Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Chapter 5Infancy: Physical Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
The head of the newborn child doubles in length by adulthood, but the legs increase in length about five times.
Infants triple their birth weight within a year.
Infancy: Physical Development: Truth or Fiction?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Breastfeeding helps prevent obesity later in life.
A child’s brain reaches half of its adult weight by the age of 1 year.
Infancy: Physical Development: Truth or Fiction?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
The cerebral cortex – the outer layer of the brain that is vital to human thought and reason – is only one-eighth of an inch thick.
Native American Hopi infants spend the first year of life strapped to a board, yet they begin to walk at about the same time as children who are reared in other cultures.
Infancy: Physical Development: Truth or Fiction?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Infants need to have experience crawling before they develop fear of heights.
Infancy: Physical Development: Truth or Fiction?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Infancy: Physical Development
Physical Growth and Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Cephalocaudal Development– Upper part of the head to the lower parts of the body
• Proximodistal Development– Trunk outward – from body’s central axis toward periphery
• Differentiation– Tendency of behavior to become more specific and distinct
What are the Sequences of Physical Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Weight doubles at about 5 months; triples by first birthday
• Height increase by 50% in first year
• Infants grow 4 to 6 inches in second year; and gain 4 to 7 pounds
• Growth appears continuous but actually occurs in spurts
What Patterns of Growth Occur in Infancy?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.1 Growth Curves for Weight and Height (Length) From Birth to Age 2 Years
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.2 Changes in the Proportions of the Body
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Growth impairment during infancy and early childhood
• Causes may be organic or non-organic– Biologically based or non-biologically based
• Links to physical, cognitive, behavioral and emotional problems
• Deficiencies in caregiver-child interaction may play a role
• Canalization – catch up growth once FTT is resolved
What is Failure to Thrive?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Infants require breast milk or iron fortified formula
• Solid foods may be introduced about 4 to 6 months– Iron-enriched cereal, strained fruits, vegetables and meats
• Whole cow’s milk delayed until 9 to 12 months– Teething biscuits in later part of first year
What are the Nutritional Needs of Children?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Build up variety of foods
• Avoid overfeeding or underfeeding
• Don’t restrict fat and cholesterol
• Don’t overdo high-fiber foods
• Avoid items with added sugar and salt
• Encourage high-iron foods
U.S. Dept of Agriculture, 2000
Guidelines for Infant Nutrition
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Developing in a World of Diversity
Alleviating Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Choice to breastfeed is influenced by– Attitudes regarding benefits for bonding and infant health
– Fear of pain, unease with breastfeeding and public breastfeeding
– Domestic and occupational arrangements
– Community and familial support
– Level of education
Why do Women Bottle-feed or Breastfeed their Children?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Advantages of breast milk– Conforms to digestion process
– Possesses needed nutrients
– Contains mother’s antibodies
– Helps protect against infant diarrhea
– Is less likely, than formula, to cause allergies
• Disadvantages of breast milk– HIV, alcohol, drugs and environmental hazards may be transmitted
through breast milk
– Physical demands on mother
What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Breast Milk?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Development of the Brain and Nervous System
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Basic unit of nervous system, receive and transmit messages
• Neurons vary according to function and location, but all contain– Cell Body
– Dendrites
– Axon
• Neurotransmitters
What are Neurons?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.3 Anatomy of a Neuron
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• As child matures– Axons grow in length
– Dendrites and axon terminals proliferate
– Connection networks become more complex
• Myelin Sheaths– Makes messages more efficient
– Myelination occurs with maturation
– Inhibition of myelination results in disease
How do Neurons Develop?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Command center of organism– Brain of neonate weighs less than one pound
– By first birthday, the brain triples in weight, reaching nearly 70% of adult weight
What is the Brain?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.4 Growth of Body Systems as a Percentage of Total Postnatal Growth
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Medulla– Controls basic body functions - heartbeat, respiration
• Cerebellum– Maintains balance, control motor behavior, coordinate eye
movements with body sensations
• Cerebrum– Allows human learning, thought, memory and language
Structures of the Brain
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.5 Structures of the Brain
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Growth Spurts in Brain Development– Prenatal – fourth and fifth months
• Proliferation of neurons
– Prenatal – 25th week through 2 years old• Proliferation of dendrites and axon terminals
How Does the Brain Develop?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.6 Increase in Neural Connections in the Brain
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Myelination– At birth brain areas well myelinated include
• Heartbeat and respiration
• Sleeping and arousal
• Reflex activity
– Myelination of sensory areas• Hearing – begins about 6th month of pregnancy and continues to age 4
• Vision – begins shortly before full term but develop rapidly
Brain Development in Infancy
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Brain development is affected by maturation (nature) and sensory stimulation and motor activity (nurture)– Rats in enriched environment
