought and detail
that did not emerge during pre writing. Thought writing a draft,
the writer can complete what they not show in prom pre writing.3.
RevisingRevising is a much stage in writing process as pre writing,
outlining and going the first draft. Revising mean rewriting a
paper on what has already done. It means that rewriting is one of
way to revise the written form to correct grammar, spelling,
vocabulary, punctuation and all things. By revising, the write will
fix the mistakes and errors from what they write. Furthermore,
according to Sudiyarto (2007: 149) revising and editing a paper is
the next step you will do after the writing process is completed.
There are three main areas that writer should pay attention in
revising the written form, they are:a. Content and OrganizationYou
have to make sure that:1) The introduction is interesting and it
explain what the paper is about2) The introduction contains a clear
thesis statement3) The body of the paper is organized in a logical
way4) You do not write anything which is irrelevant to your topic5)
You have explained all your ideas clearly6) The conclusion,
synthesizes and clarifies important information and reinforces the
thesis statementb. StyleYou have to check that:1) All paragraphs
are well-developed2) You use variety of ways to begin your
paragraph to avoid boring repetition3) Each paragraph has one topic
sentence in it all paragraph are well-connected by the appropriate
transitional sentences4) All the word your use are correct and
convey you meaning clearly5) You avoid using too many words without
specific and concrete meaning, such as it, someone, and everyone.6)
You use the correct grammar7) You use the correct pronunciation8)
All the words are spelled correctlyc. FormatYou have to ensure
that:1) Your paper has the correct margins, spacing, heading and
sections2) You have followed the correct guidelines for typing3)
You include all necessary parts, as required( including abstract
and table of contain)Clearly, writing is a kind of communication
through written text. In the process of this communication, the
writer should be able to consider the person who will be the reader
and how to make the written text easy to read and
understandable.Writing is not an easy work to do, since in writing,
the writers are expected to understand many indicator in order to
make communicative writing and understandable. According to Brown
(1994: 342-343) there are six indicators which will be investigated
in writing it is content, organization, discourse, syntax,
vocabulary and mechanic. On the other hand, Jacobs (1981: 90) said
that there are five components of writing. First, content; he
applies several descriptors: knowledgeable, substantive, through
development of thesis, and relevant to assigned topic. Second,
organization; he applies six descriptors: fluent expression, ideas
clearly stated or supported, succinct, well organize, logical
sequencing, and cohesive. Third, vocabulary; he also states
vocabulary into four descriptors; sophisticated range; effective
word/idiom choice and usage; word form mastery; appropriate
register. Fourth, language Use; consist of eight descriptors:
effective complex construction; few error of agreement, tense,
number, word order/ function, articles, pronouns, preparation. The
last one is mechanics; described about demonstrates mastery of
conventions, few error of spellings, punctuations, capitalization,
paragraphing and handwriting. Bellow are the categories of scoring
these aspects are:Table 2:Indicator and score of writing based on
jacob
CONTENT
ScoreLevelCriteria
30-27Excellent to Very Good: knowledgeable; substantive;
thorough development of thesis; relevant to assigned topic
26-22Good to Average: some knowledge of subject; adequate range;
limited development of thesis; mostly relevant to topic, but lacks
detail
21-17Fair to Poor: limited knowledge of subject; little
substance; inadequate development of topic
16-13Very Poor: does not show knowledge of subject;
non-substantive; not pertinent; or not enough to evaluate
ORGANIZATIONScoreLevelCriteria
20-18Excellent to Very Good: fluent expression; ideas clearly
stated/supported; succinct; well organized; logical sequencing;
cohesive
17-14Good to Average: somewhat choppy; loosely organized but
main ideas stand out; limited support; logical but incomplete
sequencing
13-10Fair to Poor: non-fluent; ideas confused or disconnected;
lacks logical sequencing and development
9-7Very Poor: does not communicate; no organization; or not
enough to evaluate
VOCABULARYScoreLevelCriteria
20-18Excellent to Very Good: sophisticated range; effective
word/idiom choice and usage; word form mastery; appropriate
register
17-14Good to Average: adequate range; occasional errors of
word/idiom form; choice; usage but meaning not obscured
13-10Fair to Poor: limited range; frequent errors of word/form;
choice usage; meaning confused or obscured
9-7Very Poor: essentially translation; little knowledge of
English vocabulary; idioms, word form, or not enough to
evaluate
LANGUAGE
USEScoreLevelCriteria
25-22Excellent to Very Good: effective complex construction; few
errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles,
pronouns, prepositions
21-18Good to Average: effective but simple construction; minor
problems in complex constructions; several errors of agreement,
tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns,
prepositions but meaning seldom obscured
17-11Fair to Poor: major problems in simple/complex
constructions; frequent errors of negations, agreement, tense,
number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions
and/or fragments, run-ons, deletions; meaning confused or
obscured
10-5Very Poor: virtually no mastery of sentence construction
rules; dominated by errors; doesnt communicate, or not enough to
evaluate
MECHANICSScoreLevelCriteria
5Excellent to Very Good: demonstrates mastery of conventions;
few errors of spelling, punctuations, capitalizations,
paragraphing
4Good to Average: occasional errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalizations, paragraphing, but meaning not obscured
3Fair to Poor: frequent errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalizations, paragraphing, poor handwriting, meaning confused
or obscured
2Very Poor: no mastery of conventions; dominated by errors of
spelling, punctuation, capitalizations, paragraphing, handwriting
illegible; or not enough to evaluate
(Quoted from: Jacobs, L. Holly. Testing ESL Composition: A
Practical Approach. London: Prentice Hall. 1981: 90)
B. Product OrrientiedAccording to Harmer (2008: 325) product
orriented means that the main thing to be focussed in laerning is
product rather than the process of writing itself. Compositions
were to supported to (a) meet certain standards of prescribed
English rhetorical style (b) reflect accurate grammar, and (c) be
organized in conformity with what the audience would consider to be
conventional. A good deal of attention was placed on model
compositions that students would emulate and on how well a students
final product measured up against a list of criteria that included
content, organization, vocabulary use, grammatical use, and
mechanical considerations such as spelling and punctuation.
