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SMU
ASSIGNMENTSEMESTER 1
MB0022
Management Process and
Organizational Behaviour
SUBMITTED BY:
ANIL KUMAR JOSHI
MBA
ROLL NO.- 520949950
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2. Decisions Analysis: It consists of the following:
Choosing the basis of departmentalization so that functions could be grouped into
specialized units. Generally, functional departmentation is appropriate for small-
scale units. Customers, Products and territories are other important base ofdepartmentalization.
Choosing the type of organization structure so that departments are incorporatedinto a formal structure.
3. Relations Analysis: The authority, responsibility and accountability of every position and
its relationship with other positions are clearly defined. Various positions are mannedwith persons having the necessary education, training, experience and other
qualifications.
To obtain best possible benefit from each employee it is necessary to delegate functions as far-
down in the organization as possible. Owners of small firms are often reluctant to delegatingauthority to their employees even though they expect them to do all functions allocated to themthat require authority. For effective completion of tasks, it is necessary that responsibility
accompanies the necessary authority.
DIRECTING
In directing a manager has to supervise, guide, lead and motivate people so that they can achieve
set targets of performance. In the process of directing his subordinates, a manager ensures thatthe employees fulfill their tasks according to the set plans. Directing is the executive function of
management because it is concerned with the execution of plan and policies. Directing
commences organized action and sets the whole organizational machinery into action. It is,therefore, the life giving function of an organization. This is the area where the mastery of the art
and science of management is put to test. An managers leadership style determines the work
atmosphere and culture of the organization. Above all, he must motivate employees by setting agood example, setting practical targets of performance and providing satisfactory monetary and
non- monetary benefits.
In directing a manager has to perform the following tasks:
Issuing orders and instructions
Supervising workers
Motivating i.e. inspiring to work efficiently for set objectives Communicating with employees regarding plans and their implementation.
Leadership or influencing the actions or employees
CONTROLLING
Controlling is the process of ensuring that the organization is moving in the desired direction and
that progress is being made to wards the achievement of goals.
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The answer to a profitable organization is the skill of the owner or manager to control operations.He has to establish standards of performance, procedures, goals and budgets. With these guides,
he supervises job progress, workers performance and the financial condition of the business. The
controlling function of the owner manager includes:
Setting of standards:- Control presumes the existence of standards against which actual results
are to be evaluated. Standards can not control on their own but they are the targets against whichactual performance can be measured. Therefore they should be set clearly and accurately. They
should be precise, adequate, and feasible.
Measurement of actual performance:- The actual performance is measured and evaluated incomparison with the set standards. Preferably measurement should be such that variation may be
identified in advance of occurrence and prevented by suitable action. Where work involved is of
quantitative nature measurement of performance is not difficult. But when the work is notquantifiable measurement becomes difficult. Periodical reports test checks and audits are helpful
in precise measurement of performance.
Analysis of variances:- Comparison of actual performance with standards will reveal variation.
Variations are analyzed to identify their cause and their impact on the organization. Corrective
action can be possible only where the causes of the problem spots have been identified.Clarification may be called for sudden variation.
Taking corrective action:- Control means action on the basis of measurement and evaluation of
results. Wherever possible self- determining device should be used for bringing back actualresults in line with the standards. Standards should be revised wherever necessary. Other steps to
prevent deviations can be re-organization, improvements in staffing and directions etc. The real
meaning of control lies in the commencement and follow-up of remedial action. At this stagescontrol unites with planning.
TIME MANAGEMENT
In managing an enterprise time is of essence especially for a small scale manager who has to
perform the dual role of an manager as well as of a manager in his business. The manager can
bring substantial changes in his firms performance by managing time more efficiently.Management of time involves the following steps.
a) Time Analysis: First of all a systematic study is made to find out the proportion of total
time spent by the manager and his workers on different activities.b) Finding Critical Activities: Critical or vital activities should receive greater time.
