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MB0022: ManagementProcess & OrganizationalBehavior[Assignment – SET1 & SET2]

Name : P. Srinath

SMDUE ID : 520923307

Center : Mehbub College Campus, Secunderabad

Subject Code : MB0022

Subject : Management Process & Organizational Behavior

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ASSIGNMENT – MBA – SEM I – Subject Code:

MB0022 – SET 1

1. “Today managers need to perform various function s”:Elaborate the statement.

Managers create and maintain an internal environment, commonlycalled the organization, so that others can work efficiently in it. A manager’s job consists of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the resourcesof the organization. These resources include people, jobs or positions,technology, facilities and equipment, materials and supplies, information, andmoney. Managers work in a dynamic environment and must anticipate andadapt to challenges.

The manager looks after more than one function. Therefore,

managerial practices used successfully in big firms cannot be blindly used insmall-scale units. Basic managerial functions in large and small business arethe same. But the manner in which these functions should be carried out canbe different.

Managing starts with planning. A manager with a definite and welldefined plan has more chances of success than another who tries to start anenterprise without planning. According to Killen” planning is the process of deciding in advance what is to be done‚ who is to do it‚ how it is to be doneand when it is to be done’’. Planning involves thinking and decision and is,therefore, called a logical process. Planning is a continuous process aschanges in plans have to be made from time to time to take care of changingenvironment. Many a times, a vague approach is adapted to planning in asmall firm. There is a false impression that small firms are uncomplicated anddo not require planning. The small-scale manager does not want to engagehis employees in the planning process due to the desire to keep the secretswith him. Personal accountability for results, lack of expert staff and nothaving planning skills are other major obstacles for planning in small firms. The owner or manager of a small enterprise is too involved in day-to-dayoperation to try planning before commencing actual operation. But they needpre-planning most because small firms have limited resources to conquertheir upcoming problem and cannot afford to finance losses that can takeplace while adjusting to unanticipated happenings/changes. A managerneeds an enterprise which can achieve the business objectives. During thefunction of organizing he leads human resources to successful completion of the project, arranging the functions and activities into different levels in theorganization structure, thus facilitating the assignments of personnelaccording to their capabilities, skills and motivation. According to Peter F.Drucker the process of organizing consists of three steps - activities analysis,decisions analysis and relation analysis.

(i). Activities Analysis: It consists of the following:

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a) Determining the main functions for achieving the objectivesof the firm.

b) Various sub-functions in each major function.

c) Amount of work in each major function and its sub-function. d)

The position required to perform the activities.

(ii) Decisions Analysis: It consists of the following:

a) Choosing the basis of departmentalization so that functionscould be grouped into specialized units. Generally, functionaldepartmentalization is appropriate for small-scale units. Customers,Products and territories are other important base of departmentalization.

b) Choosing the type of organization structure so that

departments are incorporated into a formal structure.

(iii) Relations Analysis: The authority, responsibility and accountabilityof every position and its relationship with other positions are clearly defined.Various positions are manned with persons having the necessary education,training, experience and other qualifications. To obtain best possible benefitfrom each employee it is necessary to delegate functions as far-down in theorganization as possible. Owners of small firms are often reluctant todelegating authority to their employees even though they expect them to doall functions allocated to them that require authority. For effective completionof tasks, it is necessary that responsibility accompanies the necessaryauthority.

DIRECTING: - In directing a manager has to supervise, guide, lead andmotivate people so that they can achieve set targets of performance. In theprocess of directing his subordinates, a manager ensures that the employeesfulfill their tasks according to the set plans. Directing is the executivefunction of management because it is concerned with the execution of planand policies. Directing commences organized action and sets the wholeorganizational machinery into action. It is, therefore, the life giving functionof an organization. This is the area where the mastery of the art and scienceof management is put to test. A manager’s leadership style determines thework atmosphere and culture of the organization. Above all, he mustmotivate employees by setting a good example, setting practical targets of

performance and providing satisfactory monetary and non- monetarybenefits.

