Political Institutions
Levels of GovernancePolitical Institutions
Unitary SystemGovernment has authority over all lower levels
of governmentAuthority may be granted to the lower
government but power resides in the central government
Lower level governments have no power granted them by a Constitution
Federal SystemsLower level governments are granted authority
by the constitutionPower cannot be taken away from the lower
levels
Advantages to the Federal System
Logistically advantageous for large countriesAccommodate regional differencesReduce tensions in regions given to social,
ethnic, and religious conflict
Disadvantages to the Federal System
Lack of uniformityPossible reinforcement of social divisions
ConfederationAffiliation of two or more statesNo strong central governmentMember states retain a great deal of sovereigntyExample: European Union
DevolutionCharacteristic of a unitary systemTransfer of power from a central government to
the lower levels
Political InstitutionsExecutive and Legislative Systems
LegislaturesUnicameral
Single Chamber
BicameralDifferent chambers for different classes
Common feature of federalism, one house is regional represented
Duties of the LegislatureLegislating
Authorizing taxes and government spendingSelection, Approval, and Removal of Government
OfficialsOversight of the Executive
Parliamentary SystemPrime Minister is the head of government
Removed by national elections Legislature vote of no confidence
Monarch or President is the head of stateLargely ceremonial but may be electedVery little real power
Other Important Terms:Party Discipline: following directions of party
leadersOpposition/Shadow Government
Parliamentary SystemAdvantages
Efficiency in passing legislation
fusion of power
Accountability for Voters
Reward/punish those in office
DisadvantagesInstability
Esp w/coalitions
Hasty DecisionConcentration of Power
Presidential SystemDirectly elected president
President serves as both head of state and government—no prime minister
Powerful, and cannot be removed other than by impeachment or election
Not beholden to legislatureCan weaken party as candidates focus on winning
one single election versus coalition building and working up the ranks
Presidential SystemAdvantages
Check on Majority Rule
Less likely to ‘undo’ legislation
National MandateOnly nationally elected
officeNational support for policies
DisadvantagesDifficult to Remove
GridlockUnable to pass legislation
Creeping Authoritarianism
Concentration in the office of the presidency over
time
Semipresidential System
Combination of two systemsPrime minister who is charged with domestic
policyDirectly elected president who sets broader agenda and foreign relations, national security
Russia, South Korea, Taiwan
Benefits of Each
Benefits and downsides of a parliamentary system?
Of a presidential system?Semipresidentialism?Remember—this completely unconnected from
the kind of electoral system used for legislatureCould have president with PR to elect legislature
Political InstitutionsElections and Electoral Systems
Participation: Voting and Elections
Central to liberal democracySuffrage: right to vote
Age, ethnicity/race, income? Obligatory, voluntary?
Electoral systems: How do we count votes? How do we waste votes?Single Member District (SMD)Proportional Representation (PR)
Single-Member Districts (SMD)
Electoral system used in minority of democratic countries, including US, Canada, Great Britain
Constituencies as single-member districts: only one seat being contested per district
Numerous candidates compete; voters cast ballots for one individual
Candidate with plurality (largest share) wins seat. “First past the post”
May not be a majority! Majority of votes could be “wasted”—not be cast for the winner!
Effects of Single-Member Districts (SMD)
Large number of votes may be wastedShare of seats may not reflect the share of votes
wonSmall parties tend to do badly, unable to gain
first place in single member districtsResult is a two party system—people unwilling to
vote for small partiesOne alternative is to have two rounds or other
mechanisms to ensure majority
Proportional Representation: Multimember Districts
System used by majority of liberal democraciesAttempts to make proportion of votes reflect
number of seats won in the legislatureVoters cast vote for a party (not a candidate)
that competes in multimember districtsVotes are tallied and seats divided by the
percentage gained by each party
Effects of Proportional Representation: Multimember Districts
Fewer votes wasted—small parties can win seatsElections not centered on individuals, as in SMDParties control who will fill seats for their party,
increasing party disciplineMany more parties in legislature—may lead to
coalition government (no one party has majority of seats)
Which Is the More Democratic System?
Attractions of SMD? Drawbacks?Attractions of PR? Drawbacks?Which is more democratic?
Participation?Efficiency?
Mixed Electoral SystemSome countries use both SMD and PR: Germany,
Japan, Mexico, othersSome seats in legislature elected by one system
and some by the otherVoters get a dual ballot—cast vote for a single
member district and for a partyCan split your vote between two parties, save PR
vote for smaller party, SMD for larger one!