Activities taking more than the justified time need to be identified. Irrelevant or timewasting activities should be eliminated.
c) Time Allocation: A time schedule should be prepared. Proper time should be allocated to
each activity. The tasks one wants to do but for which he does not have time should benoted.
d) Stick to Time Schedule: The most difficult step in time management is to complete each
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activity within the schedule time period. For this purpose, it is necessary to delegate task
to subordinates, to organize every workday and to continuously evaluate the timemanagement system
Essentially, management implies distinct processes of Planning, Organizing, Directing, and
Controlling resources both human and material, to achieve an identified objective.
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Q.2 Skills are the tool for performance-Explain various management skills.
Management in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people
together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning,
organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more
people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses thedeployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources,
and natural resources.
Basic skills of Management:- the main functions of the management are: planning, organizing,
controlling, leading.
Planning: specifying goals to be achieved and preparing how to meet them, analyzing current
situation, gathering and analysing information.
Organizing: devising and allocating roles for respective position within the managers scope of
work, obtaining and allocating resources, delegation/assigning duties and responsibility tosubordinates for results, defining the roles and authority of personnel.
Leading: motivating people to high performance, directing and communicating with people,
assisting and inspire them towards achieving team and organisational goals.
Controlling: set and monitor performance the standard of progress toward goals, identifying
performance problems by comparing data against standards, control tools such as scheduling,
charting techniques, standard operating procedures (SOP), budgeting, disciplinary actions etc.then besides those functions are important then have three management skills are important also
which are technical, human, and conceptual skills.
Technical skills: ability to understand and use the techniques, knowledge and tools to equipment
of a specific discipline or department
Human skills: interpersonal. Enable a manager to work effectively through people
Conceptual skills: important for top-level managers who must develop long range plans for
future
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Q.3 What is negotiation? Explain the process of negotiation.
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of
action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various
interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution.
Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legalproceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and
everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are
often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators,
hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular
organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens
to each sides' arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It is alsorelated to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to the
merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.
There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a greater understanding of the
essential parts. One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process, behavior and
substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, theparties to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which
all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication
between them and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over:
the agenda, the issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and theagreement(s) reached at the end.
Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process and tools, and tactics.Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the final outcome.
Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in both preparing
for and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more detailed statements and actionsand responses to others' statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence,
asserting that these have become integral to modern day negotiation success, and so should not
be omitted.
Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from negotiation hypnosis, to a straight
forward presentation of demands or setting of preconditions to more deceptive approaches such
as cherry picking. Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying the outcome of
negotiations.
Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy tactic is when one negotiatoracts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being
considerate and understanding. The good guy blames the bad guy for all the difficulties while
trying to get concessions and agreement from the opponent
This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other approaches to
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negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value and slower negotiations.
Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.
Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.
Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.
Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.
Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.
Package: Assemble potential trades.
Close: Reach final agreement.
Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.
There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is designed to break down
important activities during negotiation, particularly towards the end. It is an easy trap to try to
jump to the end with a solution that is inadequate and unacceptable.
Also note that in practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may be loops backto previous stages, stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out of order.
The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to help you negotiate, but do not
use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitute for thinking. If something does not seem to
be working, try to figure out why and either fix the problem or try something else. Althoughthere are commonalities across negotiations, each one is different and the greatest skill is to be
able to read the situation in the moment and adapt as appropriate.
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Q.4 Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan
Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of aneutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any
event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation.
Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significantstimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the
US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism beginsto produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).
Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions thatunderlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eye-blink conditioning, and the foot
contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.
Types:-
Forward conditioning
Diagram representing forward conditioning
Diagram representing forward conditioning.
The time interval increases from left to right. During forward conditioning the onset of the CSprecedes the onset of the US. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace
conditioning.
Delay Conditioning
In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US
Trace conditioningDuring trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a period of
time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the US is presented.
The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the "conditioninginterval"
Simultaneous conditioningDuring simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at the same time.
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Backward conditioningBackward conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an
unconditioned stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditioned
stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response tends to be inhibitory.
This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that the unconditioned stimulus hasended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditioned
stimulus.
