J. COLLEGE STUDENT RETENTION, Vol. 6(2) 225-245, 2004-2005
THE PREDICTIVE NATURE OF HUMOR,
AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING STYLE, AND
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ON INDICES OF
INITIAL ADJUSTMENT AND COMMITMENT
TO COLLEGE AMONG COLLEGE FRESHMEN
GREGORY P. HICKMAN
GARNET L. CROSSLAND
The Pennsylvania State University
ABSTRACT
Through the administration of self-report surveys, this study examined the
relationships among a) parenting styles, b) family structure, c) academic
achievement, d) birth order, e) gender, and f) humor on the initial personal-
emotional, social, academic, and commitment to college adjustment among
257 first-quarter college freshmen. Multiple regression models demonstrated
that humor, academic achievement, and authoritative parenting were posi-
tively related to students’ college adjustment. Implications were drawn for
post-secondary educational institutions as well as parents.
INTRODUCTION
Departing for college personifies a new developmental stage of life as many
adolescent youth face a level of independence, uncertainty, and anxiety not
previously experienced (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Larsen, & Jacobs, 1997). How
do first-year college students cope with such a new environment? Research
reports that approximately 60% of entering college freshmen leave higher
education without obtaining a degree, and most do so during the first two
years of college (Tinto, 2000). With such high attrition rates, researchers have
225
� 2004, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.
attempted to explain why some adolescents terminate their college endeavors
even though they may have the academic preparation and ability (Hickman,
Bartholomae, & McKenry, 2000).
Traditionally, explaining college success or failure has focused on academic
factors such as high school rank, GPA, and SAT/ACT scores (Hickman,
Bartholomae, & McKenry, 2000). However, a current thrust in the literature
suggests that psychosocial factors (i.e., family background, self-esteem, and
parenting styles) may play an equally important role in predicting such rates
(Hickman et al., 2000; Rice & Dellwo, 2002; Tross, Harper, Osher, & Kneidinger,
2000). Although the literature has examined these psychosocial factors, the role
of humor in relation to various indices of initial college adjustment has been
understudied.
Given that incoming college freshmen are exposed to new surroundings indica-
tive of increased freedom and responsibility (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al.,
1997), it seems natural that college students might experience some levels of
stress and emotional turmoil previously not encountered in their lives. Therefore,
it seems plausible that humor may play a role as a coping mechanism on the initial
adjustment of college freshmen. This study attempts to extend previous research
by the first author (e.g., Hickman & Andrews, 2003; Hickman et al., 2000;
Hickman, Toews, & Andrews, 2001), which examined familial factors (i.e.,
parenting styles and family structure) and academic achievement as predictors of
college adjustment. Moreover, this study attempts to add to the literature by
examining the relationships among familial factors, academic achievement, and
the coping role of humor as predictors of initial personal-emotional, social,
academic, and commitment to college adjustments among male and female
college freshmen.
Humor and College Adjustment
Overall, the body of literature examining humor and college adjustment is
scarce. Indeed, the majority of research examining humor and academic achieve-
ment and adjustment is aimed at the primary and secondary educational levels
(Pellegrini, Masten, Garmezy, & Ferrarese, 1987) or at examining the role of
humor in pedagogical methods (Berk & Nanda, 1998). Ziv (1988) found that
when educators employed humor in the classroom upper level (i.e., 11th and 12th
grade) high school students actually performed better and achieved higher grades.
However, in a study of college students, Prerost (1983) found that classroom
humor did not improve exam scores, although it did influence overall attitudes
toward the course. Berk and Nanda (1998) examined the effects of humor as an
educational teaching strategy to reduce tension and anxiety and increase achieve-
ment among college students. Results found that those students in the experi-
mental group (i.e., humor group) demonstrated better attitudes toward the course
and held less anxiety (Berk & Nanda, 1998). In addition, Adair and Sieger (1984)
226 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
found that college students who demonstrated higher levels of humor actually
performed better on classroom task performances. Moreover, recent research has
found humor to be a protective factor of academic achievement and adjustments
among aggressive and emotionally disturbed at-risk youth (Vance, Fernandez,
& Biber, 1998).
Recent research by the first author examined the predictive nature of humor
toward initial overall college adjustment among male and female college
freshmen. Using multiple regression models, the authors sought to examine the
predictive nature of humor and the unique variance accounted for by humor
toward initial overall college adjustment (Hickman & Andrews, 2003). Results
demonstrated that humor accounted for the majority of the overall model variance
for male college freshmen and was the second most predictive variable in the
model for female college freshmen (Hickman & Andrews, 2003). However,
humor, authoritative parenting styles, birth order, and academic achievement in
relation to other indices of adjustments (i.e., personal-emotional, social, academic,
and commitment) to college has remained unexplored.
Academic Achievement and
College Adjustment
Past research surrounding the predictive nature of academic achievement
on college adjustment has been everything but new or consistent. Over 50 years
ago, Travers (1949) demonstrated that academic achievement in high school
was considered the single greatest predictor of academic achievement of students
enrolled in college. Today, high school grade point average (GPA) is still con-
sidered a key discriminate predictor of college success and retention (Tross
et al., 2000). In an extensive study of over 13,000 college students, Christensen
(2001) found that high school GPA was among the best predictors of college
academic success and retention. On the contrary, other popular literature has
contended a high GPA in high school and college is not always necessarily
predictive of overall college adjustment and retention (Rice & Dellwo, 2002;
Tomlinson-Clarke & Clarke, 1994). Still, others claim academic success has
some influence, but tends not to be the strongest predictor of college adjustment
and retention (Tross et al., 2000).