In directing a manager has to perform the following tasks:

(a) Issuing orders and instructions

(b) Supervising workers

(c) Motivating i.e. inspiring to work efficiently for set objectives

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(d) Communicating with employees regarding plans and theirimplementation.

(e) Leadership or influencing the actions or employees

CONTROLLING: - Controlling is a process of ensuring that the

‘organization is moving in desired direction’ and ‘progress is being madetowards achievement of goals’. The answer to a profitable organization is theskill of the owner or manager to control operations. He has to establishstandards of performance, procedures, goals and budgets. With these guides,he supervises job progress, workers performance and the financial conditionof the business.

The controlling function of the owner manager includes:

Setting of standards: - Control presumes the existence of standardsagainst which actual results are to be evaluated. Standards cannot be controlon their own, but they are the targets against which actual performance canbe measured. Therefore they should be set clearly and accurately. Theyshould be precise, adequate, and feasible.

Measurement of actual performance: - The actual performance ismeasured and evaluated in comparison with the set standards. Preferablymeasurement should be such that variation may be identified in advance of occurrence and prevented by suitable action. Where work involved is of quantitative nature measurement of performance is not difficult. But whenthe work is not quantifiable measurement becomes difficult. Periodical

reports test checks and audits are helpful in precise measurement of performance

Analysis of variances: - Comparison of actual performance withstandards will reveal variation. Variations are analyzed to identify their causeand their impact on the organization. Corrective action can be possible onlywhere the causes of the problem spots have been identified. Clarificationmay be called for sudden variation.

Taking corrective action: - Control means action on the basis of measurement and evaluation of results. Wherever possible, self-determiningdevice should be used for bringing back actual results in line with thestandards. Standards should be revised wherever necessary. Other steps toprevent deviations can be reorganization, improvements in staffing anddirections etc. The real meaning of control lies in the commencement andfollow-up of remedial action. At this stages control unites with planning.

TIME MANAGEMENT: - In managing an enterprise time is of essenceespecially for a small scale manager who has to perform the dual role of amanager as well as of a manager in his business. The manager can bring

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substantial changes in his firm’s performance by managing time moreefficiently. Management of time involves the following steps.

(i) Time Analysis: First of all a systematic study is made to find outthe proportion of total time spent by the manager and hisworkers on different activities.

(ii) Finding Critical Activities: Critical or vital activities shouldreceive greater time. Activities taking more than the justifiedtime need to be identified. Irrelevant or time wasting activitiesshould be eliminated.

(iii) Time Allocation: A time schedule should be prepared. Propertime should be allocated to each activity. The tasks one wants todo but for which he does not have time should be noted.

(iv) Stick to Time Schedule: The most difficult step in timemanagement is to complete each activity within the scheduletime period. For this purpose, it is necessary to delegate task tosubordinates, to organize every workday and to continuouslyevaluate the time management system

Essentially, management implies distinct processes of Planning,Organizing, Directing, and Controlling resources both human and material, toachieve an identified objective.

2. “Skills are the tool for performance”-Explain variousmanagement skills.

Management in all business and human organization activity is simplythe act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives.

Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing,and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) oreffort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses thedeployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources,technological resources, and natural resources.

Basic Skills of management the main functions of the managementare: planning, organizing, controlling, leading.

Planning: specifying goals to be achieved and preparing how to meetthem analyzing current situation, gathering and analyzing information’s

Organizing: devising and allocating roles for respective position withinthe managers scope of work obtaining and allocating resources delegationassigning duties and responsibility to subordinates for results defining theroles and authority of personnel

Leading: motivating people to high performance, directing andcommunicating with people assisting and inspire then toward achieving teamand organizational goals

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Controlling: set and monitor performance the standard of progresstoward goals identifying performance problems by comparing data againststandards control tools such as scheduling, charting techniques, standardoperating procedures(SOP), budgeting, disciplinary actions etc. then besidesthose functions are important there have three management skills areimportant also which are technical, human, and conceptual skills.

