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St. Alphonsus Theological and Mission Institute
Redemptorists, Bajada
Davao City
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THE KANKANA-EY’S HOPE OF RECLAIMING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEIR
CULTURE AND RITUALS
In Partial Fulfillment of the Course Requirements for
Cultural Anthropology and Missiology
___________________
A paper presented by
Jomil C. Baring, C.Ss.R.
A paper presented to
Bro. Karl Gaspar, CSsR
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October 2013
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………………..3
Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………....4
Scope and Limitation …………………………………………………………………….4
Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………..5
Chapter 2 The Kankana-ey at the Pre-Conquest, at the Age of Conquest and its
Christianization ……………………………………………………………………..6
A. Geographical and Historical Background and the People in General ………………...6
B. Political System ………………………………………………………………………8
C. Social Organization …………………………………………………………………..11
D. Belief System ………………………………………………………………………...14
1. The Native Priests and their Priestly Class …………………………………...16
a. Mansip-ok …………………………………………………………….17
b. Manbunong …………………………………………………………...18
c. Mankotum …………………………………………………………….18
2. On Kankana-ey Rituals ……………………………………………………….20
a. Thanksgiving Rituals ………………………………………………....20
b. Healing Rituals ………………………………………………………..20
3. The Kankana-ey Belief System in the Spanish Colonial Period ……………...22
a. The Foundation of the See of Nueva Segovia ………………………...24
4. American Occupation and Protestantism ……………………………………..26
a. The Kankana-ey Protestants …………………………………………..28
Chapter 3 Theological Reflection and Conclusion …………………………………………...31
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………….35
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Every group of people are identified with their own culture. With their belief
system that entails especially rituals, people greatly identified themselves as individual
and as a community. Definitely, without these rituals, peoples of different cultures could
not remain human.1 Hence, rituals in a very great sense are the manifestations and
expressions of the people’s belief and spirituality, thoughtways and lifeways.2 There are
different kinds of rituals and they varied depending on the situation or event. Each ritual
has a corresponding prayer, specific spirit addressed to persons involved, material
offerings, sacrificial animal and time of performance.3 There is a ritual for planting, for
harvesting, for thanksgiving, for healing a sick person, for asking forgiveness, for
initiation, for marriage, for the dying, the dead and the burial, etc. These rituals express
the spirituality of the people as well as the people’s integral relationship with other
human beings, with nature and with the spirits of the world. These rituals are expressed
and performed through dancing, singing or chanting of prayers and other specific
executions like for instance the slitting of the head of the chicken to the gestures of
passing the container (of blood, water or wine).
This aspect of culture is very much common among all groups of people
particularly to indigenous people. Even the “highly civilized” cultures have their own
rituals. And more so to the indigenous people who perform such rituals in a dignified and
sacred manner. And when rituals are suppressed or systematically banned, the people
would also lose their very identity.
Nevertheless, it is undeniable that there are groups of indigenous people who
embraced the civilization and development as what lowlanders call it, gradually departed
from their original way of life. One of the aspects that were affected was their belief
1 Gerald A. Arbuckle, Culture, Inculturation, Theologians: A Postmodern Critique, (Minnesota: Liturgical Press,
2010), 81. 2 Wasing D. Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, (Philippines: BCF Printing Press, 1987), 37. 3 Ibid., 144.
3
system. New religion was introduced and many were baptized especially to Christianity
as a way of development. Consequently, there was the abandonment of their beliefs and
practices that have been handed down to them from their ancestors of old. In particular,
this is the situation of the Kankana-ey4 people of the Northern Philippines who at the
dawn of Christianization abandoned and were forced to abandon their traditional beliefs
for it was against the perspective of the religion of Christianity. This is particularly true
with the fundamentalist Christians who give sole emphasis on the scriptures (sola
scriptura) as experienced by the Kankana-ey who live in the downtowns among the
lowlanders5. Yet, even after those years of embracing Christianity, there were members
of these people who wish to reclaim the aspect of rituals in their culture without
jeopardizing the elements of their Christian faith.
This is the case of the two Kankana-ey anthropology students, Charisse Mae and
Henry who began to realize the lost rituals and their meaning as young Kankana-ey of
today. It is their wish and hope that their rituals as Kankana-ey people will be retrieved
and those young Kankana-ey like them would begin to claim their own culture as they
would grow in faith as Christians.