C. The purpose of writing The following are four general writing
purposes and one can join two or more in a piece of writing:0. To
informTo inform someone of something is the most common purpose.
This kind of writing is also called informative writing.
Informative writing focuses on the readers attention upon the
objective world, object, events, and ideas, not dealing with
feeling or attitudes toward them, examples: news account,
encyclopedia articles, laboratory and scientific reports, textbook,
articles in professional journals, etc.0. To express
yourself,Expressing writing emphasizes on the writers feelings and
reactions to the world: people, object, event and ideas, examples
of expressing writing are diaries, personal letters.0. To
persuade.In persuasive writing the writer persuades someone to
believe or to do something. This writing aims to sway the readers
opinion or attitudes, arouse the reader to action or bring about a
particular response. Persuasive writing depends much upon the use
of evidence and logical reasoning, examples of this writing are,
advertisement, political speeches and editorial
0. To entertainThis writing is only meant to entertain the
reader. The writer tries to attract the reader attention and makes
them forgetting their problems. This writing brings the reader to
other world. Examples of this writing are fictions, comedies,
comics and anecdotes.
D. Written CompetenceCommunicating in written language requires
different understanding about the contexts of situation i n which
written style is used. This style is usually used when people do
not have the opportunity to meet and talk; they do not share the
contexts of situation; there are things that are not recoverable so
that nearly everything has to be written down. A fiction such as
Harry Potter is a good example of how contexts of situation are
described in great details. This poses a great challenge in English
education in this country especially because the government
regulation says that school graduates are expected to be able to
write in English (Depdiknas 2005).According to Brown (1994:325)
some characteristics of written language, there are:a.
PermanenceOnce something is written down and delivered in its final
form to its intended audience, the writer abdicates a certain
power: power to emend, to clarify, to withdraw. That prospect is
the single most significant contributor to making writing a very
scary operation. Student writers often feel that the act of
releasing a written work to an instructor is not unlike putting
yourself in front of a firing squad. Therefore, whatever to can do
as a teacher and guide and facilitator to help your students revise
and ravine their work before final submission will help to give
them confidence in their work.b. Production timeThe good news is
that, give appropriate stretches of time, a writer can indeed
become a good writer by developing efficient processes for achieve
and student writing within time limits, or writing for display as
noted in the previous section (examination writing, for example).
So, one of your goals, especially if you are teaching in an EAP
context, would be to train your students to make the possible use
of such time limitations. This may mean sacrificing some process
time, bit with sufficient training in process writing, combined
with practice in display writing, you can help your students to
deal with time limitations.c. DistanceOne of the thorniest problems
writer face is anticipating their audience. That anticipation
ranges from general audience character to how specific words and
phrase and sentences and paragraphs are going to be empathy, in
that good writers can read their own writing from the perspective
of the mind of the targeted audience. Writers need to be able to
predict the audiences general knowledge, cultural and literary
schemata, specific subject-matter knowledge, and very importantly,
how their choice of language will be interpreted.d.
OrthographyEverything from simple greetings to extremely complex
ideas are captured thorough the manipulation of a few dozen letters
and other written symbols. Sometimes we take for granted the
mastering of the mechanics of English writing by our students. If
students are non-literate in the native language, you must begin at
the very beginning with fundamentals of reading and writing.e.
ComplexityThe complexity of written as opposed to spoken-language
was illustrated. Writer must learn how to remove redundancy (which
may not jibe with their first language rhetorical tradition). How
to combine sentences, how to make references to other elements in a
text, how to create syntactic and lexical variety, and much more.
f. VocabularyWriting places a heavier on vocabulary use than does
speaking. Good writer will learn to take advantage of the richness
of English vocabulary.g. FormalityWhether a students is filling out
a questionnaire or writing a full blown essay, the conventions of
each form must be followed. For ESL students, the most difficult
and complex convention occur in academic writing where students
have to learn how to describe, explain, compare, contrast,
illustrate, defend, criticize, and argue.1. Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is the examination of language use by members of
a speech community. It involves looking at both language form and
language functions and includes the study of both spoken
interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic features
that characterize different genres as well social and cultural
factors that aid in our interpretation and understanding of
different texts and types of talk. A discourse analysis of written
texts might include a study of topic development and cohesion
across the sentences, while an analysis of spoken language might
focus on these aspects plus turn taking practices, opening and
closing sequences of social encounters, or narrative structure.The
study of discourse has developed in a variety of disciplines
sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology.