Technical skills: ability to understand and use the techniques,knowledge and tools to equipment of a specific discipline or departmentHuman skills: interpersonal enable a manager to work effectively throughpeople

Conceptual skills: important for top-level managers who must developlong range plans for future gave a direction to managers to determine theorganization as unified whole and understand each part of the overallorganization interacts with other department or parts.

3. What is negotiation? Explain the process of negotiation.

Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce anagreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collectiveadvantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primarymethod of alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, and government branches, legal proceedings, amongnations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, andeveryday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory.Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators,leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or maywork under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Negotiationtypically manifests itself with trained negotiator acting on behalf of aparticular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where adisinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts tohelp craft an agreement between the parties. It is also related to arbitrationwhich, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to themerits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for bothparties. There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain agreater understanding of the essential parts. One view of negotiation involvesthree basic elements: process, behavior and substance. The process refers tohow the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to thenegotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages inwhich all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among theseparties, the communication between them and the styles they adopt. Thesubstance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues(positions and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s)reached at the end. Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements:strategy, process and tools, and tactics. Strategy comprises the top levelgoals - typically including relationship and the final outcome. Processes andtools include the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in bothpreparing for and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more

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detailed statements and actions and responses to others' statements andactions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that these havebecome integral to modern day negotiation success, and so should not beomitted.

Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from

negotiation hypnosis, to a straight forward presentation of demands orsetting of preconditions to more deceptive approaches such as cherrypicking. Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying theoutcome of negotiations.

Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guytactic is when one negotiator acts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being considerate andunderstanding. The good guy blames the bad guy for all the difficulties whiletrying to get concessions and agreement from the opponent. This is a uniquecombination framework that puts together the best of many otherapproaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-

value and slower negotiations.

Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.Package: Assemble potential trades.Close: Reach final agreement.Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.

There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is

designed to break down important activities during negotiation, particularlytowards the end. It is an easy trap to try to jump to the end with a solutionthat is inadequate and unacceptable. Note also that in practice, you may findvariations on these, for example there may be loops back to previous stages,stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out of order.

The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to helpyou negotiate, but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitutefor thinking. If something does not seem to be working, try to figure out whyand either fix the problem or try something else. Although there arecommonalities across negotiations, each one is different and the greatestskill is to be able to read the situation in the moment and adapt asappropriate.

4. Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was firstdemonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classicalconditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with astimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event thatdoes not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under

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investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS).Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes aninnate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditionedstimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS andthe US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associatedand the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov

called this the conditioned response (CR).

Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neuralstructures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fearconditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.

Types

Forward conditioning - Diagram representing forward conditioning

The time interval increases from left to right. During forwardconditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two commonforms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

Delay Conditioning: - In delay conditioning the CS is presented and isoverlapped by the presentation of the US

Trace conditioning: - During trace conditioning the CS and US do notoverlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a period of time is allowed to elapseduring which no stimuli are presented, and then the US is presented. Thestimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the"conditioning interval"

Simultaneous conditioning: - During simultaneous conditioning, the CSand US are presented and terminate at the same time.

Backward conditioning: - Backward conditioning occurs when a

conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus. Unliketraditional conditioning models, in which the conditioned stimulus precedesthe unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response tends to be inhibitory. This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that theunconditioned stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

The onset of the US precedes the onset of the CS. Rather than being areliable predictor of an impending US (such as in Forward Conditioning), the

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CS actually serves as a signal that the US has ended. As a result, the CR issaid to be inhibitory.

Temporal conditioning: - The US is presented at regularly timedintervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the intervalbetween US presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the CS

in this example.

Unpaired conditioning: - The CS and US are not presented together.Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by avariable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

CS-alone extinction Main article: - Extinction (psychology): - The CS ispresented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after theCR has been acquired through ‘Forward conditioning training’. Eventually, theCR frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.