Statement of the Problem
This study seeks the significance of the life of the indigenous people in Luzon
particularly the Kankana-ey. Moreover, the study would stress the rituals in the life of the
(Northern) Kankana-ey people that would even nourish their Christian faith. To facilitate
this study, the ideas, hopes and dreams of the two young Kankana-eys are to be
considered. Hence, to guide this paper, there are questions that are raised.
1. Who are the (Northern) Kankana-ey people?
4 Also known as Kankanay, Kankanai or Kankana-i. See CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the
Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” (Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994), 38. 5 Personally confirmed and attested by both Kankana-ey students of Pamulaan Center for Indigenous People’s
Education USEP, Mintal Campus, Davao City. They are Charisse Mae Das-ao who is a Seventh Day Adventist and
Henry Astorillo, Jr. who is also member of Full Gospel Christian Church in my interview with them on July 22,
2013.
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2. How did the colonization and Christianization affect the Kankana-ey people
particularly their indigenous belief system and rituals?
3. What are the intrinsic significance of their rituals and their possible
contributions to the nourishment of the Christian faith which would be a
possible way for evangelization and inculturation?
Significance of the Study
As this paper tackles the Kankanaey people, it also particularly tries to bring out
the various rituals of the Kankana-ey people and the rich meaning and symbolisms of
these rituals. In addition, this paper intends to examine the effects of colonization and
Christianization. In conclusion, this study takes into account these materials as a source
on how evangelization and inculturation of the Gospel be further integrated into the life
and culture of the indigenous people, particularly the Kankana-ey without jeopardizing
and degrading their very culture and tradition, expressed through their rituals.
Scope and Limitation
In the course of this study, internet and published materials are employed. The
accounts of the interview/conversation with the two young Kankana-ey, Charisse Mae
Das-ao and Henry Astorillo, Jr. are also to be used as a primary source. Nevertheless, this
study is limited as to an intensive knowledge of the Northern Kankana-ey since the
researcher’s contacts are the two young Kankana-ey students of Pamulaan only. Hence,
this paper considers the gap of perspectives particularly of the older Kankana-eys whose
mind set is different from the young, yet, the two are very significant for this study.
This study primarily focuses on the Kankana-ey people in general and considers
the integral events and people that directly and indirectly affect the life of the Kankana-
ey. Further, this study takes into account as well the Northern Kankana-ey who are
situated in the town of Cervantes, Ilocus Sur, the town of Charisse Mae and Henry. In
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addition, this is particularly in a Christian-protestant community setting of Kankana-ey
for Charisse is a member of Seventh Day Adventist while Henry is a member of the Full
Gospel Christian Church.6
Methodology
This paper focuses on the historical events that surrounded and affected directly
and indirectly the Kankana-ey people. This historical approach helps the researcher to
examine the different changes and influences that happened. This study relies more on
the interview from the two Kankana-ey stdents and the book entitled Treasury of Beliefs
and Home Rituals of Benguet (1987) authored by Wasing D. Sacla, a kankana-ey himself
whose sources were the old Kankana-ey themselves. Philippine historical books are also
employed for further research.
6 Personal interview of Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013.
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Chapter 2
The Kankana-ey at the Pre-Conquest, at the Age of Conquest and its
Christianization in the Spanish and American Era
A. Geographical and Historical Background and the People in General
In the northwest Luzon of the Archipelago of the Philippines, a certain group of
people called Kankana-ey inhabits. This name of the group has no definite etymological
derivation but refers to the culture, language and people. This group together with the
Ibaloy comprise the Igorot of Benguet, the southernmost part of the Cordillera region.
Subsequently, among the indigenous people in northern Luzon the Kankan-ey and the
Ibaloy are closely related especially in their belief system and rituals though dissimilar in
terms of linguistics.7 The Kankana-eys are the third largest cultural community in this
part of the archipelago after the Ifugao and Bontoc.8 However, there are two distinct
groups of Kankana-ey here. There are the Northern, also called Lepanto Igorot and
Southern Kankana-ey. This term of Lepanto was used by the Spanish colonizers which
referred to an administration whose boundaries have changed through successive colonial
regimes. It is known today as the missing centre of Cordillera. During that Spanish
colonialism there was an attempt for copper and gold mining at Lepanto yet the Spanish
faced great resistance from the Lepanto Igorots as they called them.9
Additionally, the Northern Kankana-ey are mostly located in the south-western
part of Mountain Province (Bontoc). They settle in the municipalities of Besao, Sagada,
Tadian, Bauko, and Sabangan.10 However, the two Kankana-ey interviewed for this study
are from the municipality of Cervantes, Ilocus Sur. They are one of those Kankana-ey
7 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 4. 8 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
(Manila: Cultural Centre of the Philippines, 1994), 38. 9 There was also an attempt to exploit these mines at Lepanto in the 1860s but the Spaniards failed. See William
Henry Scott, “The Spanish Occupation of the Cordillera in the 19th Century”, ed. by Alfred McCoy and Ed. C. de
Jesus, Philippines Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformation, (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 1982), 42. 10 Ibid.