Thus discourse analysis takes different theoretical perspectives
and analytic approaches: speech act theory interactional
sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication, pragmatics,
conversation analysis, and variation analysis. Although each
approach emphasizes different aspects of language use, they all
view language as social interaction. This digest focuses on the
application of discourse analysis to second language teaching and
learning. It provides examples of how teachers can improve their
teaching practices by investigating actual language use both in and
out of the classroom, and how students can learn language through
exposure to different types of discourse. (Douglas: 2011)2. The
Concept Genre Based ApproachThere are three concepts of Genre Based
Approach in language teaching (Rozimela in Emil, 2007) namely
English for Specific Purpose (ESP), North American Rhetoric Studies
and Australian Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). However,
Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) concept has a great influence
toward teaching English as a foreign language setting in Indonesia.
Genre Based Approach based on SFL was firstly developed in
Australia and now is adapted in CBC. Christie in Emil (2007) says
that genre should be explicitly taught and learned in order that
the students have the control of appropriate written genres. In
other words, the teachers should be aware of their ways in
teaching. Sometimes the teachers should create situations in which
students can reinvent the wheel of a genre (Coe in Emil,
2007).Related to this, Christie in Emil (2005) states that the
teachers should give various kinds of genres to the students in
language teaching and learning process. By using various kinds of
genres the teachers can guide the students better when they learn.
Furthermore, Refnaldi (2005) says that by using valued genres, the
teachers provide the students with an explicit of linguistic
choices, both within and beyond the sentences. Genre-Based Approach
acknowledges that writing takes place in social situation and
reflects a particular purpose and that learning can happen
consciously through imitation and analysis that facilitates
explicit instruction. This approach also gives an understanding how
different text requires different structure. Genre-Based Approach
in teaching and learning process expects the students to be able to
identify the form of genre with the different social function,
generic structure and lexico grammatical features.There are number
of definitions regarding communicative competence. But the
communicative competence model offered by Celce- Murcia et. al. (in
Depdiknas, 2003) has been chosen as the model delineating what it
is that the learners need to achieve at the end of program. Celce-
Murcia et. al. suggest that in order to communicate effectively in
a language, one needs to possess linguistic competence,
socio-cultural competence, actional competence strategic
competence, and ultimately, discourse competence (Depdiknas: 2003).
The schema of communicative competence according to Celce-Murcia
et. al. as follows (Depdiknas: 2003)Figure 1 : Model of
Communicative Competence According to Celce-Murcia et. al
Following Celce-Murcia et. al., the ultimate communicative
competence is discourse competence. Having discourse competence
means being able to participate in communication or being able to
participate in the creation of text because communicating (orally
or written) is creating texts in different context (Depdiknas:
2003). Communicative competence according to Savignon in Getreda
Yosmi (2008) that should be achieved by language learners are:a.
Linguistic competence is the mastery of linguistic code, the
ability touse the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language.b.
Sociolinguistic competence knows how to use and respond to language
appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships
among the people communicating. It requires an understanding of
social context in which language is used.c. Discourse competence is
the ability to interpret to interpret a series of sentence and the
larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so
that the parts make up a coherent whole.d. Strategic competence
knows how to recognize and fix communication breakdowns, how to
work around gaps in ones knowledge of the language, and how to
learn more about the language and in the context. It is strategies
that one uses to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules.In the
early stages of language learning, teacher and students may want to
keep in mind the goal of communicative efficiency: That learners
should be able to make themselves understood, using their current
proficiency to the fullest. The students acquire language
proficiency by learning the language and use it to communicate
whether in written and also spoken form.Generally, in teaching
English, especially in using GBA, teachers usually encounter with
constraints when talking about communicative competence. These
constraint includes: (1) the strategy how to make the students
speak up, (2) how to make them understand a reading text easily,
and (3) how to make them write a short text correctly. Hopefully
teachers are able to plan an effective instructional materials,
implemented it in language teaching, and the all the goals are
achieved by the students.3. The Genre-Based Approach in Teaching
WritingDerewianka (1990) have identified four stages, named the
Curriculum Cycle, through which a particular text type can be made
explicit to students. The four stages of the Curriculum Cycle are:
Stage (1) developing control of the genre, Stage (2) Modeling the
text type, Stage (3) Joint construction, Stage (4) Independent
Construction of text.Cope and Kalantzis (in Yan, 2004) propose
three phases in Genre-Based approach in teaching writing. First,
the target genre is modeled for the students. Second, the teacher
and students jointly construct a text. Each student independently
constructs the last, a text. Meanwhile, Yan (2004) modified six
teaching writing procedures based on genre approach model:
a. PreparationThe teacher begins preparing the students to write
by defining a situation that will require a written text and
placing it within a specific genre, such as a persuasive essay
arguing for or against an issue of current interest. This
activities the schemata and allows students to anticipate the
structural features of this genre.b. Modeling and reinforcingIn
this step the teacher introduces a model of the genre and lets
students consider the social purpose of the text, including who the
audience will be. Next, the teacher discuses how the text is
structured and how its organization develops to accomplish its
purpose. The students may do some comparisons with order texts to
reinforce what they have learned about the particular genre.c.