Recent research by the first author has found that GPA is predictive of
initial college adjustment; however, more so for females than males (Hickman
& Andrews, 2003). Further, research has demonstrated that GPA is a con-
sistent predictor of initial overall college adjustment; however, psychosocial
factors such as parenting styles and humor were equally predictive if not
more predictive than GPA (Hickman & Andrews, 2003). The present study
will seek to clarify the relationship between academic achievement and other
indices of initial adjustment.
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 227
Familial Factors and College Adjustment
Is one’s order of birth into a family associated with a particular style of coping
and academic achievement? While popular literature has asserted that firstborn
children (and only children) are more academically inclined than laterborns
(Leman, 1985), the scientific literature has reported few consistencies (Falbo,
1981). Even murkier is the relationship between humor and birth order, with
popular literature stating that lastborns have a better sense of humor (Leman,
1985), and scientific literature again reporting inconsistent results. In a recent
study by the first author, birth order was examined as a predictor variable for
initial overall college adjustment among male and female college freshmen.
Results failed to yield significant findings (Hickman & Andrews, 2003). However,
birth order as it relates to other indices of college adjustment and commitment has
yet to be explored. Given the confusion in the literature surrounding birth order,
the present study will examine firstborns and laterborns in conjunction with
humorous coping skills to determine if birth order is associated with initial indices
of college adjustment.
Does ones family structure influence college adjustment? An estimated
one million children experience parental divorce on a yearly basis (Eshleman,
2003). Researchers have demonstrated that children who encounter changes in
family structure often experience severe consequences such as lower academic
attainment and adjustment (Cherlin et al., 1991; Kunz & Kunz, 1995; Weiner,
Harlow, Adams, & Grebstein, 1995). Moreover, research suggests that adjust-
ment problems continue beyond adolescence well into young adulthood as
children of divorce often exhibit heightened difficulties with college, mar-
riage, employment stability, and a host of problematic behaviors (Abelsohn &
Sayman, 1991; Aro & Palosaari, 1992; Brody & Neubaum, 1996; Sampson
& Laub, 1995).
A central tenet of this research is the integral role of family and the relation-
ship that humor serves as an adjustment and coping mechanism among college
freshmen. As noted by Manke (1998) it appears logical that family relation-
ships should have an impact on the development of children’s humor. Indeed,
Manke (1998) found that when parents modeled humor to their children, such
children were more likely to use humor in various life domains. Francisco (1990)
examined family functioning and the use of humor in various family situations.
Findings indicated that family communication, problem solving, involvement,
and behavior control were positively associated with humor. Moreover, family
adaptation and humor accounted for 70% of the variance of family functioning
(Francisco, 1990).
In a previous article by the first author, Baumrind’s parenting typology was
discussed in depth, and research was presented that showed the efficacy of
authoritative parenting, especially as it pertained to predicting academic achieve-
ment and college adjustment (Hickman et al., 2000). Briefly, authoritarian
228 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
parenting refers to a child rearing approach characterized by harsh discipline,
rejection, submission, and rigid boundaries expressed physically, emotionally, and
psychologically toward children. Permissive parenting refers to child rearing
practices that place few, if any rules upon children, freedom for children to make
life choices without consulting their parents, and communication between parents
and children are minimal to nonexistent. Finally, authoritative parenting refers
to a child rearing approach in which parents exert firm, yet fair discipline,
warmth and loving emotions, use reasoning as a disciplinary technique, and
participate in bidirectional communication exchanges with their children
(Baumrind, 1968).
Still, the issue of whether or not parenting styles are related to humorous
coping and other indices of initial college adjustment other than “overall” adjust-
ment has received little attention in the arena of college development and
family psychology. Given that parenting styles and humorous coping strategies
are based on emotional climates (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Freud, 1905),
it seems appropriate to examine the relationship between such variables in
relation to initial indices of college adjustment among male and female college
freshmen.
Finally, given that research has demonstrated relationships between GPA
and college adjustment (Hickman & Andrews, 2003), GPA and family
structure (Boyce-Rodgers & Rose, 2001), GPA and birth order (Barber, 1998),
GPA and parenting styles (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh,
1987), GPA and humor (Hickman & Andrews, 2003), family structure and college
adjustment (Amato, 1991; Hickman et al., 2000), family structure and parenting
styles (Hickman et al., 2000), family structure and humor (Zink, 2000), parenting
styles and humor (Manke, 1998), parenting styles and college adjustment
(Hickman et al., 2000, Hickman & Andrews, 2003), birth order and college
adjustment (Hickman & Andrews, 2003), birth order and humor (Leman, 1985)
it is expected that these variables will act in concert in predicting the transition
to college among male and female first-quarter college freshmen.