5. How are culture and society responsible to build value system?

A value system is a set of consistent ethic values (more specifically thepersonal and cultural values) and measures used for the purpose of ethical orideological integrity. A well-defined value system is a moral code. The valuesidentify those objects, conditions or characteristics that members of thesociety consider important; that is, valuable. One or more people can hold avalue system. Likewise, a value system can apply to either one person ormany. Groups, societies, or cultures have values that are largely shared bytheir members. The values identify those objects, conditions orcharacteristics that members of the society consider important; that is,

valuable.

A personal value system is held by and applied to one individual only.A communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to acommunity/group/society. Some communal value systems are reflected inthe form of legal codes or law.

The values of a society can often be identified by noting which peoplereceive honor or respect. Values are related to the norms of a culture, butthey are more general and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behaviorin specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good orevil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of

patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normativebehaviors at a funeral. They reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different values. "Over the lastthree decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increasedinterest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others. Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudesof college students. Members take part in a culture even if each member'spersonal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative valuessanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize

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and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures theybelong to. If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict withthe group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of itsmembers. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with socialnorms that have been established as law.

6. Write short notes on

• Locus of control

• Machiavellianism

Locus of Control: It is a term in psychology which refers to a person's belief about what causes the good or bad results in his or her life, either in generalor in a specific area such as health or academics. Locus of control refers to

the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events thataffect them. Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe thatevents result primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with ahigh external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or chanceprimarily determine events. Those with a high internal locus of control havebetter control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more political behaviors, andare more likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a highexternal locus of control; they are more likely to assume that their efforts willbe successful. They are more active in seeking information and knowledgeconcerning their situation.

One's "locus" (Latin for "place" or "location") can either be internal(meaning the person believes that they control their life) or external(meaning they believe that their environment, some higher power, or otherpeople control their decisions and their life).

Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism has tremendous influence on modernbusiness communities, especially in the U.S.A. and European countries.Businessmen today, it is said, prefer to follow the directions of pragmatismand expediency rather than the dictates of individual conscience. Inprinciples and practices, Indian management by and large follows theWestern line. Therefore, the question arises whether Machiavellian influencesare perceptibly high on Indian managers. This question is more relevant inthe light of a few surveys conducted on the ethical attitudes of Indianmanagers. These identified a clear contrast between their expressedbehaviour and wanted attitudes. The present study on the attitudes of managers from the major cities of India concludes that Niccolo Machiavelliinspires and influences Indian managers, but has not become the finaldeterminant in their decision-making.

Machiavellianism is also a term that some social and personalitypsychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulateothers for personal gain. Machiavellianism is one of the three personality

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traits referred to as the dark triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy.Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially a subclinicalform of psychopathy.

ASSIGNMENT – MBA – SEM I – Subject Code:

MB0022 – SET 2

1. “Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in

judging others” Explain.

Individuals have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they

judge others. An understanding of these can be helpful toward recognizingwhen they can result in significant distortions.

Halo Effect: -

The halo effect [Murphy & Anhalt, 1992] occurs when we draw a

general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. For example, while

appraising the lecture, students may give prominence to a single trait, such

as enthusiasm and allow heir evaluation to be tainted by how they judge the

instructor on that trait which stood out prominently in their estimation of that

person. Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits

to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioral terms, when the traits have

moral overtones, and when he perceiver is judging traits with which he or she

has had limited experience.

Selective Perception: -

Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will

increase the probability that it will be perceived. It is impossible for an

individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen. Only certain

stimuli can be taken in selectively. Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging

other people by allowing us to “speed-read” others, but not without the risk

of drawing an inaccurate picture. The tendency to see what we want to see

can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation.