PlanningIn this step the teacher introduced a model of the genre
and lets students schemata about the topic, including
brainstorming, discussing, and reading a associated material. The
aim is to help the students develop and interest in the topic by
relating it to their experience.d. Joint constructingDuring this
step, which will facilitate later independent composing, the
teacher and students work together to begin writing a text. While
doing so, the teacher uses the writing processes of brainstorming,
drafting and revising. The students contribute information and
ideas, and the teacher writes the generated text on the blackboard
or computer. The final draft provides a model for students to refer
to whom they work on their individual compositions.e. Independent
constructingAt this point students have examined model text and
have jointly constructed a text in the genre. They now undertake
the task of composing their own text on a related topic. Class time
can be set-aside for students to compose independently so that the
teacher is available to help, clarify, or consult about the
process. The writing task can be continued as a homework
assignment.f. RevisingStudents eventually will have a draft that
wills undergo final revision and editing. This does not necessarily
mean that teachers have to collect all the papers and mark them one
by one, students may check, discuss, and evaluate their work with
follow students, as the teacher again guides and facilitates. The
teacher may make an effort to publish the students work, which will
impart a sense of achievement and motivate the students to become
better writers.According to Derewianka (1994), the Genre-Based
Approach suggests that students should be familiarized with the
genre before they can write appropriately in it. So, a typical
writing lesson includes three phases: deconstruction, joint
construction and independent constructions. At the deconstruction
phase, the teacher provides a model text and leads students to an
understanding of the purpose and features of the genre through
exposure to exploration of the text. At the joint construction
phase, the teacher provides a topic for the class to write
collaboratively in the chose genre. Here, teachers still guides
while the students take a more active part in the learning
activity. Independent construction is the phase where students have
a more complete sense of ownership of their composition because
they plan and write all by themselves. It is an opportunity for
students to apply their built-up knowledge and to exploit the genre
with more confidence. Clearly, each phase helps the students move
towards a deeper understanding and greater control of the chose
genre. When necessary, the class can return to deconstruction after
independent construction so that the phase forms a cycle.Each genre
is likely to develop different aspects of a pupils linguistic
competence; work in each genre is likely to enable each pupil to
demonstrate particular achievements and development needs; working
on a variety of genres, help teachers to address a broad range of
the aims of the English curriculum (Jon Davison and Jane Dawson,
1998:135-136)4. The Teaching Writing in Curriculum CycleThe
teaching learning process is an interaction between the teachers
and the students which have some components namely goal, students
and teachers, materials, methods and evaluation. This process will
be successful when all the components support each other. Other
components such a curriculum, infrastructure and environment also
influence whether the students are successful or not in teaching
learning process.Based on this reason, Depdiknas tries to increase
the result of teaching learning by doing the revision of the
curriculum. Therefore, Depdiknas has applied the teaching learning
process by using two cycles and changing the use of class into
grade. There are some theories related to this application that was
proposed by Hammond et.al, Martin and Susan Feez. From the three
theories related to the application of teaching learning cycle
based on Genre Approach, the researcher chooses the theories
teaching learning cycle proposed by Hammond et.al to be applied in
teaching learning process to increase students writing competence.
It has similar ideas and the same objectives related to the new
curriculum (KTSP). Besides, Genre-based approach is used in this
theory. Based on Helena in Hammond et al (2004), classroom
programming based on four stages and two cycles which are aimed at
providing support for learner as they move from spoken to written
texts. The four stages are:Stage one: Building the Context or Field
of the topic or text typeStage two: Modeling of the Genre under
focusStage three: Joint Construction of TextStage four: Independent
Construction of the TextIn the classroom, however, the division of
the cycle into stages is not always the same. When one stage is
considered complicated, this stage can take longer time than the
rest. The proposed table is as follows:
Figure 2 : Cycles and Stages of Learning The following table
describes the cycle of teaching learning (Depdiknas, 2004):
However, teachers may begin the steps at any point depending on the
students need. Hammond et.al in Depdiknas states there are two
cycles in teaching learning as follows:a. Oral CycleIn this cycle,
the teaching learning focuses on oral form but written form is
allowed to do. There are four steps in oral form as follows:
1) Building Knowledge of FieldAt this first stage, the teachers
build the background knowledge of the students. For example, they
will write a text of fried noodle. Teachers invite the students to
participate by using vocabularies needed in producing the text,
using nouns, conjunctions and structures. The student may use other
words out of the topic enlarge their vocabularies. Both the
students and the teachers also have a class discussion and talk
about the expression used in the text such as giving instruction,
introducing, giving information or opinion and also lexico
grammatical features related to the topic being discussed. Another
activity is sharing ideas or experiences with the students. 2)
Modeling of TextAt this stage, the teachers introduce a model of a
text of conversation and ask the students to find the concept of
genre based on the text or conversation. Teachers will use some
English features like imperative, modals, introduce transactional
conversation and interpersonal conversation. They also invite the
students to read the text or present the conversation in front of
the class. So, in reading conversation the students also listen and
speak. Besides comprehending the meaning of the text, reading
focuses on comprehending the function of the text and structure.