Objectives
The researchers proposed that humorous coping skills would be predictive
of initial college adjustment among male and female college freshmen. More-
over, it was proposed that humorous coping skills would be predictive of
initial indices of college adjustments when controlling for the variables of
birth order, family structure, GPA, gender, and authoritative parenting style.
The primary goal of the study was to examine the unique variance accounted
for by humorous coping skills in predicting initial personal-emotional, social,
academic, and commitment to college adjustments among male and female
college freshmen.
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 229
METHOD
Participants
Questionnaire data were provided to an accessible sample of 553 first-quarter
freshmen enrolled in Introductory Survey courses at a large Midwestern uni-
versity. Of the sample, 257 students responded and provided complete surveys
creating a data sample that resulted in a 46.4% response rate. Female participants
constituted 52.5% of the sample. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 23 years,
with a mean age of 19.03 years. The sample was mostly Caucasian (65.4%),
consistent with the ethnic distribution of the university. Asian (20.6%), African-
American (6.6%), and other (7.4%) students comprised the remainder of the
sample. A majority of participants were from intact two-parent families
(73.5%), and the remaining participants were from divorced and/or blended
families (12.4%), single-parent families (11.3%), adopted families (1.6%), and
relatives/guardians (1.2%). See Table 1 for complete summary.
Procedures
Permission to solicit incoming first-quarter freshmen was obtained. To par-
ticipate, students were administered questionnaires during the eighth week of
their 10-week Introductory Survey class. The procedure of waiting until the end
of the quarter was thought to increase student accuracy of estimated academic
achievement. To ensure that the participants were all first-quarter freshmen
enrolled for their initial college experience, the researchers instructed the par-
ticipants as to the requirements involved for this study. After clarifying the
conditions of the study, the researchers instructed the participants to complete
and return the questionnaires to their next class for collection. To increase par-
ticipation of eligible students, extra credit was awarded only for a complete
returned packet. In an attempt to further increase participation, two $25.00
gift certificates for a popular campus establishment were raffled as well as six
tickets to a local comedy club. To avoid ineligible participation of students
other than first-quarter freshmen, instructors were encouraged to award similar
extra credit to those who were ineligible to participate in this research study.
This procedure was effective as only first-quarter freshmen completed and
returned survey data.
Measures
Family Structure
Family structure was determined from nine possible categories. Response
categories were dichotomously recoded to reflect either biologically intact
two-parent families or other types of families (i.e., single parent, step families,
230 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
blended families, adopted families, and guardians/relatives). For the analyses,
a value of “0” represented biologically intact family structures and a value of
“1” represented all other family structures.
Birth Order
Birth order was determined from six possible categories. Response categories
ranged from only child through other. Response categories were dichotomously
recoded to reflect either only born or first-born positions of birth order and
second-born positions of birth order or greater. For the analyses, a value of “0”
represented “firstborns” and a value of “1” represented “laterborns.”
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 231
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Background Characteristics
Variable n Percent
Gender
Male
Female
Ethnicity
Caucasian
Asian
African-American
Other
Family Structure
Biologically intact
All others
Birth Order
Firstborns
Laterborns
Mother’s Education
High school or less
2-year college/technical
Bachelor degree or higher
Father’s Education
High school or less
2-year college/technical
Bachelor degree or higher
122
135
168
53
17
19
189
68
103
154
134
39
84
117
25
115
47.5
52.5
65.4
20.6
6.6
7.4
73.5
26.5
40.1
59.9
52.1
15.2
32.7
45.5
9.7
44.8
Achievement
Achievement, measured as academic performance, was based on the student’s
reporting his/her expected college grade point average (GPA). Respondents were
asked to self-report their GPA according to the standard 4-point scale and were
asked to be as specific as possible (i.e., 3.7-4.0, 3.3-3.69, 3.0-3.29, etc.) expected
during their first quarter of college. Response categories were recoded into
five dummy variables according to a standard A (4.0) to F (0.0) grading scale.
Adjustment
The 67-item Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) was used
to assess how well a student was adapting to the demands of a college environ-
ment (Baker & Siryk, 1989). Designed for college freshmen, this measure has
four subscales: Academic Adjustment, Social Adjustment, Personal-Emotional
Adjustment, and Goal Commitment-Institutional Adjustment. On a 9-point
scale that ranged from 1 (applies very closely to me) to 9 (doesn’t apply to me
at all), respondents indicated how a statement applied to them at the time
(within the past few days). Sample items included, “I have been keeping up to
date on my academic work” (academic adjustment), “I am meeting as many
people, and making as many friends as I would like at college” (social adjustment),
“I have been feeling tense or nervous lately (personal-emotional adjustment),
”I know why I’m in college and what I want out of it" (goal commitment-
institutional adjustment). Adjustment dimensions were constructed by sum-
ming scores of all subscale items and calculating a mean value for each par-
ticipant. Internal reliability for indices of adjustments was high with data
yielding Cronbach’s Alpha of .81 (personal-emotional adjustment), .77 (social
adjustment), .76 (academic adjustment), and .81 (goal-commitment-institutional
adjustment) respectively.