The onset of the US precedes the onset of the CS. Rather than being a reliable predictor of an
impending US (such as in Forward Conditioning), the CS actually serves as a signal that the US
has ended. As a result, the CR is said to be inhibitory.
Temporal conditioning
The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correcttiming of the interval between US presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the CS
in this example.
Unpaired conditioning
The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that
are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.
CS-alone extinction
Main article: Extinction (psychology)The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the CR has
been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually, the CR frequency is reduced to
pre-training levels.
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Q.5 How are culture and society responsible to built value system?
A value system is a set of consistent ethic values (more specifically the personal and cultural
values) and measures used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity. A well defined
value system is a moral code. The values identify those objects, conditions or characteristics thatmembers of the society consider important; that is, valuable. One or more people can hold a
value system. Likewise, a value system can apply to either one person or many. Groups,societies, or cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. The values identify
those objects, conditions or characteristics that members of the society consider important; that
is, valuable.
A personal value system is held by and applied to one individual only. A communal or cultural
value system is held by and applied to a community/group/society. Some communal value
systems are reflected in the form of legal codes or law.
The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect.Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more general and abstract than norms.Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged
as good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of
patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral.They reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect
different values. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an
increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others. Values
seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of college students. Members takepart in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the
normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and
extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to. If a group memberexpresses a value that is in serious conflict with the group's norms, the group's authority may
carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior
of its members. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that havebeen established as law.
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Q.6 Write short notes on
o Locus of control
o Machiavellianism
Locus of Control: It is a term in psychology which refers to a person's belief about what causesthe good or bad results in his or her life, either in general or in a specific area such as health or
academics. Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can controlevents that affect them. Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe that events result
primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with a high external locus of control
believe that powerful others, fate, or chance primarily determine events. Those with a highinternal locus of control have better control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more political
behaviors, and are more likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a high
external locus of control; they are more likely to assume that their efforts will be successful.They are more active in seeking information and knowledge concerning their situation.
One's "locus" (Latin for "place" or "location") can either be internal (meaning the personbelieves that they control their life) or external (meaning they believe that their environment,
some higher power, or other people control their decisions and their life).
Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism has tremendous influence on modern business
communities, especially in the U.S.A. and European countries. Businessmen today, it is said,
prefer to follow the directions of pragmatism and expediency rather than the dictates ofindividual conscience. In principles and practices, Indian management by and large follows the
Western line. Therefore, the question arises whether Machiavellian influences are perceptibly
high on Indian managers. This question is more relevant in the light of a few surveys conducted
on the ethical attitudes of Indian managers. These identified a clear contrast between theirexpressed behaviour and wanted attitudes. The present study on the attitudes of managers from
the major cities of India concludes that Niccolo Machiavelli inspires and influences Indian
managers, but has not become the final determinant in their decision-making.
Machiavellianism is also a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a
person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. Machiavellianism is one ofthe three personality traits referred to as the dark triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy.
Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially a sub-clinical form of
psychopathy.
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SET-2
Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.
Q.1 Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging others Explain.
The halo effect refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular trait isinfluenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations. Edward L.
Thorndike was the first to support the halo effect with empirical research. In a psychology study
published in 1920, Thorndike asked commanding officers to rate their soldiers; Thorndike found
high cross-correlation between all positive and all negative traits. People seem not to think ofother individuals in mixed terms; instead we seem to see each person as roughly good or roughly
bad across all categories of measurement. A study by Solomon Asch suggests that attractiveness
is a central trait, so we presume all the other traits of an attractive person are just as attractive andsought after. The halo effect is involved in Harold Kelley's implicit personality theory, where the
first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later onesbecause of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirablepersonality and more skills than someone of average appearance. Thus, we see that celebrities
are used to endorse products that they have no actual expertise in evaluating, and with which
they may not even have any prior affiliation. The term is commonly used in human resources
recruitment. It refers to the risk of an interviewer noticing a positive trait in an interviewee and asa result, paying less attention to their negative traits (or vice versa).