Furthermore, a teacher introduces generic structures of the text
whether they are recount, narrative, descriptive, report or
procedure and lexico grammatical feature of the text.3) Join
Construction of TextAt this stage, the students work in group or in
pairs to make a conversation or simple text. They will have a class
discussion and the teacher will lead them. Therefore, the teacher
and the students develop the text together and share the ideas. It
is expected that their knowledge at first stage will lead them to
create a new text or modify them into similar text or into new
form. While sharing ideas with the students, the teacher also
discuss about schematic structure and lexica grammatical features
in constructing the text. 4) Independent Construction of Text
Finally, the teachers let the students create a text or
conversation individually. They may find a new topic that they want
effectively. Teacher suggests the students to use knowledge that
they get on previous stages. After preparing the text, the students
present their work and the teachers lead them how to present the
text correctly in front of the class. b. Written CycleIn this
cycle, the teaching learning process focuses on written form. After
mastering the oral form, the students will learn the written form.
Some steps of written cycles are:
1) Building Knowledge of FieldAt this first stage, the teachers
build the students knowledge and review the previous topic. Both
teachers and the students also talk about structure and relevant
vocabularies in written form. 2) Modeling of TextAt this stage, the
students are introduced to the text in written form. Both the
teachers and the students may have a class discussion and talk
about the kinds of the text whether they are narrative, recount or
descriptive text. 3) Joint Construction of TextAfter giving of a
model, the teachers ask the students to make the first draft of the
text. The ideas can be experiencing, doing brainstorming or reading
magazine or newspaper. The topics are free for every group. There
some steps of doing a text in JCOT: a) Collect the ideas, for
example identification, then description, or orientation, first
event, second event, then orientation. However, it depends on the
text types. b) Check all of the information including time, action
arrangement, conjunction and place.c) Determine the sentence to
express detail informationd) Arrange the words on good coherence
paragraphe) Check the choosing word and tenses4) Independent
Construction of Text Finally, the students will make a text by
themselves or work independently. They may ask the teacher when
they find problems to make the text in written form based on the
genre they have learned.
E. Teaching Written In Junior High SchoolIn the process of
teaching writing, teachers no longer merely concern with the text
produced by the students but also how this text has been produced.
Finachiarro and Bonomo (1973) argue that the teacher in teaching
writing should teach: (1) The sound spelling correspondences, (2)
The mechanics of the writing, (3) Letter of writing, formal or
informal, (4) Practical, functional writing, outlining,
summarizing, (5) The organization and the expression of the idea,
(6) The differences between speaking and writing.According to
Reimes (1983), in producing a piece of writing, a writer has to
deal with context, syntax, mechanics, organization, word choice,
purpose, audience, and the writing processes. Meanwhile, writing
process involves four steps: getting ideas, getting started,
writing drafts and revising.Similarly, Nation (1989) proposes an
approach by looking at the skills being involved in process, and to
define the sub skills as stages in the process. The writing process
contains gathering ideas, organizing ideas, write ideas to text and
then reviewing.In teaching writing, Nunan (1999) mentions two
different views that can be seen by the teacher toward students
writing. They are product approach and process approach. The
product approach means the writing focused on the final result of
the writing; letter composition, essay, letter, story and so on.
The teachers will see outcome is readable, grammatically correct,
and obeys discourse convention such as main topics, supporting
details.While in the process approach, the writing focuses on the
means of the final product created. The teacher will start out by
viewing the ideas that redefined, develop, and transformed. And
motivation plays such as an important role in the process. The
students have to have motivation to carry out the product of
writing well. In English curriculum, Kurikulum Tingkat
SatuanPendidikan (2006), for Junior high school, writing is placed
in the fourth skill which has to be mastered by the students. For
year ten students of Junior high school, the standard of
competencies for writing is expressing meaning in short functional
text and simple essay in the form of narrative, descriptive and
recount daily life context.The basic competencies are:a. Expressing
meaning in form of short functional text (for example announcement,
advertisement, invitation, etc.) formal or informal accurately,
fluently and acceptable by using various written form in daily life
context.b. Expressing meaning and rhetorical stages in simple essay
accurately, fluently and acceptable in daily life context in form
of narrative, descriptive and recount text type.
While, the activities done in writing are:a. To make an
announcement individually and publish it.b. To make narrative, news
or descriptive text draft by doing chain writing a paragraph that
illustrates something.c. To conduct peer correction to review the
draft.d. To rewrite the reviewed-draft.
The indicators of the above competences are:a. Using reported
speech sentences to deliver news.b. Using simple present tense to
make a description.c. Using adverbial clause in writing a
narration.d. Producing narrative text.e. Producing description
text.