Humor
The Coping Humor Scale (CHS) was used to assess the role of humor as
a coping mechanism from which to reduce stressful events that individuals
encounter in their lives (Lefcourt & Martin, 1986). Each participant indicated
on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)to 4 (strongly agree)
their level of agreement with statements about how they use humor in stressful
situations. This seven-item scale contains such items as “I often lose my sense
of humor when I’m having problems,” and “I can usually find something to
laugh or joke about even in trying situations.” Humor dimensions were con-
structed by summing scores of the seven items and calculating a mean value
for each participant. Similar to their original findings, the internal reliability
was moderate with a Cronbach’s Alpha of .68.
232 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Parenting Style
The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) was used to assess authoritative
dimensions of parenting style (Buri, 1991). For each parent, participants indicated
on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree),
their level of agreement with statements about the manner in which they were
reared by their mother and father. Authoritative parenting style dimensions were
constructed by summing separate mother and father scores and taking the means
of these items to derive at a mother and father authoritative parenting style score.
The Authoritative subscale, based on 10 items, characterizes a parent as very
demanding and very responsive, yet warm and supportive (e.g., “As I was growing
up, if my mother/father made a decision that hurt me, she/he was willing to discuss
that decision with me and admit it if she/he had made a mistake”). The reliability
of this subscale was high, with data yielding a Cronbach’s Alpha of .80 for
mothers and .81 for fathers.
RESULTS
Participants provided self-report data that included demographic information,
as well as measures of: a) academic achievement; b) birth order; c) family
structure; d) gender; e) humor, f) perceptions of authoritative parenting style;
and g) student adaptation to college. See Table 2 for means and standard devia-
tions of variables. Because prior research has demonstrated that these variables
tend to be correlated with one another as opposed to isolated from one another,
the aforementioned independent variables were used to create a predictive model
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 233
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations for Predictor
and Outcome Variables
Variable M SD
Predictor variables
Mother’s authoritative parenting style
Father’s authoritative parenting style
Current academic achievement (GPA)
Humor
Outcome variables
Personal-emotional adjustment
Social adjustment
Academic adjustment
Goal-commitment adjustment
3.42
3.32
2.66
2.85
5.58
5.63
5.79
6.52
.63
.65
.70
.52
1.48
1.18
1.02
1.36
of indices of initial college adjustment among male and female first-quarter
college freshmen.
The primary goal of this study was to examine the unique variance of humor
as a predictor on college adjustment while controlling for the variables of
parenting styles, family structure, birth order, and GPA for male and female
first-quarter college freshmen. Stepwise multiple regression was used to
accomplish this goal. Since humor was the main independent variable of study,
it was solely inserted into the model as block one. Block two consisted of
inserting the other independent variables of parenting styles, family structure,
birth order, and GPA into the model. These independent variables created
the predictor variables for each model. Each indicator of initial college adjust-
ment (i.e., personal-emotional, social, academic, and commitment to college)
was inserted independently as a dependent variable against the aforementioned
predictor variables. This resulted in four separate stepwise regression models.
Finally, each model was examined by gender. As a result, eight multivariate
stepwise regression models were constructed that examined the independent
variable humorous coping skills of both male and female college freshmen
while holding constant the independent variables of birth order, family structure,
humor, and parenting styles on the dependent variables of college adjustments
(i.e., personal-emotional, social, academic, and commitment to college). See
Table 3 for intercorrelations among variables for both male and female college
freshmen.
The authors hypothesized that birth order, family structure, humorous
coping skills, GPA, and authoritative parenting styles would be significantly
associated with the initial indices of college adjustment of male and female
college freshmen. Support for birth order and family structure failed to yield
significant results. However, support for humorous coping skills, GPA, and
authoritative parenting styles hypotheses were found according to each
model (i.e., male and female). For example, for both males (F = 5.76, R2 = 14,
p < .05) and females (F = 14.80, R2 = .23, p < .001) GPA and humor predicted
initial academic adjustment to college. For females, GPA and humor were
predictive for initial social adjustment to college (F = 10.31, R2 = .15, p < .01).
However, for males, humor and mothers authoritative parenting style were
predictive of initial social adjustment to college (F = 9.27, R2 = .18, p < .01).
For females, humor and fathers authoritative parenting style was predictive
of initial personal-emotional adjustment to college (F = 4.28, R2 = .11, p < .05).
However, for males, only humor was predictive of initial personal-emotional
adjustment to college (F = 11.45, R2 = .09, p < .01). Finally, for females, GPA,
humor, and fathers authoritative parenting style was predictive of initial com-
mitment to college (F = 4.04, R2 = .15, p < .05). However, for males, humor and
mothers authoritative parenting style was predictive of initial commitment to
college (F = 5.96, R2 = .17, p < .05). See Tables 4 (male) and 5 (female) for com-
plete summary of regression models.
234 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
DISCUSSION
There were several inherent limitations regarding this study. First, the method-
ology of this study consisted of using a purposive sampling procedure as opposed
to a random sampling procedure. Second, given the correlational nature of this
study, caution should be preceded when drawing casual conclusions between
humor and college adjustment. Third, this study only examined college freshmen
at one point in time. Perhaps a longitudinal methodological approach may
have yielded developmental findings regarding long-term college adjustment and
retention. Lastly, this study was conducted using self-report data. It is possible
that a social bias of perceiving oneself as humorous, or even a bias of having
authoritative parents was present within this study. Research by Pascarella (2001)
has noted that one should proceed with caution when using self-report data
from college students. However, research by Donovan & Jessor (1985) has noted
that student’s perceptions of himself or herself and their parents are often a
more accurate perception than perceptions held by others.
