Political Institutions

Political Institutions

Levels of GovernancePolitical Institutions

Unitary SystemGovernment has authority over all lower levels

of governmentAuthority may be granted to the lower

government but power resides in the central government

Lower level governments have no power granted them by a Constitution

Federal SystemsLower level governments are granted authority

by the constitutionPower cannot be taken away from the lower

levels

Advantages to the Federal System

Logistically advantageous for large countriesAccommodate regional differencesReduce tensions in regions given to social,

ethnic, and religious conflict

Disadvantages to the Federal System

Lack of uniformityPossible reinforcement of social divisions

ConfederationAffiliation of two or more statesNo strong central governmentMember states retain a great deal of sovereigntyExample: European Union

DevolutionCharacteristic of a unitary systemTransfer of power from a central government to

the lower levels

Political InstitutionsExecutive and Legislative Systems

LegislaturesUnicameral

Single Chamber

BicameralDifferent chambers for different classes

Common feature of federalism, one house is regional represented

Duties of the LegislatureLegislating

Authorizing taxes and government spendingSelection, Approval, and Removal of Government

OfficialsOversight of the Executive

Parliamentary SystemPrime Minister is the head of government

Removed by national elections Legislature vote of no confidence

Monarch or President is the head of stateLargely ceremonial but may be electedVery little real power

Other Important Terms:Party Discipline: following directions of party

leadersOpposition/Shadow Government

Parliamentary SystemAdvantages

Efficiency in passing legislation

fusion of power

Accountability for Voters

Reward/punish those in office

DisadvantagesInstability

Esp w/coalitions

Hasty DecisionConcentration of Power

Presidential SystemDirectly elected president

President serves as both head of state and government—no prime minister

Powerful, and cannot be removed other than by impeachment or election

Not beholden to legislatureCan weaken party as candidates focus on winning

one single election versus coalition building and working up the ranks

Presidential SystemAdvantages

Check on Majority Rule

Less likely to ‘undo’ legislation

National MandateOnly nationally elected

officeNational support for policies

DisadvantagesDifficult to Remove

GridlockUnable to pass legislation

Creeping Authoritarianism

Concentration in the office of the presidency over

time

Semipresidential System

Combination of two systemsPrime minister who is charged with domestic

policyDirectly elected president who sets broader agenda and foreign relations, national security

Russia, South Korea, Taiwan

Benefits of Each

Benefits and downsides of a parliamentary system?

Of a presidential system?Semipresidentialism?Remember—this completely unconnected from

the kind of electoral system used for legislatureCould have president with PR to elect legislature

Political InstitutionsElections and Electoral Systems

Participation: Voting and Elections

Central to liberal democracySuffrage: right to vote

Age, ethnicity/race, income? Obligatory, voluntary?

Electoral systems: How do we count votes? How do we waste votes?Single Member District (SMD)Proportional Representation (PR)

Single-Member Districts (SMD)

Electoral system used in minority of democratic countries, including US, Canada, Great Britain

Constituencies as single-member districts: only one seat being contested per district

Numerous candidates compete; voters cast ballots for one individual

Candidate with plurality (largest share) wins seat. “First past the post”

May not be a majority! Majority of votes could be “wasted”—not be cast for the winner!

Effects of Single-Member Districts (SMD)

Large number of votes may be wastedShare of seats may not reflect the share of votes

wonSmall parties tend to do badly, unable to gain

first place in single member districtsResult is a two party system—people unwilling to

vote for small partiesOne alternative is to have two rounds or other

mechanisms to ensure majority

Proportional Representation: Multimember Districts

System used by majority of liberal democraciesAttempts to make proportion of votes reflect

number of seats won in the legislatureVoters cast vote for a party (not a candidate)

that competes in multimember districtsVotes are tallied and seats divided by the

percentage gained by each party

Effects of Proportional Representation: Multimember Districts

Fewer votes wasted—small parties can win seatsElections not centered on individuals, as in SMDParties control who will fill seats for their party,

increasing party disciplineMany more parties in legislature—may lead to

coalition government (no one party has majority of seats)

Which Is the More Democratic System?

Attractions of SMD? Drawbacks?Attractions of PR? Drawbacks?Which is more democratic?

Participation?Efficiency?

Mixed Electoral SystemSome countries use both SMD and PR: Germany,

Japan, Mexico, othersSome seats in legislature elected by one system

and some by the otherVoters get a dual ballot—cast vote for a single

member district and for a partyCan split your vote between two parties, save PR

vote for smaller party, SMD for larger one!