The process of teaching learning of English at the Junior High
School focuses on the students ability to communicate in daily
lives. So the students are demanded to apply their knowledge into
real life. For grade eight of the Junior High School, the students
have to understand the text and use it in real situation. In KTSP,
learning a language is started with oral to written form where each
cycle consists of four steps; Building Knowledge of the Field
(BKoF), Modeling of Text (MoT), Joint Construction of Text (JCoT),
and Independent Construction of Text (ICoT). For grade eight of the
Junior High School use type of genre, consist of: Descriptive text,
narrative text, recount text and the focus of the research is
descriptive textand below one of the lessons planthe learned from
descriptive text in junior high school.
1. The Nature of Text and ContextThere are three variables
belonging to context of situation namely field, tenor and mode
(Halliday, 1985: 24). Fields indicates the types of activity in
which a text operates its context and ideas. Tenor handles the
status and role relationship of the participants, while mode is
concerned with the channel of communication whether it is spoken or
written. These three contexts of situation variables determine the
chosen language style and lexis. The context of culture determines
the place where the functioned language occurs. This context then
produces genres in which types of genres will be varied within
culture where the language is functioned. In short, this context
leads the functioned language in classification of genres.Figure 3.
The Relationship of Text and Context
CULTUREGenre
SITUATIONWho is involved(Tenor)Subject Matter Chanel (Mode)
(Field)REGISTER
TEXT
(Taken From Depdiknas: 2004)It can be concluded that text is
language that is functioned. The functioned language is then
realized through two contexts, context of situation and context of
culture. The context of situation regards to situations where the
language is realized in which it is determined by three variables,
namely field, tenor and mode. Further, the context of situation can
be specified through register, the variation of language that
occurs in the variation of context of situation itself.2. Type of
genre
Several definitions of the concept of genre as it is used in the
area of language teaching and learning have been presented. Martin
in Refnaldi quoted from ulfatmi (2012:14) defines genre as a
goal-oriented, staged social process. Genre are social processes
because members of a culture interact to achieve them; they are
goal-oriented because they have evolved to achieve things; and
staged because meanings are made in steps and it usually takes
writers more than one step to reach their goals. Besides that Nunan
in his book Language Teaching Methodology (1991: 44) states that
the term genre refers to a purposeful socially-constructed,
communicative event.Genres also have accompanying schematic or
generic structures, that is, typical beginning, middle, and end.
Thus, genres are staged, culturally purposeful activities that, as
Jim Martin argue users of a language draw on to get things done.
Examples of genres examined in this perspective include recounts,
procedures, reports, narratives, descriptions, expositions, and
observations, that is, descriptions of the texts that emphasize the
stages through which they move to achieve their particular goal.
Following to (Depdiknas: 2003) there are kind of genre in
curriculum from Junior High School until Senior High
school.GENRESOCIALFUNCTIONGENERIC STRUCTURESIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICALFEATURE
RECOUNTTo retell eventsfor the purposeof informing
orentertaining
Orientation: providesthe setting andintroduces participants
Events: tell whathappened, in whatsequence.
Re-orientation:optional-closure ofevents Focus on
specificParticipants Use of materialprocesses Circumstances of
timeand place Use of past tense Focus on temporalsequence.
REPORT
To describe theway things are,with referenceto a range
ofnatural, manmadeand socialphenomena inourenvironment.
General classification:tells what thephenomenon underdiscussion
is. Description tells whatthe phenomenon underdiscussion is like
interms of (1) parts, (2)qualities, (3) habits orbehaviors, if
living; uses,if non-natural.Focus on GenericParticipants. Use of
RelationalProcesses to state whatis and that which it is. Use of
simple presenttense (unless extinct). No temporal sequence.
DISCUSSION
To present (atleast) twopoints of viewabout an issue.
Issue:- Statement- Preview Arguments for andagainst or Statement
ofdiffering points ofview.- Point- Elaboration Conclusion
orRecommendation.
Focus on generichuman and generic nonhumanParticipants. Use of:-
Material Processes,e.g. has produced,have developed, tofeed.-
Relational Processes,e.g., is, could have,cause, are.
GENRESOCIAL FUNCTION GENERIC STRUCTURESIGNIFICANT
LEXICOGRAMATICALFEATURE
- Mental Processes, e.g.,feel. Use of Comparative:contrastive
andConsequentialconjunctions. Reasoning expressed asverbs and nouns
(abstraction).
EXPLANATIONTo explain theprocessesinvolved in theformation
orworkings ofnatural orsocio culturalPhenomena.
A general statement toposition the reader. A
sequencedexplanation of why orhow something occurs.
Focus on generic, nonhumanParticipants. Use mainly of
Materialand RelationalProcesses. Use mainly of temporaland
causalCircumstances andConjunctions. Some use of Passivevoice to
get Themeright.
EXPOSTIONTo persuade thereader orlistener thatsomething s
thecase.
ThesisPosition: Introducestopic and indicateswritersposition.
Preview:Outlines the mainarguments to bepresented. ArgumentsPoint:
restates mainarguments outlined inPreview. Elaboration:develops and
supportseach Point/argument Reiteration: restates writers
position.Focus on generichuman and non-humanParticipants. Use of
simple presenttense. Use of RelationalProcesses. Use of
Internalconjunction to stateargument Reasoning throughCausal
Conjunction ornominalization.