The halo effect has to do with judging or evaluating a person, place, or event by a single trait orexperience. This overall impression can be good or bad but will prejudice our further
involvement with the stimulus. Each of us can remember making a snap judgment about
someone based on a first impression. Often we try to perceive further interaction with theindividual based on this first impression, regardless of whether it was positive or negative. If this
impression is incorrect, it often takes considerable pressure to concede this fact and break the
halo effect. Examples are plentiful in business. A plush office convinces us someone is animportant person in the organization and must be taken seriously. A sloppily typed letter by our
new secretary proves to us the individual is going to be an unsatisfactory employee. The halo
effect often shows up most conspicuously on performance appraisals where our overall good or
bad opinion of the workers interferes with our ability to evaluate weaknesses or strengthsaccurately on individual job functions.
Selective Perception: Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive biases in
psychology related to the way expectations affect perception. For instance, several studies haveshown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were
non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being "drunk", exhibited fewer physiological symptomsof social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects who had actually consumed
alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect. In one classic study on this subject
related to the hostile media effect (which is itself an excellent example of selective perception),
viewers watched a filmstrip of a particularly violent Princeton-Dartmouth American footballgame. Princeton viewers reported seeing nearly twice as many rule infractions committed by the
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Dartmouth team than did Dartmouth viewers. One Dartmouth alumnus did not see any
infractions committed by the Dartmouth side and erroneously assumed he had been sent onlypart of the film, sending word requesting the rest. Selective perception is also an issue for
advertisers, as consumers may engage with some ads and not others based on their pre-existing
beliefs about the brand. Seymour Smith, a prominent advertising researcher, found evidence for
selective perception in advertising research in the early 1960s, and he defined it to be aprocedure by which people let in, or screen out, advertising material they have an opportunity to
see or hear. They do so because of their attitudes, beliefs, usage preferences and habits,conditioning, etc. People who like, buy, or are considering buying a brand are more likely to
notice advertising than are those who are neutral toward the brand. This fact has repercussions
within the field of advertising research because any post-advertising analysis that examines the
differences in attitudes or buying behavior among those aware versus those unaware ofadvertising is flawed unless pre-existing differences are controlled for. Advertising research
methods that utilize a longitudinal design are arguably better equipped to control for selective
perception.
Selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and hear so as to suit our own needs.Much of this process is psychological and often unconscious. Have you ever been accused ofonly hearing what you want to hear. In fact, that is quite true. We simply are bombarded with too
much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything so we pick and choose according to
our own needs.
For instance
Selective Perception in Public Assessment of the Press and the Presidential Scandal
Job the press has
donecovering
allegations
Total
%
Republicans
%
Independents
%
Democrats
%%
Excellent/Good 46 61 46 35
Only fair/Poor 51 35 52 61
Don't Know/Refused 3 4 2 4
Total 100 100 100 100
Question: How good a job are news organizations doing at reporting about the allegationsagainst?
President Clinton . . . an excellent job, a good job, only a fair job or a poor job?
Source: "Popular Policies and Unpopular Press Lift Clinton Ratings," Pew Research Center forthe People & the Press, News Release dated 2/6/98, p. 4.
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Q.2 Explain Emotional Intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait EI
model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assesses, and manage the emotions of one's self, of
others, and of groups. Different models have been proposed for the definition of EI and
disagreement exists as to how the term should be used. Despite these disagreements, which areoften highly technical, the ability EI and trait EI models (but not the mixed models) enjoy
support in the literature and have successful applications in different domains. Substantialdisagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and
operationalizations. There has been much confusion regarding the exact meaning of this
construct. The definitions are so varied, and the field is growing so rapidly, that researchers are
constantly amending even their own definitions of the construct. At the present time, there arefew main models of EI which are given under:
(i) Ability EI models(ii) Mixed models of EI
(iii) Trait EI model(iv) The ability-based model
Salovey and Mayer's conception of EI strives to define EI within the confines of the standard
criteria for a new intelligence. Following their continuing research, their initial definition of EIwas revised to: "The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought,
understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth."