Despite such limitations, the results of this study suggest the importance
of humor in helping college students positively adjust to university life. For
both males and females humor was a significant factor in each regression
model for predicting indices of initial college adjustment. For females, humor
accounted for 9% of the 23% model variance of academic adjustment, 4.3%
of the 15% model variance of commitment to college adjustment, 8% of the
11% model variance of personal-emotional adjustment, and 6.3% of the
15% model variance of social adjustment. For males, humor accounted for
4% of the 14% model variance of academic adjustment, 12.5% of the 17%
model variance of commitment to college, all 9% of the model variance for
personal-emotional adjustment, and 12% of the 18% model variance of social
adjustment.
Although familial factors such as birth order and family structure were not
predictive of initial college adjustment, both mother’s and father’s authoritative
parenting styles were predictive of college adjustment. For females, father’s
authoritative parenting style accounted for 3% of the 11% model variance of
personal-emotional adjustment and 3% of the 15% model variance of commitment
to college. For females, mother’s authoritative parenting style was not predictive
of any indices of initial college adjustment. For males, mother’s authoritative
parenting style accounted for 6.4% of the 18% model variance of social adjustment
and 4.2% of the 17% model variance of commitment to college.
Interestingly, the authoritative parenting style of the opposite-sexed parent
was more influential for college adjustment than the authoritative parenting
style of the same-sexed parent. For female students, this study found that when
they perceive their fathers as communicative and responsive they tend to adjust
positively to college life. Traditionally, fathers have been viewed as the disci-
plinarian, instrumental, and authoritarian figure of the family, whereas mothers
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 235
Tab
le3
.In
terc
orr
ela
tio
ns
betw
een
Co
lleg
eA
dju
stm
en
to
nS
ele
cte
dV
ari
ab
les
Vari
ab
les
SA
CQ
PE
SA
CQ
SS
AC
QA
SA
CQ
GC
MD
EM
DD
EM
GP
AF
am
ilyB
irth
Hu
mo
r
Male
s(n
=1
22
)
SA
CQ
PE
SA
CQ
S
SA
CQ
A
SA
CQ
GC
MD
EM
DD
EM
GP
A
Fam
ily
Bir
th
Hu
mo
r
—.3
6
—
.57
.38
—
.47
.69
.57
—
.18
.32
.19
.28
—
.11
.12
.09
.08
.57
—
.03
.00
.32
.00
.04
–.0
4
—
.04
–.0
2
.02
.17
.13
.08
.15
—
.11
.15
.15
.13
.03
.05
.00
–.0
6
—
.30
.35
.20
.35
.22
.11
–.0
1
.16
.11
—
236 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Fem
ale
s(n
=1
35
)
SA
CQ
PE
SA
CQ
S
SA
CQ
A
SA
CQ
GC
MD
EM
DD
EM
GP
A
Fam
ily
Bir
th
Hu
mo
r
—.4
9
—
.61
.55
—
.49
.83
.57
—
.16
.18
.12
.19
—
.18
.18
.14
.20
.59
—
.15
.29
.38
.27
.02
.11
—
.07
–.0
7
–.0
1
–.0
6
.09
.18
.15
—
–.1
0
–.0
5
–.0
7
–.0
2
–.0
1
.02
–.0
8
–.0
6
—
.28
.25
.28
.20
.11
.02
–.0
4
–.1
7
–.0
0
—
No
te:
SA
CQ
PE
=P
ers
on
al-E
mo
tio
nal
Ad
justm
en
t,S
AC
QS
=S
ocia
lA
dju
stm
en
t,S
AC
QA
=A
cad
em
icA
dju
stm
en
t,S
AC
QG
C=
Go
al
Co
mm
itm
en
tA
dju
stm
en
t,M
DE
M/D
DE
M=
Mo
ther
an
dF
ath
er
Au
tho
rita
tive
Pare
ntin
gS
tyle
,G
PA
=G
rad
eP
oin
tA
vera
ge,
Fam
ily=
Fam
ily
Str
uctu
re,B
irth
=B
irth
Ord
er,
Hu
mo
r=
Hu
mo
rou
sC
op
ing
Skill
s.
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 237
have been viewed as the nurturing, expressive, and authoritative figure of the
family (Stearns, 1991). Perhaps, if females perceive their fathers in a similar
authoritative manner to that of their mothers, they may perceive a sense of
balance or adjustment in their lives. Indeed, research demonstrates that chil-
dren and adolescents achieve higher academic marks when they experience
two parents who are equally communicative and open (authoritative) as opposed
to one dominant parent (authoritarian) and one submissive parent (permissive)
(Dornbusch et al., 1987).