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who migrated from the high terrain and settled in town centres in the western part of the
Mountain Province and in the municipalities of Bontok, Quirini, and Abra.11
Moreover, both the southern and northern kankana-ey shared many traits even in
physical characteristics. These southern kankana-ey actually are the expansion of the
northern due to transfer of settlements. They are culturally similar with similar
institutions, beliefs and practices. These people are rice-terracing agriculturists who built
the magnificent rice terraces in the mountain slopes of the central Cordillera. No doubt,
these terraces had been already built long before the Spaniards came and penetrated these
areas of the country. Their rice aside of being their staple food is also special for tapey
brewing or rice wine that is largely a material in all their ritual activities. Aside from rice
they also raise large animals with a lavish care for pigs, dogs, and chicken for ritual
purposes and feasting as well.
These two groups of Kankana-ey are also further differentiated through their
accent. The Northern ones are the soft-spoken Kankanaey, on the other hand, those who
belong in the Southern are the hard-spoken Kankana-ey.12 In terms of the general
linguistics, they also differ in some words that they used, however, mostly are common.
When it comes to their traditional costume, both men of the two groups wear the same
things. They wear the wanes or the G-string made of woven cloth or procured from
certain kind of tress worn around the waist and to cover the private parts. Commonly, a
woven wanes is with a colour of red and blue or a combination of yellow and red. Yet,
are different designs of the wanes which would be according to the social status.13
Nevertheless, men do not wear anything for their upper part except the red head-band
they wear called bedbed or badbad. For women as well, they wear the tapis pingay or
simply tapis which is a wrap-around skirt that covers the lower part of the body from the
waist down to their knees.14 It is usually coloured with dark blue and with ornamental
designs of colours red and yellow. This is being supported by a thickly woven belt called
bagket which is usually about five inches wide. Bagket has also fringes that hang at the
back of a woman. Nonetheless, for the upper part of the women, the soft and hard-spoken
11 Henry Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey Different Dances and their Meaning, (Unpublished) August 2012,4. 12 Taken from the conversations with Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013. 13 Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey Different Dances and their Meaning, 8. 14 Ibid., 9.
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women somehow differ.15 The dress of the soft-spoken women has a colour combination
of black, white and red in a criss-crossed style. While the hard-spoken women wear the
tapis of mainly in black and red with a little white styles. Both groups of women also
commonly wear a string of beads and earrings made of copper, gold or shells. They have
a head-band also with feathers, leaves and flowers especially during special occasions
and big festivities and rituals. However, these traditional attires of the Kankana-ey have
become more and more extinct. These attires now used as mere costumes that would be
worn only during official civil festivities in the cities and in any public affairs nowadays.
There are several reasons identified of why this tribe had been divided into two.16
First, the group who went up to the hills realized that it would be very much difficult if
another group would be there to control the source of water. It was the time when they
were driven from the coastal belt by the foreigners coming in. The second reason
proposed that the ancestors of the present mountain dwellers may had been attracted by
the salutary climate of Cordillera with its natural resources and to go beyond from their
place which was infected my malaria. This led them to occupy the mountains of 2000 m
above sea level. Other sources would say that it was through the process of displacement
or maybe because of their instinct to look for a terrain more to their liking which is
similar with southern China. This was according to the Austronesian Theory.17
B. Political System
In the Kankana-ey society, there is no formal political leadership except that
which is approved by virtue of a Kankana-ey’s social class, which is defined through the
accumulated wealth, or through the knowledge of oral tradition, possession of healing
15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 This theory proposes the migration of a group of people called Austronesians from Asia into the Pacific by means
of Taiwan between 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. Hence, starting from mainland China and reaching Taiwan first in
3500 BC then to the Philippines by 3000 BC and later on to the neighbouring countries around Southeast Asia and
the Pacific. This theory was proposed by Peter Belwood, a linguist and professor of Archaeology which explains the
similarities in culture, language, physical attributes in different counties in most Asian region. Philippine
Encyclopaedia, “Austronesian Migration Theory,”
http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Austronesian_Migration_Theory (accessed October 1, 2013).