The ability based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to makesense of and navigate the social environment. The model proposes that individuals vary in their
ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional
processing to a wider cognition. This ability is seen to manifest itself in certain adaptivebehaviors. The model proposes that EI includes 4 types of abilities:
a) Perceiving emotions the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures,voices, and cultural artifacts- including the ability to identify ones own emotions.
Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all
other processing of emotional information possible.
b) Using emotions the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitiveactivities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can
capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
c) Understanding emotions the ability to comprehend emotion language and to
appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understandingemotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions,
and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.d) Managing emotions the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others.
Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones,
and manage them to achieve intended goals.
The ability-based model has been criticized in the research for lacking face and predictive
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validity in the workplace. EI is too broadly defined and the definitions are unstable
One of the arguments against the theoretical soundness of the concept suggests that the constant
changing and broadening of its definition- which has come to encompass many unrelated
elements had rendered it an unintelligible concept.
Arguing that EI is an invalid concept, Locke (2005) asked: "What is the common or integrating
element in a concept that includes: introspection about emotions, Emotional expression, non-verbal communication with others, empathy, self-regulation, planning, creative thinking and the
direction of attention?" He answered by saying: "There is none." Commenting on the multiple
factors that have been included in the definition, Locke asked rhetorically: "What does EI not
include?"
Other critics mention that without some stabilization of the concepts and the measurement
instruments, meta-analyses are difficult to implement, and the theory coherence is likely to beadversely impacted by this instability.
EI cannot be recognized as a form of intelligence
Goleman's early work has been criticized for assuming from the beginning that EI is a type of
intelligence. Eysenck (2000) writes that Goleman's description of EI contains assumptions aboutintelligence in general, and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect
when studying types of intelligence:
"Goleman exemplifies more clearly than most the fundamental absurdity of the tendency to
class almost any type of behaviour asintelligence... If these five 'abilities' define 'emotional
intelligence', we would expect some evidence that they are highly correlated; Goleman admits
that they might be quite uncorrelated, and in any case if we cannot measure them, how do weknow they are related? So the whole theory is built on quicksand: there is no sound scientific
basis".
Similarly, Locke (2005) claims that the concept of EI is in itself a misinterpretation of the
intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not another form or type of
intelligence, but intelligencethe ability to grasp abstractions--applied to a particular life
domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.The essence of this criticism is that scientific inquiry depends on valid and consistent construct
utilization, and that in advance of the introduction of the term EI, psychologists had established
theoretical distinctions between factors such as abilities and achievements, skills and habits,
attitudes and values, and personality traits and emotional states. The term EI is viewed by someas having merged and conflated accepted concepts and definitions.
EI has no substantial predictive value
Landy (2005) has claimed that the few incremental validity studies conducted on EI havedemonstrated that it adds little or nothing to the explanation or prediction of some common
outcomes (most notably academic and work success). Landy proposes that the reason some
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studies have found a small increase in predictive validity is in fact a methodological fallacy
incomplete consideration of alternative explanations:
"EI is compared and contrasted with a measure of abstract intelligence but not with a
personality measure, or with a personality measure but not with a measure of academic
intelligence."Landy (2005)
In accordance with this suggestion, other researchers have raised concerns about the extent towhich self-report EI measures correlate with established personality dimensions. Generally, self-
report EI measures and personality measures have been said to converge because they both
purport to measure traits, and because they are both measured in the self-report form.
Specifically, there appear to be two dimensions of the Big Five that stand out as most related toself-report EI neuroticism and extraversion. In particular, neuroticism has been said to relate to
negative emotionality and anxiety. Intuitively, individuals scoring high on neuroticism are likely
to score low on self-report EI measures. The interpretations of the correlations between EIquestionnaires and personality have been varied, with the trait EI view that re-intrprets EI as a
collection of personality traits being prominent in the scientific literature
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Q.3 A group formation passes through various stages: Explain the various stages of
group formation.
The formation of some groups can be represented as a spiral; other groups form with sudden
movements forward and then have periods with no change. Whatever variant of formation eachgroup exhibits, they suggest that all groups pass through six sequential stages of development.