238 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Table 4. Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Variables
Predicting Male College Adjustment (n = 257)
Variables R2 R2 Change b t p
Personal-Emotional Adjustment
Humor
Constant
Standard Error = 1.23
Adjusted R2 = .080
For Model: F = 11.453; p = .001
Social Adjustment
Humor
Authoritative Mom
Constant
Standard Error = 1.04
Adjusted R2 = .170
For Model: F = 9.271; p = .003
Academic Adjustment
GPA
Humor
Constant
Standard Error = .94
Adjusted R2 = .127
For Model: F = 5.758; p = .018
Goal-Commitment Adjustment
Humor
Authoritative Mom
Constant
Standard Error = 1.21
Adjusted R2 = .153
For Model: F = 5.962; p = .016
.087
.120
.184
.100
.142
.125
.167
.087
.120
.064
.100
.042
.125
.042
.729
3.640
.633
.481
2.155
.432
.392
3.393
.773
.447
2.674
3.384
3.397
3.045
3.578
2.400
3.580
2.242
.001
.001
.003
<.001
.018
<.001
.016
Conversely, for male students, this study found that when male college
freshmen perceived their mothers as open and responsive their sons had a tendency
to positively adjust to college life. Traditionally, fathers have socialized their
sons toward instrumental behavior roles, whereas mothers have socialized their
sons toward expressive behavior roles (Easly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000; Garside
& Klimes, 2002). Consequently, male college freshmen may seek their mothers
for emotional support required for expressive and emotional behavioral (i.e.,
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 239
Table 5. Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Variables
Predicting Female College Adjustment (n = 135)
Variables R2 R2 Change b t p
Personal-Emotional Adjustment
Humor
Authoritative Dad
Constant
Standard Error = 1.54
Adjusted R2 = .095
For Model: F = 4.278; p = .041
Social Adjustment
GPA
Humor
Constant
Standard Error = 1.13
Adjusted R2 = .136
For Model: F = 10.311; p = .002
Academic Adjustment
GPA
Humor
Constant
Standard Error = .90
Adjusted R2 = .219
For Model: F = 14.795; p = .001
Goal-Commitment Adjustment
GPA
Humor
Authoritative Dad
Constant
Standard Error = 1.32
Adjusted R2 = .125
For Model: F = 4.035; p = .047
.079
.108
.083
.149
.144
.231
.075
.118
.145
.079
.029
.083
.066
.144
.087
.075
.043
.026
.892
.429
1.495
.544
.619
2.433
.601
.593
2.628
.558
.570
.359
2.309
3.391
2.068
3.699
3.211
5.111
3.846
3.227
2.534
2.009
.001
.041
<.001
.002
<.001
<.001
.002
.012
.047
personal-emotional and social) adjustment to college life. While these results are
intriguing, it is unknown whether such findings are simply an artifact, or whether
the authoritative parenting style of the opposite-sexed parent truly plays an
integral role in facilitating initial college adjustment.
Conclusions and Implications
Although humor was more predictive of college adjustment and commitment
for male college freshmen compared to female college freshmen, this study has
shown that the ability for male and female college freshmen to use humor to cope
with stressful situations is an important factor in predicting initial indices of
college adjustment. Such findings may be related to the females being more
open with their emotions than their male counterparts (Brebner, 2003). In
accordance with such findings, the authors believe male students may be using
humor as a stress reliever or as a method to project their emotions more so than
females. Perhaps the findings of this study are based on the types of students
embedded within gender. For example, Astin (1993) discovered that a typology of
students exists and that each of these seven types (i.e., Scholar, Social Activist,
Artist, Hedonist, Leader, Status Striver, and Uncommitted) of students might
require a differential college environment according to their typology. Future
research might want to examine humor in relation to this typology of students as
to which of these types of students utilize and benefit from humor in terms of
retention rates.
Given that approximately 60% of college students fail to graduate from their
collegiate educational endeavors (e.g., Tinto, 2000), initial adjustment to college
should not be looked upon lightly and should be explored more in-depth as a
possible means for student retention. Indeed, research on college retention has
shown that college students are not a “one size fits all” phenomena (e.g., Astin,
1993) as students interact with a variety of peers (Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, Nora,
& Terenzini, 1999), gain employment for financial reasons (Pascarella, Edison,
Nora, Hagedorn, & Terenzini, 1998b), attend community colleges and traditional
four-year universities (Pascarella, Edison, Nora, Hagedorn, & Terenzini, 1998a,
and encounter differential out-of-classroom experiences (Terenzini, Pascarella, &
Blimling, 1996). For some students, these differential experiences might create
unwanted anxiety and stress that is too difficult to overcome. Although the
findings of this study would suggest that college students might benefit from
employing humor as coping mechanism for stress and anxiety associated with
their initial college transition, the factors behind which they employ this humor
remains unanswered. Untangling when, where, how, and why college students
employ humor as a coping mechanism for initial adjustment to college life is
warranted. Further studies may want to focus efforts on the long-term effects of
humor on various indices of college adjustment, college experiences, college
commitment, and graduation rates as opposed to initial college adjustment.
240 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Universities and colleges may want to consider incorporating humor into
academic pedagogy in an attempt to improve educational success. Perhaps, uni-
versities and colleges could hold seminars, colloquiums, and other methods of
teaching and training faculty members the importance of incorporating humor into
the classroom setting. Although many universities and colleges are currently
employing various strategies to improve student retention rates (e.g., Berger,
2001-2002; Braxton, 2001-2002; Dale & Zych, 1996), more emphasis addressing
the importance of parenting college students and the importance of emotional
stress and relief needed for college success is warranted (Gardner & Jewler, 1997).