Electoral System and Executive-Legislative Relations
Parliamentary systems with SMDs less likely to have multiple parties
PR in parliamentary systems make coalition governments more likely
Electoral system and executive system not connected—independent of each other
Referendum and InitiativeNational ballot on an issueReferendum: top-down, binding on governmentInitiative: bottom-up, binding on governmentCountries vary greatly in how these are used
US and Canada: no constitutional provision Switzerland: very common
T
Political Institutions nondemocratic regimes and governance
Origins of Nondemocratic Rule
War, occupation, imperialism Poorly drawn bordersUneven modernizationWeak autonomy and capacityInternational support for nondemocratic regimes
Culture and Nondemocratic Rule
Culture rather than ideology shapes authoritarianism
Political culture: social roadmap for politicsDemocracy as a Western product
ChristianitySecularism IndividualismNational identity and nation-state
Not universal?
Figure 6-1 TAXATION, 2005
Outside of the West
Non-Western cultures less receptive to democracy?
Islam: tight connection between religion and state?
“Asian Values”: Confucian emphasis on community over individual?
Western democracy may appear anarchic, selfish in comparison!
Problems with the Cultural Argument
Critics argue that democracy can spreadNot limited by cultural barriersAsian values: but spread of democracy to much
of Asia in 1990s!Confucianism, Islam can each be interpreted
differently
Nondemocratic and Political Control
How do nondemocratic regimes stay in power?
Coercion and SurveillanceCooptationPersonality CultsLegitimacy?
Coercion and Surveillance
Means of controlObservation, use of forceTargeted harassment, torture, killingsInculcation of fear necessarySecret police as political tool to enforce
Cooptation
Bringing individuals into an organization and forming a relationship
Dependency on organizationCooptation is present in democracies,
widespread in nondemocratic system
Methods of CooptationCorporatism
Limited number of state-sanctioned organizations No private organizations allowed Organizations connected directly to state
Clientelism Less structured method Public exchanges political support for specific favors or
benefits Rent-Seeking: parts of state “rented out” to supporters
Kleptocracy: rule by theft
Personality Cults
Promotion of image of leader above mortal qualitiesExtraordinary wisdom and powerQuasi-religious qualitiesUse of media to portray this imageAll failings ascribed to “lesser” people below him
or herTerror: no one willing to that leader is fallible?
Can a Non-democratic Rule be Legitimate?
Accepted form of GovernmentYes—charisma (Mao)Yes—tradition (monarchs)Yes—rationality (rule by unelected “experts”)
Types of Nondemocratic Rule
Personal and Monarchical RuleMilitary RuleOne-Party RuleTheocracyIlliberal/Hybrid Regimes
Types of Nondemocratic RulePersonal and Monarchical RuleOne person alone is fit to rulePatrimonialism: ruler depends on collection of
supporters in the state who gain direct benefits from that rule
Military RuleMilitary seizes control of state: coup d’etatOften justified as a temporary moveOften lacks a specific ideology
Types of Nondemocratic Rule
One-party RuleSingle political party monopolizes power, and
other parties banned or excluded from powerBenefits given to party members in return for
supportLeadership uses the party to mobilize and
spread propaganda as needed
Types of Nondemocratic Rule
Theocracy “Rule by God,” Faith is the foundation for the political regimeIlliberal/Hybrid Regimes Possess democratic mechanisms, but weakly institutionalized Executives typically hold tremendous power Democratic processes not well respected Subject to sudden changes, arbitrary withdrawal Media under state control State institutions under direct control of government (politicized)
Figure 6-2 AUTHORITARIANISM IN DECLINE, 1977–2007
Political InstitutionsPolitical Parties and Bureaucratic Systems
Types of Party SystemsOne Party
Single partyOne party generate support from the governmentNon competitiveExample: China’s CCP
One Party-DominantLarge party controls the political systemSmall parties may exist but not competitiveExample: Mexico’s PRI
Types of Party SystemsTwo Party Systems
Two parties compete for the majority of controlSmaller parties play no role in the electoral
outcomeExample: UK
Multiparty systemsSeveral important political partiesNone gain a majority in the legislatureExample: Iran and Nigeria
Unelected Institutions in Government
BureaucracyPart of the executive responsible for the
implementation of government policyTasks of the Bureaucracy
Implementation of laws and policyAgenda setting and advising on policy specifics Interpretation of existing but vague lawsPolicy creation
Unelected Institutions in Government
OrganizationCabinet departments/ministriescivil service/ civil servants
MilitaryHierarchy Implements policyCivilian vs. government control
Judiciary Judicial Independence: degree to which freedom
exists from the other branchesCivil Law System: statutes and codesCommon Law: judges interpret law, setting precedentRule of Law: constitution Judicial Review: rule on the constitutionality of
governmental policies Constitutional judicial review Statutory judicial review