These stages may be longer or shorter for each group, or for individual members of the group,but all groups will need to experience them. They are forming, storming, norming, performing,
mourning and retiring.
The terms are pretty self explanatory. When a group is forming, participants can feel anxious notknowing how the group will work or what exactly will be required of them. Storming, as the
word suggests, is when things may get stormy. Conflict can emerge, individual differences are
expressed and the leader's role may be challenged. The value and the feasibility of the task mayalso be challenged. After the storm comes the calm of norming, where the group starts to
function harmoniously and where participants co-operate and mutual support develops. Thisenables the performing stage to occur where the work really takes off and the group accepts astructure and method for achieving the common task. When the group retires or adjourns, much
learning happens through informal chat and feedback about the group performance. Tuckman
and Jenson recognise that when groups dismantle themselves and the loose ends are all tied up,participants often go through a stage of mourning or grieving.
This model is useful to know, so that when your group appears to be going nowhere or perhaps
members are arguing so much that no work can be started, you understand that this is normal!Most groups go through these phases. Understanding this pattern empowers you to work towards
moving the group onto the next phase.
Activity for individual reflection or as a group discussion following any group activity. May be
used following W1 DGB (Developing Effective Group Behaviour Exercise)
Think of a group that you have recently been involved with. Considering each stage of its
development, can you recall any evidence of these stages?
1. Forming
What was the task?
Did you all share the same expectations of the task?
Did you all have the same attitude to working in a group? Did you feel any anxiety at the outset of the activity?
2. Storming
Was there any conflict in the group?
Did you all agree on the means of carrying out the task?
Did you have a leader and was his/her authority challenged?
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Did any group members withdraw from the group?
3. Norming
Did you move on to agree methods of working?
Did you have a common goal?
Did you cooperate with each other?
Did you work out how to proceed at all? (If not, you were probably still storming.)
4. Performing
Did everyone take on a functional role to achieve the task?
Did you work constructively and efficiently?
Did the group's activity focus on fulfilling the task?
Did you experience a sense of achievement?
5. Retiring/Adjourning
Did you stop abruptly and all go your separate ways or did you finish the task and
then go off together and socialize?
Did you talk about the group and your experience of it?
What sort of issues did you discuss or think about after the group activity? Was it more or less acceptable to give and receive feedback in a relaxed atmosphere
when adjourning?
6. Mourning/Grieving
Have you experienced the mourning stage following the completion of a show or
project?
Have you ever felt empty or sad when a group activity has finished
Why might some people feel the mourning stage more acutely than others?
How do you deal with your own feelings after the project or show?
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MB0022 Management Process and Organizational Behaviour
Q.4 Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by
self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to control over the behavior of others:
Explain what are the various bases of Power?
Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by
the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others. Managers derivepower from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power
and personal power, respectively. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent ofthat individual's position.
Three bases of personal power are:
1. Expertise,
2. Rational persuasion,
3. Reference.
Expert power is the ability to control another person's behavior by virtue of possessingknowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeysa supervisor possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be
done or how it is to be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute.
However the table may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her
boss. In this age of technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many
occasions where the boss is dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented
support.
Rational persuasion is the ability to control another's behavior, since, through the individual's
efforts; the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it.Rational persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing
how specific actions will achieve these outcomes.
Referent power is the ability to control another's behavior because the person wants to identify
with the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to
behave, perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may occur, for example, because
the subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wantsthem done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with
the pleasing boss-subordinate relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate
will get for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual
represents-a path toward lucrative future prospects.
Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual's personalityand interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal
risks, demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.
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MB0022 Management Process and Organizational Behaviour
Q.5 Explain Organizational Development process
Organization development (OD) is a planned, top-down, organization-wide effort to increase the
organization's effectiveness and health. OD is achieved through interventions in the
organization's "processes," using behavioural science knowledge. According to Warren Bennis,OD is a complex strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of
organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges. OD isnot "anything done to better an organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed
to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD involves organizational reflection, system
improvement, planning, and self-analysis. The term "Organization Development" is often used
interchangeably with Organizational effectiveness, especially when used as the name of adepartment or a part of the Human Resources function within an organization. Organization
Development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches including Positive
Adult Development.