• More dendrites and axon terminals
– Human infants have more neural connections than adults• If activated by experience, connection survives
• If not activated, connection does not survive
How do Nature and Nurture Affect the Development of the Brain?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Motor Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Developments in the activity of muscles, and is connected with changes in posture, movement, and coordination
• Follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns– Lifting and holding head before torso
– Voluntary reaching
– Locomotion• Sequence: rolling over, sitting up, crawling, creeping, walking, running
What is Motor Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
What is Motor Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Maturation (nature)– Myelination and differentiation is needed for certain voluntary motor
activities
• Experience (nurture)– Experimentation to achieve milestones
– Slight effect in training to accelerate motor skills
What are the Roles of Nature and Nurture in Motor Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Sensory and Perceptual Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Process of integrating disjointed sensations into meaningful patterns through perception
• Focus on vision and hearing– Most research is one these areas
How do Sensation and Perception Develop in the Infant?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Neonates are nearsighted– Greatest gains in visual acuity between birth and 6 months
– By about 3 to 5 years of age, approximate adult levels
• Neonates have poor peripheral vision– Perceive stimuli within 30 degree angle
– By 7 weeks increases to 45 degrees
– By 6 months of age, equal to adult
Development of Visual Acuity and Peripheral Vision
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Neonates attend longer to stripes than blobs– By 8 to 12 weeks, prefer curved lines over straight
• Infants prefer faces– Discriminate maternal and stranger faces
– Prefer attractive faces
– Pay most attention to edges
What Captures the Attention of Infants? How do Visual Preferences Develop?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.11 Preferences in Visual Stimuli in 2-Month-Olds
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.12 Eye Movements of 1- and 2-Month Olds
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Depth Perception– Develops around 6 months (onset of crawling)
• Research using the Visual Cliff– Gibson and Walk (1960)
– Relationship between crawling and fear of heights
How do Researchers Determine Whether Infants will “Go Off the Deep End”?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.13 The Visual Cliff
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Perceptual constancy – perception of object remains stable although sensations may differ under various conditions
• Size constancy – perception of object’s size remains stable although retinal size may differ– Appears by 2 1/2 to 3 months
• Shape constancy – perception of object‘s shape remains stable although shape on retina may change– Appears by 4 to 5 months
What are Perceptual Constancies? How do they Develop?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
A Closer Look
Strategies for Studying the Development of Shape Constancy
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Perceptual constancy – perception of object remains stable although sensations may differ under various conditions
• Size constancy – perception of object’s size remains stable although retinal size may differ– Appears by 2 1/2 to 3 months
• Shape constancy – perception of object‘s shape remains stable although shape on retina may change– Appears by 4 to 5 months
What are Perceptual Constancies? How do they Develop?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Neonates can orient toward direction of a sound– 18 months locate sounds as well as adults
• By 3 1/2 months discriminate caregivers’ voices
• Infants perceive most speech sounds present in world languages– By 10 to 12 months, lose capacity to discriminate sounds not found
in native language
How Does the Sense of Hearing Develop in Infancy?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Figure 5.14 Declining Ability to Discriminate the Sounds of Foreign Languages
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
A Closer Look
Effects of Early Exposure to Garlic, Alcohol, and – Gulp - Veggies
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Neonates perception is largely passive
• Later, intentional action replaces capture– Systematic search replaces unsystematic
– Attention becomes selective
– Irrelevant information gets ignored
Do Children Play an Active or Passive Role in Perceptual Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Sensory changes are linked to maturation of nervous system (Nature)
• Experience also plays a role (Nurture)– Critical periods
• Newborn kittens with patched eye – become blind in that eye
• Nature and nurture interact to shape perceptual development.
What is the Evidence for the Roles of Nature and Nurture in Perceptual Development?
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• What does research tell us about the sensory capacities of newborns, such as Carter and Aiden?Cite evidence from the video that supports this research in regard to vision and hearing.
Lessons in Observation Sensation and Perception in Infancy
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
Lessons in Observation Sensation and Perception in Infancy
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Discuss how the newborn’s capacities for vision and hearing are adaptive in the context of Carter’s initial interaction with mom.
• Infants have clear visual preferences. Discuss the visual preferences of infants in the context of the response of 2-month-old Giuseppina to the stimuli presented by Dr. Basow.What method is Dr. Basow using as a test of Giuseppina’s visual preferences?What other methods are commonly used to study infant sensory and perceptual capacities?
Lessons in Observation Sensation and Perception in Infancy
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. RathusChapter 5
• Does the newborn’s preference for looking at faces more than at other objects indicate that form perception is innate? Why or why not?
Lessons in Observation Sensation and Perception in Infancy