2. Explain “Emotional Intelligence”

The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions

and achieving success in life was well accepted in ancient India. A concept of

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‘Sthitha Prajna’ [emotional stability] similar to the concept of emotional

intelligence can be traced in the second chapter of ‘Sri mad Bhagavat Gita’ ,

in a specific conversation between lord Krishna and Arjuna in a situation of

kurukshetra battle field. Before the battle started Arjuna was in deep sorrow

and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected gurus in enemy

side. The win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He gotconfused about his rightful duty. Due to this heat of non-strength, he refused

to join the battle. In this context lord Krishna who played the chariot to Arjuna

advised him to become the steady minded person. He also told that an

individual achieved his/her goal only when the mind becomes steady, poised

and balanced. This concept talks about a unique interdependence between

emotion and intelligence for effective decision making which was most

essential in excelling in every sphere of life.

Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning

process for achieving a balanced personality in different stages of life on an

intergenerational basis has been depicted in Vedas. In Particular, Dr. RadhaKrishnan, in his book mentioned that the attitude of Vedas is one of trust

tempered by criticism. This view aptly points out the need for emotional

intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and

functional individuals in society.

Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individual’s cognition of own

and others’ emotions, feelings, interpretation and action as per

environmental demand to manipulate the consequences which in turn result

in a superior performance. So having high emotional intelligence doesn’t

mean that the person never panics or loses his/her control. It does mean that

he/she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive

behaviors.

The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence

is the one proposed by Goleman. He viewed emotional intelligence as a total

of personnel and social competencies. Personnel competencies determine

how we manage ourselves, where as social competence determines how we

handle our interpersonal relationships.

Personnel Competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional

intelligence, such as self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-

awareness is the ability of an individual to observe him/herself and to

recognize a feeling as it happens. Self-regulation is the ability to control

emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact.

Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-

control and by moderation impulses as per the requirement.

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Social Competence: It compromises of two dimensions namely,

empathy and social skills. Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for

others, take their perspective and to treat people according to their

emotional reactions. Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to

manage relationships with people. People having the skill are very effective

persuasiveness and team management. Social skills are the culmination of allother components of emotional intelligence.

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Model

3. “A group formation passes through various stages.” Explain

various stages of group formation.

The important stages through which the group formation passes are

described below.

i. Forming:

In this stage the members are entering the group. The main concern is

to facilitate the entry of the group members. The individuals entering are

concerned with issues such as what the group can offer them, their needed

contribution, similarity to their personal needs, goals and group goals, the

acceptable normative and behavioural standards expected for group

membership and recognition for doing the work as a group.

ii.Storming:

This is a turbulent phase where individuals try to basically form

coalitions and cliques to achieve a desired status within the group. Members

go also through the process of identifying to their expected role requirements

in relation to group requirements. In the process, membership expectations

tend to get clarified, and attention shifts toward hurdles coming in the way of

attaining group goals. Individuals begin to understand and appreciate each

other’s interpersonal styles, and efforts are made to find ways to accomplish

group goals, while also satisfying individual needs.

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iii. Norming:

From the norming stage of group development, the group relay begins

to come together as a coordinated unit. At this point, close relationship

develop and the group shows cohesiveness. Group members will strive to

maintain positive balance at this stage.

iv. Performing:

The group now becomes capable of dealing with complex tasks and

handling internal disagreements in novel ways. The structure is stable, and

members are motivated by group goals and are generally satisfied. The

structure is fully functional and accepted at this stage. Group energy makes a

transition from members focus on getting to know and understand each other

to performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in

their development.

v. Adjourning:

A well-integrated group is able to disband, if required, when its work is

accomplished, through in itself it maybe a painful process for group

members, emotionally. The adjourning stage of group development is

especially important for the temporary groups that are rampant in today’s

workplaces. Members of these groups must able to convene quickly, do their

jobs on a tight schedule, and then adjourn often to reconvene later,

whenever required.

Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next.

Sometimes several stages go on simultaneously, as when groups are

storming and performing. Groups may at times regress to earlier stages.Another problem is that it ignores organisational context. For instance, a

study of a cockpit crew in an airliner found that, within 10 minutes, three

strangers assigned to fly together for the first time had become a high

performing group. The rigid organisational context provides the rules, task

definitions, information and resources required for the group to perform

effectively.