At the core of OD is the concept of organization, defined as two or more people workingtogether toward one or more shared goal(s). Development in this context is the notion that anorganization may become more effective over time at achieving its goals.
OD is a long range effort to improve organization's problem solving and renewal processes, particularly through more effective and collaborative management of organizational culture,
often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of the theory and technology
of applied behavioral science.
Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a
sponsoring organization entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral science in a
systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of the organization toimprove itself".
Organizational development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective change inan organization. Organizational development is known as both a field of applied behavioral
science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of scientific
study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and
theories of motivation, learning, and personality.
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MB0022 Management Process and Organizational Behaviour
Q6 .Write short note on Stress Management
Stress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress. Transactional model
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested in 1984 that stress can be thought of as resulting
from an imbalance between demands and resources or as occurring when pressure exceedsone's perceived ability to cope. Stress management was developed and premised on the idea that
stress is not a direct response to a stressor but rather one's resources and ability to cope mediatethe stress response and are amenable to change, thus allowing stress to be controllable.
In order to develop an effective stress management programme it is first necessary to identify the
factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress, and to identify the interventionmethods which effectively target these factors. Lazarus and Folkman's interpretation of stress
focuses on the transaction between people and their external environment (known as the
Transactional Model). The model conceptualizes stress as a result of how a stressor is appraisedand how a person appraises his/her resources to cope with the stressor. The model breaks the
stressor-stress link by proposing that if stressors are perceived as positive or challenging ratherthan a threat, and if the stressed person is confident that he/she possesses adequate rather thandeficient coping strategies, stress may not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor.
The model proposes that stress can be reduced by helping stressed people change their
perceptions of stressors, providing them with strategies to help them cope and improving theirconfidence in their ability to do so.
Health realization/innate health model
The health realization/innate health model of stress is also founded on the idea that stress does
not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor. Instead of focusing on the individual's
appraisal of so-called stressors in relation to his or her own coping skills (as the transactionalmodel does), the health realization model focuses on the nature of thought, stating that it is
ultimately a person's thought processes that determine the response to potentially stressful
external circumstances. In this model, stress results from appraising oneself and one'scircumstances through a mental filter of insecurity and negativity, whereas a feeling of well-
being results from approaching the world with a "quiet mind," "inner wisdom," and "common
sense".
This model proposes that helping stressed individuals understand the nature of thought--
especially providing them with the ability to recognize when they are in the grip of insecure
thinking, disengage from it, and access natural positive feelings--will reduce their stress.
Techniques of stress management
There are several ways of coping with stress. Some techniques of time management may help a
person to control stress. In the face of high demands, effective stress management involves
learning to set limits and to say "No" to some demands that others make. The followingtechniques have been recently dubbed Destressitizers by The Journal of the Canadian Medical
Association. A destressitizer is any process by which an individual can relieve stress. Techniques
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of stress management will vary according to the theoretical paradigm adhered to, but may
include some of the following:
Autogenic training
Cognitive therapy
Conflict resolution
Exercise
Getting a hobby
Meditation
Deep breathing
Nootropics
Relaxation techniques
Artistic Expression
Fractional relaxation
Progressive relaxation
Spas Stress balls
Natural medicine
Clinically validated alternative treatments
Time management
Listening to certain types of relaxing music, particularly:
New Age music
Classical music
Psychedelic music
Measuring stress
Levels of stress can be measured. One way is through the use of the Holmes and Rahe Stress
Scale to rate stressful life events. Changes in blood pressure and galvanic skin response can also
be measured to test stress levels, and changes in stress levels. A digital thermometer can be usedto evaluate changes in skin temperature, which can indicate activation of the fight or flight
response drawing blood away from the extremities.
Stress management has physiological and immune benefit effects.
Effectiveness of stress management
Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-drug interventions:
treatment of anger or hostility,
autogenic training
talking therapy (around relationship or existential issues)
biofeedback
cognitive therapy for anxiety or clinical depression