Research by Astin (1999) has demonstrated that getting students involved early
on in their college endeavors may be related to retention rates. If this holds
true, then perhaps involving both students and parents by holding parent-student
conferences and a variety of parent-student orientations prior to and after the
matriculation of college could increase retention rates.
Initial adjustment to college should be considered an important agenda for
those researching and predicting college adjustment, retention, and graduation.
The rational behind initial college adjustment is based on learning principles,
namely, self-efficacy. If college freshmen do not adjust and commit early during
their collegiate endeavors they may be less likely to return in ensuing quarters/
semesters and graduate from college as they may develop learned and con-
ditioned negative perceptions based on their initial experiences of college life.
Research by Coffman and Gilligan (2002-2003) supports the notion of self-
efficacy and initial college adjustment. More specifically, they found that college
freshmen who had heightened levels of social support (i.e., parents) and self-
efficacy were more satisfied and adjusted to the new surroundings of their
college environment.
In closing, future studies may want to examine if humor and authoritative
parenting are related to long-term adjustment to college, retention rates, and
graduation rates or if such variables are strictly related to initial indices of
adjustment to college. In other words, does the unique variance of humor in
relation to indices of college adjustment increase or decrease over time? Finding
ways of increasing and implementing humor and authoritative parenting therefore
seems to be instrumental in improving initial adjustment, retention, and increasing
the chances of student graduation.
REFERENCES
Abelsohn, D., & Sayman, G. S. (1991). Adolescent adjustment to parental divorce:
An investigation from the perspective of basic dimensions of structural family therapy
theory. Family Process, 30, 177-191.
Adair, F. A., & Sieger, L. (1984). Improving performance through the use of humor.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association,
New Orleans, LA.
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 241
Amato, P. R. (1991). The child of divorce as a person prototype: Bias in the recall of
information about children in divorced families. Journal of Marriage and the Family,
53(1), 56-59.
Aro, H. M., & Palosaari, U. K. (1992). Parental divorce, adolescence, and transition
to young adulthood: A follow-up study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62,
421-429.
Astin, A. W. (1993). An empirical typology of college students. Journal of College
Student Development, 34(1), 36-46.
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher edu-
cation. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529.
Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1989). Student adaptation to college questionnaire manual.
Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Baumrind, D. (1968). Authoritarian vs. authoritative parental control. Adolescence,
3(11), 255-272.
Barber, N. (1998). The role of reproductive strategies in academic achievement. Sex
Roles, 38(3-4), 313-323.
Berger, J. B. (2001-2002). Understanding the organizational nature of student
persistence: Empirically-based recommendations for practice. Journal of College Student
Retention: Research, Theory, & Practice, 3(1), 3-22.
Berk, R. A., & Nanda, J. P. (1998). Effects of jocular instructional methods on attitudes,
anxiety, and achievement in statistics courses. Humor: International Journal of Humor
Research, 11(4), 388-409.
Boyce-Rodgers, K., & Rose, H. A. (2001). Personal, family, and school factors related
to adolescent academic performance: A comparison study of family structure. Marriage
& Family Review, 33(4), 47-61.
Braxton, J. M. (2001-2002). Using theory and research to improve college stu-
dent retention. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory, & Practice,
3(1), 1-2.
Brebner, J. (2003). Gender and emotions. Personality and Individual Differences,
34(3), 387-394.
Brody, G. H., & Neubaum, E. (1996). Family transitions as stressors in children
and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental Authority Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment,
57(1), 110-119.
Cherlin, A. J., Furstenberg, F. F., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Kiernan, K. E., Robins, P. K.,
Morrison, D. R., & Teitler, J. O. (1991). Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on
children in Great Britain and the United States. Science, 252, 1386-1389.
Christensen, P. (2001). Achievement differences among gifted, above-average
ability, and average and below-average ability college students. In N. Colangelo &
S. Assouline (Eds.), Talent development IV: Proceedings from the 1998 Henry B. and
Jocelyn Wallace national research on talent development (pp. 337-340). Scottsdale, AZ:
Great Potential Press.
Coffman, D. L., & Gilligan, T. D. (2002-2003). Social support, stress, and self-efficacy:
Effects on students’ satisfaction. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory,
& Practice, 4(1), 53-56.
Dale, P. M., & Zych, T. (1996). A successful college retention program. College Student
Journal, 30(3), 354-360.
242 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as a context: An integrative model.
Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487-496.
Donovan, J. E., & Jessor, R. (1985). Structure of problem behavior in adolescence and
young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(6), 890-904.
Dornbusch, S. M., Ritter, P. L, Leiderman, P. L., Roberts, D. F., & Fraleigh,
M. J. (1987). The relation of parenting style to adolescent school performance. Child
Development, 58(5), 143-160.
Easly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, D. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differ-
ences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes, & H. M. Trautner (Eds.),
The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123-174). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Eshleman, J. R. (2003). The family (10th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Falbo, T. (1981). Relationships between birth category, achievement, and interpersonal
orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(1), 121-131.
Francisco, S. M. (1990). Roy’s modes of adaptation and use of humor related to
family functioning. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50(7-B), 2843-2844.