4. “Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an

individual wants, either by self or by the subordinates. Theessence of power is to control over the behaviour of others”.

Explain the various bases of power.

Power can be categorised into two types: Formal and informal.

a. Formal Power: It is based on the position of an individual in an

organisation. Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or

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reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual

due to his /her strategic position in the organisational hierarchy. For example

a manager can threaten to hold the pay hike. Such coercive power is the

extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer

punishments to control other people. The presence of unions and

organisational policies on employee treatment can weaken this power basesignificantly.

Formal power may be categorised into 4 types which are as follows:

a.1. Coercive Power: The coercive power base is being dependent on

fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical

sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through

restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or

safety needs. In an organisation one can exercise power over another if they

have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is

valuable to the person on who power is being unleashed.

a.2. Reward Power: The opposite of coercive power is reward power. It

is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to

control other people. Examples of such rewards include money, compliments,

promotions etc. Utilising rewards to achieve influence varies according to the

skills of the manager.

a.3. Legitimate Power: It stems from the extent to which a manager

can use subordinates internalised values of beliefs that the boss has a right

to command to control their behaviour. Legitimate power represents a special

kind of power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate fora person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command.

The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by

subordinates. Thus this type of power has the following elements:

• It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her

position in the formal hierarchy.

• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.

• It encompasses the authority of a position by members of an

organisation.

a.4. Information Power: This type of power is derived from access to

and control over information. When people have needed information, others

become dependent on them. Normally, higher the level, the more information

would be accesses by managers.

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b. Personal Power: Personal power resides in the individual and is

independent of that individual’s position. The bases of personal power are

expertise, rational, persuasion and reference.

b.1.Expert Power: It is the ability to control another person’s behaviour

by virtue of possessing knowledge, experience or judgement that the otherperson lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor possessing expert

power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what to be done or how

it is to be done than subordinate. However the table may turn upside in case

the subordinate knows more than the boss. This holds true in many cases

where the boss heavily depends on juniors for technologically oriented

support.

b.2.Rational Power: It is the ability to control another’s behaviour,

since through the individual efforts; the person accepts the desirability of an

offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. This involves explain the

desirability of expected goal and showing how specific actions will achievethese goals.

b.3. Reference Power: It is the ability to control another’s behaviour

because the person wants to identify with the power source. In this case, a

subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to behave, perceive, or

believe as the boss does. The subordinate attempts to avoid doing things that

would interfere with the pleasing boss-subordinate system. This is based on

what the individual represents a path toward lucrative future.

b.4.Charismatic Power: This is an extension of reference power

stemming from any individuals personality and inter personnel style. Othersfollow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,

demonstrate follower sensitivity etc.

Dependency is the key to power.

• The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power of A over B.

• Dependency, inversely proportional to the alternate sources of supply.

Three factors that are responsible for dependency are:

• Importance

• Scarcity

• Non-suitability

5. Explain the Organizational Development Process.

A typical Organizational Development Process can be divided into the

following phases:

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Problem Identification: The first step in OD process involves

understanding and identification of the existing and potential problems in the

organisation. The awareness of the problem includes knowledge of the

possible organisational problems of growth, human satisfaction, the usage of

human resource and organisational effectiveness.

Data Collection: Having understood the exact problem in this phase,

the relevant data is collected through personnel interviews, observations, the

usage of human resource and questionnaires.

Diagnosis: OD efforts begin with diagnosis of the current situation.

Usually, it is not limited to a single problem. Rather a number of factors like

attitudes, assumptions, available resources and management practices are

taken into account in this phase. There are four steps in organisational

diagnosis:

Structural Analysis:Determines how the different parts of theorganisation are functioning in terms of laid down goals.

Process Analysis: Process implies the manner in which events take

place in a sequence. It refers to the patter f decision making,

communication, group dynamics and conflict management patterns

within organisations to help in the process of attainment of

organisational goals.

Function Analysis: This includes strategic variables, performance

variables, results, achievements and final outcomes.