9
powers, knowledge of agricultural rituals and venerable wisdom which comes with age.18
Hence, the role of the native priests is also significant in political matters particularly on
giving verdicts and judgments to an offence made which is also entirely related with the
people’s belief system.19
Moreover, the traditional Kankana-ey nobility, which they call baknang,20
exercises the biggest influence especially in religious practices. When the Spanish
settlement was established in 157421 in Ilocus and the expedition to the Cordilleras in
166522 was realized, the baknang were installed as district presidente or village konsehal
and upon retirement would gain the honour of kapitan. Moreover, this wealthy class was
favoured again when the Americans came that as the local elite they were usually the
choice for taking up high offices in the American colonial bureaucracy.23
The elderly men and women called as manabig and manpudpud respectively were
respected in the community and have always significant roles in every community
activity. This is always true during their rituals whether rich or poor. In particular the
elder who would hold the gangsa24 will act as the protocol officer of the ritual. They were
consulted to define and correct the traditions and customs of the community.
Above all, there is also another important function in the Kankana-ey community.
The At-ato and also called dap-ay which is a meeting place of the elders served as the
focal point of community unity.25 These elders would comprise like a council called as
tongtong26 who made community decisions as to giving of judgments and sanctions to an
accuser or accused person in terms of moral issues. Consequently, the customs and
18 Ibid., 41. 19 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 22. The roles of the native priest will be elaborated in the
section of the Belief System and Religious Practices of the Kankana-ey. 20 Ibid., 7. 21 Led by the Spaniard, Kapitan Juan Salcedo, the grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legaspi and also known as the
“Explorer of Luzon” see Martin J. Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the
Philippines 1521-1581, Part 1 Volume 1, (Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1986), 417-434. 22 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
38. 23 Ibid., 41. 24 Gangsa is a musical instrument made of brass, copper or iron that produces sound when hit by a small piece of
wood. This is just one of the main instruments in the Kankana-ey rituals. Henry Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey
Different Dances And Their Meaning, (Unpublished), September 2012. 25 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
41. 26 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 7.
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taboos in the Kankana-ey community are observed as laws even though such practices
are unwritten. Moreover, these practices are integrally attached to their belief system.
The following are also some examples of taboos in the community.27
a. Chanting of ritual prayers without the corresponding ritual celebration.
b. Playing of the musical instruments such as the gangsa or gongs outside the rituals.
c. Eating of the ritual or sacrificed meat while the native priest, mambunong, is saying the
ritual prayer.
d. Opening of the ritual jar of rice wine called tapey/tafey without permission.
A person who is found out of doing these things may receive a particular sanction
from the tongtong. More and severe punishment will be imposed if the offence is more
than this like stealing, murdering, adultery etc. Moreover, in settlement cases the
tongtong together with the native priests gather together and with the contesting parties
would make a ritual invoking first the highest god Adika-ila for wisdom. The council
would ask as well both parties to look at the sky to seek fairness and justice from the
spirits. The following are the common forms of trial and settlement done in a ritual
manner.
a. Gaweng28 is a trial by boiling pot where both parties are to dip the right hand into the
boiling pot. This is done when the evidence of guilt is weak commonly applied in thief
cases. Other than thief, it is also applied in determining who is guilty in cases of fraud,
covetousness and land disputes. According to this trial whoever feels the pain and shows
abnormal feelings during the process will be proclaimed guilty.
b. Sapata is a trial by oath which is an old practice in deciding cases when the evidence is
weak or in the absence of a witness. Here, the tongtong does not necessarily pass the
judgment on the guilty. The tongtong’s function here is to let both parties to swear to the
highest god, Adika-ila where the punishment of the guilty is left to Adikaila who is fair
and just. In this case as well the accused after making his sapata will be asked by the
tongtong what curse should he or she will choose if ever he or she is guilty. The
following are the suggested curses29:
i. That he or she will live a very poor life;
27 Ibid. 28 Ibid., 14. 29 Ibid., 16.
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ii. That the lightning will strike him or her;
iii. That the snake will bite him or her;
iv. That he or she may not live long;
However, these elements of the Kankana-ey political system gradually
deteriorated when the foreign invaders came in and imposed their colonial political
system. Through the imposition of the pueblos of the Spaniards, the system was greatly
affected for they were treated as mere subjects and slaves. But to some extent the
Spaniards were aware of this village system and made this indigenous system as a
tribunal.30 And in the later political development in the Philippines as to the institutions
of the municipalities as political sub-units of provincial governments, the Kankana-ey
political system was left to history. Yet, in the most inner part of the Mountain Province,
separated from the urbanized system in the lowland, the at-ato or dapay and the council
of elders, tongtong, is still looked upon and respected by the community.