Freud, S. (1905). Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. New York: Norton.
Gardner, J. N., & Jewler, A. J. (1997). Your college experience: Strategies for success
(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Garside, R. B., & Klimes, D. B. (2002). Socialization of discrete negative emo-
tions: Gender differences and links with psychological distress. Sex Roles, 47(3-4),
115-128.
Hickman, G. P., & Andrews, D. W. (2003). The predictive nature of humor,
academic achievement, and authoritative parenting styles on the initial adjustment of
male and female college freshmen. Journal of The First-Year Experience and Students
in Transition, 15(2), 61-82.
Hickman, G. P., Bartholomae, S., & McKenry, P. C. (2000). The influence of parenting
styles on the adjustment and academic achievement of traditional college freshmen.
Journal of College Student Development, 41, 41-53.
Hickman, G. P., Toews, M., & Andrews, D. W. (2001). The differential influence
of authoritative parenting on the initial adjustment of male and female traditional
college freshmen. Journal of The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition,
13(1), 23-46.
Kunz, J., & Kunz, J. P. (1995). Parental divorce and academic achievement of college
students. Psychological Reports, 76(3), 1025-1026.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Larsen, A., & Jacobs, J. E. (1997). Retrospective reports of
the family of origin environment and the transition to college. Journal of College Student
Development, 38(1), 49-61.
Lefcourt, H. M., & Martin, R. A. (1986). Humor and life stress: Antidote to adversity.
New York: Springer.
Leman, K. (1985). The birth order book: Why you are the way you are. Old Tappan,
NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company.
Manke, B. (1998). Genetic and environmental contributors to children’s interpersonal
humor. In W. Ruch (Ed.), The sense of humor: Explorations of a personality characteristic
(pp. 361-384). New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Pascarella, E. T. (2001). Using student self-reported gains to estimate college impact:
A cautionary tale. Journal of College Student Development, 45(2), 488-492.
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 243
Pascarella, E. T., Edison, M. I., Nora, A., Hagedorn, L. S., & Terenzini, P. T. (1998a).
Does community college vs. four-year college attendance influence students educational
plans? Journal of College Student Development, 39(2), 179-193.
Pascarella, E. T., Edison, M. I., Nora, A., Hagedorn, L. S., & Terenzini, P. T. (1998b).
Does work inhibit cognitive development during college? Educational Evaluation and
Policy Analysis, 20(2), 75-93.
Pellegrini, D. S., Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., & Ferrarese, M. J. (1987). Correlates of
social and academic competence in middle childhood. Journal of Child Psychology &
Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 28(5), 699-714.
Prerost, F. J. (1983). Locus of control and the aggression inhibiting effects of aggressive
humor appreciation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 294-299.
Rice, K. G., & Dellwo, J. P. (2002). Perfectionism and self-development: Impli-
cations for college adjustment. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80(2),
188-196.
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1995). Crime in the making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Stearns, P. N. (1991). Fatherhood in historical perspective: The role of social change.
In F. Bozett & S. Hanson (Eds.), Fatherhood and families in cultural context (pp. 28-52).
New York: Springer Publishing Co., Inc.
Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E. T., Blimling, G. S. (1996). Students out-of-class
experiences and their influence on learning and cognitive development: A literature review.
Journal of College Student Development, 37(2), 149-162.
Tinto, V. (2000). Linking learning and leaving: Exploring the role of the college
classroom in student departure. In J. Braxton (Ed.), Reworking the student departure puzzle
Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.
Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Clarke, D. (1994). Predicting social adjustment and academic
achievement for college women with and without precollege leadership. Journal of College
Student Development, 35(2), 120-124.
Travers, R. M. W. (1949). Significant research on the prediction of academic
success. In W. T. Donohue, C. H. Coombs, & R. M. W. Travers (Eds.), The measurement
of student adjustment and achievement (pp. 147-190). Oxford, England: University of
Michigan Press.
Tross, S. A., Harper, J. P., Osher, L. W., & Kneidinger, L. M. (2000). Not just the usual
cast of characteristics: Using personality to predict college performance and retention.
Journal of College Student Development, 41(3), 323-334.
Vance, J. E., Fernandez, G., & Biber, M. (1998). Educational progress in a population of
youth with aggressive and emotional disturbance: The role of risk and protective factors.
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 6(4), 214-219.
Weiner, J., Harlow, L., Adams, J., & Grebstein, L. (1995). Psychological adjustment of
college students from families of divorce. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 23(3-4),
75-95.
Whitt, E. J., Edison, M. I., Pascarella, E. T., Nora, A., & Terenzini, P. T. (1999).
Interactions with peers and self-reported cognitive outcomes across 3 years of college.
Journal of College Student Development, 40(1), 61-78.
Zink, D. W. (2000). The enduring marriages of adult children of divorce. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 61(5-B), 2822.
244 / HICKMAN AND CROSSLAND
Ziv, A. (1988). Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication. Journal
of Experimental Education, 57(1), 5-15.
Direct reprint requests to:
Gregory P. Hickman, Ph.D.
Director, Arizona Dropout Initiative
Center for the Future of Arizona
541 E. Van Buren
Suite B-5
Phoenix, AZ 85004
HUMOR AND COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT / 245