Domain Analysis: This refers to the area of the organization fororganizational diagnosis.

Planning and implementation: After diagnosing the problem, the next

step of OD, with the OD interventions, involves the planning and

implementation part of the change process.

Evaluation and Feedback: Any OD activity is incomplete without proper

feedback. Feedback is a process of relaying evaluations to the client goup by

means of specific report or interaction.

6. Write a short note on “Stress Management”

High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time can lead to

reduced employee performance, thus this requires action by management.

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Individual approaches:

Effective individual strategies include implementing time

management techniques, increasing physical exercise, relaxation

training, and expanding the social support network.

Practicing time management principles also leaves as an importantelement in managing stress, such as:

• Making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.

• Prioritizing activities by importance and urgency.

• Scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

• Handling the most demanding part of your job during thehigh part of your cycle when you are most alert and productive.

Noncompetitive physical exercise has long been recommendedas a way to deal with excessive stress. Practicing relaxation techniques like hypnosis, yoga, meditation

etc.

Organizational approaches:

• Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to rightperson job fit there by reducing chances of non performance andstress level.

• Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs to reduce stress.• Training in stress management.

• Increased employee involvement reduces stress level.• Improved organizational communication helps in creating transparency

in organisation and reducing confusion and stress levels.• Establishment of corporate wellness programs is an important concept

in managing stress. This rejuvenates and refreshes them from time totime leading to increased productivity with renewed energy.

Suggested frame work for Stress Management:

As there is positive side of stress which provides drive and excitement and

motivation for individuals to push themselves o achieve more in their lives in

the fulfilment of their set goals.

Managing stress should be given importance rather than eliminating it.

a. Find optimum stress level for an individual:

There is no single level of stress that is optimal for each individual. We all

are motivated, distressed by different levels of simulation in a given situation.

How much resilience a person can exhibit while handling stressful situations,

would vary across individuals as they are likely to differ in their psychological

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responses to it. Researchers have shown the following regarding the

capabilities of handling stress:

• The person who enjoys arbitrating disputes and moves from job site to job

site would be stressed in a job which was stable and routine.

•

Our personnel stress requirements and the amount which we can handlebefore we succumb to stress changes with age.

• Many illnesses are related to unrelieved stress. If one is experiencing

stress symptoms, he has gone beyond the optimal stress level, and then it

is necessary to reduce stress.

b. Managing stress better:

Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on an

individual’s life is insufficient for reducing its harmful effects. There are two

choices in this regard- either change the source of stress and/or change your

reaction to it. This can be done by following the below path:

• Become aware of stressors and the emotional and physical reactions:

Notice what causes distress, ignoring them is not a solution. Listing outall the events that cause distress is important.

• Recognizing what can be changed:

Is it possible to change stressors by avoiding or eliminating themcompletely? Can their intensity be reduced? Is it possible to shorten anindividual’s exposure to stress?

• Reduce the intensity of emotional reactions to stress:

The stress reaction is triggered by our perception of danger, physicaldanger or emotional danger. Work at adopting more moderate views; try tosee the stress as something you can cope with rather than something thatoverpowers us is a solution for reducing stress, internally.

• Learning to moderate our physical reactions to stress:

Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart and respiration back tonormal. Relaxation techniques can reduce muscle tension. Electronicbiofeedback can help you gain voluntarily control over such things as muscletension. However these alone cannot do the job. Learning to moderate thesereactions on our own is a desirable solution in the long run.

• Build our physical reserves:

Exercising for cardiovascular fitness, three to four times a week. Eatingwell balanced and nutritious meals are a must. Avoiding nicotine, excessivecaffeine and other stimulants will be helpful. Being consistent with the sleepschedules; helps in reducing stress to a large extent.

• Maintaining emotional reserves:

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Developing some mutually supportive friendships and stablerelationships help in sharing bottled up emotions and reduce stress.Expecting some frustrations, failures and sorrows as part of life can make usgear up mentally in handling stressful situations rather than succumb tothem.

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