Electoral System and Executive-Legislative Relations

Parliamentary systems with SMDs less likely to have multiple parties

PR in parliamentary systems make coalition governments more likely

Electoral system and executive system not connected—independent of each other

Referendum and InitiativeNational ballot on an issueReferendum: top-down, binding on governmentInitiative: bottom-up, binding on governmentCountries vary greatly in how these are used

US and Canada: no constitutional provision Switzerland: very common

T

Political Institutions nondemocratic regimes and governance

Origins of Nondemocratic Rule

War, occupation, imperialism Poorly drawn bordersUneven modernizationWeak autonomy and capacityInternational support for nondemocratic regimes

Culture and Nondemocratic Rule

Culture rather than ideology shapes authoritarianism

Political culture: social roadmap for politicsDemocracy as a Western product

ChristianitySecularism IndividualismNational identity and nation-state

Not universal?

Figure 6-1 TAXATION, 2005

Outside of the West

Non-Western cultures less receptive to democracy?

Islam: tight connection between religion and state?

“Asian Values”: Confucian emphasis on community over individual?

Western democracy may appear anarchic, selfish in comparison!

Problems with the Cultural Argument

Critics argue that democracy can spreadNot limited by cultural barriersAsian values: but spread of democracy to much

of Asia in 1990s!Confucianism, Islam can each be interpreted

differently

Nondemocratic and Political Control

How do nondemocratic regimes stay in power?

Coercion and SurveillanceCooptationPersonality CultsLegitimacy?

Coercion and Surveillance

Means of controlObservation, use of forceTargeted harassment, torture, killingsInculcation of fear necessarySecret police as political tool to enforce

Cooptation

Bringing individuals into an organization and forming a relationship

Dependency on organizationCooptation is present in democracies,

widespread in nondemocratic system

Methods of CooptationCorporatism

Limited number of state-sanctioned organizations No private organizations allowed Organizations connected directly to state

Clientelism Less structured method Public exchanges political support for specific favors or

benefits Rent-Seeking: parts of state “rented out” to supporters

Kleptocracy: rule by theft

Personality Cults

Promotion of image of leader above mortal qualitiesExtraordinary wisdom and powerQuasi-religious qualitiesUse of media to portray this imageAll failings ascribed to “lesser” people below him

or herTerror: no one willing to that leader is fallible?

Can a Non-democratic Rule be Legitimate?

Accepted form of GovernmentYes—charisma (Mao)Yes—tradition (monarchs)Yes—rationality (rule by unelected “experts”)

Types of Nondemocratic Rule

Personal and Monarchical RuleMilitary RuleOne-Party RuleTheocracyIlliberal/Hybrid Regimes

Types of Nondemocratic RulePersonal and Monarchical RuleOne person alone is fit to rulePatrimonialism: ruler depends on collection of

supporters in the state who gain direct benefits from that rule

Military RuleMilitary seizes control of state: coup d’etatOften justified as a temporary moveOften lacks a specific ideology

Types of Nondemocratic Rule

One-party RuleSingle political party monopolizes power, and

other parties banned or excluded from powerBenefits given to party members in return for

supportLeadership uses the party to mobilize and

spread propaganda as needed

Types of Nondemocratic Rule

Theocracy “Rule by God,” Faith is the foundation for the political regimeIlliberal/Hybrid Regimes Possess democratic mechanisms, but weakly institutionalized Executives typically hold tremendous power Democratic processes not well respected Subject to sudden changes, arbitrary withdrawal Media under state control State institutions under direct control of government (politicized)

Figure 6-2 AUTHORITARIANISM IN DECLINE, 1977–2007

Political InstitutionsPolitical Parties and Bureaucratic Systems

Types of Party SystemsOne Party

Single partyOne party generate support from the governmentNon competitiveExample: China’s CCP

One Party-DominantLarge party controls the political systemSmall parties may exist but not competitiveExample: Mexico’s PRI

Types of Party SystemsTwo Party Systems

Two parties compete for the majority of controlSmaller parties play no role in the electoral

outcomeExample: UK

Multiparty systemsSeveral important political partiesNone gain a majority in the legislatureExample: Iran and Nigeria

Unelected Institutions in Government

BureaucracyPart of the executive responsible for the

implementation of government policyTasks of the Bureaucracy

Implementation of laws and policyAgenda setting and advising on policy specifics Interpretation of existing but vague lawsPolicy creation

Unelected Institutions in Government

OrganizationCabinet departments/ministriescivil service/ civil servants

MilitaryHierarchy Implements policyCivilian vs. government control

Judiciary Judicial Independence: degree to which freedom

exists from the other branchesCivil Law System: statutes and codesCommon Law: judges interpret law, setting precedentRule of Law: constitution Judicial Review: rule on the constitutionality of

governmental policies Constitutional judicial review Statutory judicial review