NEWS
ITEMTo informreaders,listeners orviewers aboutevents of theday
which areconsiderednewsworthy orimportant
Newsworthy Event(s):recounts the event insummary form Background
Events:elaborate whathappened, to whom, inwhat circumstances.
Sources: comments byparticipants in,witnesses to andauthorities
expert onthe event.
Short, telegraphicinformation about storycaptured in headline.
Use of Material Processesto retell the event(in the text below,
manyof the Material Processesare nominalised). Use of projecting
VerbalProcesses in Sourcesstage. Focus on Circumstances(e.g. mostly
withinQualifiers).
GENRE
SOCIAL FUNCTION
GENERIC STRUCTURE
SIGNIFICANT LEXICOGRAMATICALFEATURE
EXPOSITIONHARTATORYExposition(Hortatory)To persuade thereader
orlistener thatsomethingshould orshould not bethe case.
Thesis: announcementof issue concern. Arguments: reasons
forconcern, leading torecommendation. Recommendation:statement of
whatought or ought not tohappen.
Focus on generichuman and non-humanParticipants, except
forspeaker or writerreferring to self. Use of:- Mental Processes:
tostate what writerthinks or feels aboutissue, e.g. realize,feel,
appreciate.- Material Processes:to state whathappens, e.g.,
ispolluting, drive,travel, spend, shouldbe treated.- Relational
Processes:to state what is orshould be, e.g.,doesnt seem to
havebeen, is Use of simple presentTense
ANECDOTETo share withothers anaccount of anunusual
oramusingincident.
Abstract: signals theretelling of an unusualincident.
Orientation: sets thescene. Crisis: provides detailsof the unusual
incident Reaction: reaction tocrises Coda: optional -reflection on
orevaluation of theincident.Use of exclamations,rhetorical
questions andintensifiers (really, very,quite, etc.) to point upthe
significance of theevents. Use of material Processesto tell
whathappened. Use of temporalconjunctions.
NARRATIVETo amuse,entertain and todeal with actualor
vicariousexperience indifferent ways;Narratives dealwith
Orientation: sets thescene and introducesthe participants.
Evaluation: a steppingback to evaluate theplight. Complication: a
crisisarises. Resolution: the crisis isresolved, for better orfor
worse. Re-orientation: Focus on specific andusually
individualizedParticipants. Use of Material Processes(and in this
text,Behavioral and VerbalProcesses. Use of RelationalProcesses and
MentalProcesses. Use of temporalconjunctions and
GENRE
SOCIAL FUNCTION
GENERIC STRUCTURE
SIGNIFICANT LEXICOGRAMATICALFEATURE
problematiceventswhich lead to acrisis or turningpoint of
somekind, which inturn finds aresolution.optional
temporal Circumstances. Use of past tense.
PROCEDURETo describe howsomething isaccomplishedthrough
asequence ofactions or steps.
Goal Materials (not requiredfor all Proceduraltexts). Steps 1-n
(i.e., Goalfollowed by a series ofsteps oriented toachieving the
Goal).
Focus on generalizedhuman agents. Use of simple presenttense,
often Imperative. Use mainly of temporalconjunctions (ornumbering
to indicatesequence). Use mainly of MaterialProcesses.
DESCRITIONTo describe aparticularperson, place
orthing.Identification:Identifies phenomenonto be described.
Description: describesparts, qualities,characteristics.Focus on
specificParticipants Use of Attributive andIdentifying Processes.
Frequent use of Epithetsand Classifiers innominal groups. Use of
simple present tense
REVIEWTo critiquean art work,event for apublicaudience.
Suchworks of artincludemovies, TVshows,books,
plays,operas,recordings,exhibitions,concerts andballets.
Orientation: places thework in its general andparticular
context,often by comparing itwith others of its kindor through
analoguewith a non-art objector event. Interpretive
Recount:summaries the plotand/or provides anaccount of how
thereviewed rendition ofthe work came intobeing; is optional, butif
present, oftenrecursive. Evaluation: providesan evaluation of
thework and/or itsperformance orFocus on ParticularParticipants.
Direct expression ofoptions through use ofAttitudinal Epithets
innominal groups ;qualitative Attributesand Affective
MentalProcesses. Use of elaborating andextending clause andgroup
complexes topackage the information. Use of metaphoricallanguage
(e.g., The witwas there, dexterouslyping ponged to and fro
GENRE
SOCIAL FUNCTION
GENERIC STRUCTURE
SIGNIFICANT LEXICOGRAMATICALFEATURE
production; is usuallyrecursive. Evaluative Summation:provides a
kind ofpunch line which sumsup the reviewersopinion of the artevent
as a whole; isoptional.
The eight grade Junior High School students are required to
understand well the following genres: Recount, Descriptive, and
Narrative. Each genre has different social function, generic
structure and significance features. The following are the social
purposes, schematic structures and lexico grammatical features of
Recount, Descriptive, and Narrative. a. Recount1) Social FunctionTo
retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining.2)
Generic structure:a) Orientation: provides the setting and
introduces participants.b) Events: tell what happened, in what
sequence.c) Re-orientation: optional-closure of events.3)
Significant Lexico grammatical Featuresa) Focus on specific
participantsb) Use of material processesc) Circumstances of time
and placed) Use of past tensee) Focus on temporal sequenceb.
Descriptive1) Social FunctionTo describe a particular person, place
or thing.2) Generic structure:a) Identification: identifies
phenomenon to be described.b) Description: describes parts,
qualities, characteristics3) Significant Lexico Grammatical
Featuresa) Focus on specific participantsb) Use of attributive and
identifying processes c) Frequent use of epithets and classifiers
in nominal groups. d) Use of simple present tensec. Narrative1)
Social FunctionTo amuse, entertain and to deal with actual or
vicarious experience in different ways; narratives deal with
problematic events which lead to a crisis or turning point of some
kind, which it turn finds a resolution. 2) Generic structure:a)
Orientation: sets the scene and introduces the participants.b)
Evaluation: a stepping back to evaluate the plightc) Complication:
a crisis arisesd) Resolution: the crisis is resolved, for better or
for worse.e) Re-orientation: optional.3) Significant Lexico
Grammatical Featuresa) Focus on specific and usually individualized
participantsb) Use of material processes c) Use of relational
processes, and mental processes.d) Use of temporal conjunctions,
and temporal circumstances. e) Use of past tense.From the three
genres above, the researcher chooses only one genre in this study
that is recount text, because of limited time to do this
research.
F. Relevance StudiesThere have been some researchers studying
genre based in the language learning classroom. A study was
conducted by Darmansyah (2011) found that the teachers tend to use
several modeling activities in joint construction phase: it was
also found that there is a significant shift in the focus of
teaching writing using the Genre Based Approach and the other
written procedure or approach previously used.Suparno (2010)
studied the implementation of Genre-based Approach at MTsN
Kalijambe Sragen. The objective of the current study is to describe
the teaching learning process at MTsN Kalijambe Sragen using
Genre-based Approach. The result of this research shows in the
learning objectives, model of syllabus, the material of teaching,
the classroom procedure, classroom activities and the problem faced
by the teacher. The goal of teaching English is to enable the
students in understanding English as means of communication and
active in practicing English. The classroom procedure consists of
two patterns. The first patterns are BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT. The
second patterns are BKOF, MOT, and ICOT. The classroom activities
consist of the activities during BKOF, namely asking question and
giving explanation. The activity during MOT is giving model text.
The activity during JCOT is group work and the activities during
ICOT are giving task in the classroom and giving the task as
homework. The writer also found the problems faced by the teacher,
namely lack of students activity, student vocabulary and
pronunciation, different capability of the student, difficulties in
managing the class, and the lack of time. The teacher of MTsN
Kalijambe Sragen does not always use the stages of Genre-based
Approach in teaching English.Fatmawati (2009) described the
learning cycle of Genre-based Approach in teaching writing,
clarifying the teacher and student roles of Genre-based Approach in
teaching writing, and explaining the problems faced by the teacher
in implementing the Genre-based Approach in teaching writing. The
result of the research shows that the learning cycle of classroom
teaching learning process the teacher applies written cycle, The
problems faced by the teacher in BKOF are the passive students and
students ability in under average, MOT such as the students have
difficulty to understand the teachers explanation. However, they do
not care the teachers instruction and passively in responding. In
short the students have difficulty to focus and concentrate on
teaching learning process. The problems faced by the teacher in
JCOT are unclear elaboration of the teacher, no correction from the
teacher in students worksheet, and waiting for friends work. In
ICOT the problems faced by the teacher are not maintaining the time
allotment and students irresponsibly in conducting.Ribeiro (2006)
has also studied about Effectiveness of Genre-Based Approach in
Graduate School telling that the teacher must possess not only
textual and knowledge, but also social and cultural knowledge, and
this may be difficult to acquire if the instructor does not use
that genre often or has never used it. The reality found by the
writer rather deviates with the ideal that the teacher often ignore
both of correlating the text to the social context and involving
students experience in process of teaching and learning.
G. Conceptual frame workBased on the fundamental concept from
this research, researcher thought that it was necessary to describe
the framework of this study. It can be drown up as follows:
TeacherStudents
Four stagesTeaching writing process
BKOF
Teaching writing through Genre Based Approach
MOT
JCOTTeacher teaching writing based on kind of the text
ICOT
Students writing skill
New English about Curriculum that we called KTSP is implemented
to answer the unsastifactory result of the previous curriculum in
English teaching and learning context. Therefore, Genre Based
Approach is regarded approriete to be implemented in English
teaching. Consequenly, a reserach about the Uncertainty in The
Teaching and Laerning Process of Writing at Junior High School 9
Solok Selatan. The procedure leraning activity were: teacher
explain the students to knpw basic theory of the genres of text:
Recount, Descriptive, and Narrative, to be able to analyze the
social function, schematic structure and significant grammatical
patterns of texts and to be able to write texts based on genres
consist of four stage BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT. Finally, the
researcher will found the answer research question.
H. Hypothesis Hypothesis of this research is students ability in
writing descriptive text is low because the teacher didnt use the
appropriate method in teaching.
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