C. Social Organization
Like the political structure of the Kankana-ey, their social organization is entirely
intertwined with their belief system. And in this society as well the family is the basic
social unit composed of husband and wife and their children. This society is
monogamous that when the couple starts to have children it is generally permanent. A
nuclear family is also common in this society which is composed of unmarried or
widowed children, aged parents and even relatives who cannot take care and support
themselves caused either by death or left behind by a spouse.31 Yet, what is also
interesting in this kind of society, children particularly are not expected all day to stay in
their homes. Children are expected even to sleep outside their homes. The at-ato which is
also the meeting centre of the elders is at the same time like a social institution meant for
boys and unmarried men or until they would be married.32 Here, the place would serve as
30 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
38. 31 Ibid., 42. 32 Ibid.
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the sleeping quarter of the young and unmarried men. Until today there are still Kankana-
eys who practise this, yet in the lowlands where Kankana-ey lived with the non-Kankana-
ey this is not observed anymore.33 On the other hand, for the young girls both those who
have and not yet reached the age of unmarried women they also stay together in a house
called ebgan. This house akin to a dormitory served as their sleeping quarter as well just
like the men. This is a house that is may not be used by a regular household or
exclusively built for this purpose. This kind of association is purposely to prepare the
youth for a new phase of relationships which would eventually lead to marriage.
Hence, when it comes to marriage, the Kankana-ey also has the old tradition of
arrange marriage by the parents of both parties. However, in the later years, courtship
gained much favour particularly among the new generation of Kankana-ey. The male
suitors would visit the girl in her sleeping quarter with the rest of other girls. After
sometime of getting acquainted with each other and building of intimacy they may reach
to the decision of marriage. In this case the man proposes to the parents of the woman.
And in the custom of the Kankana-ey society, the man would render service to the family
of the woman by helping in the farm or in any household chores. After few weeks or even
a month of service and if the omens would prove to be good and favourable for the
marriage, the wedding is set for the solemnization at the girl’s house.34
In this society, there is also a social stratification among them. As it was already
expressed in the political structure of the Kankana-ey the baknang who are the rich
people occupies the higher position in the community. This is a hereditary “aristocracy”
which is handed down by virtue of wealth through landholdings, their capacity to
celebrate feasts and also through other evidence of material wealth. In ritual activities, the
baknang are always regarded to be served with the first juice of rice wine called tapey,
given the best part of the meat of the sacrificed animal commonly a pig, and given the
honour to start the ritual dancing.35 Yet, the baknang when they hold feasts or rituals
33 Confirmed by Charisse and Henry during my conversation with them at the Pamulaan Center for Indigenous
People’s Education USEP, Mintal Campus, Davao City on July 22, 2013. 34 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
42. 35 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 8.
13
called by the lowlanders as kanyaw but actually called as sida or dilus36 by the Kankana-
ey are expected to share their blessings to the unfortunates. Furthermore, the komidwa37
follows in the order of social class. They are the intermediate class of independent
property holders. And below them are the kodo38 who are the impoverished ones in the
community. These are individuals or families who do not own any rice fields or any other
possessions of measurable value. They are always dependent to others by working.
Expectedly, the marriages in the Kankana-ey society would also take place among
their own social class which helped to stabilize the class distinctions. Nevertheless,
because of the many factors that happened throughout history there were changes that
challenged also this kind of system. In a contemporary Kankana-ey society throughout
the Cordillera region there has been an undergoing changes in political, economic, social
and cultural aspect of the people and of course in terms of their belief system.39 These
changes had begun with the Spanish Colonialism that brought great injustices. Together
with the neighbouring tribes of the Kankana-ey around the Gran Cordillera Central such
as the Isneg (Apayao), Kalinga, Bontoc, Ifugao and the closely related Ibaloy were
subject to this foreign domination. And what actually attracted the Spanish conquistadors
in the mountains of Cordilleras was their gold and later on the tobacco which was an
industry being monopolized greatly pushed by the Spaniards by force.40 And with these
exploitations new diseases and epidemics came into the community which required
frequent ritual sacrifices that drained the old baknangs economic resources. When the
American colonial regime took power after the Spaniards, there was also a rise of the new
political and economic elite with new sources and prestige. Consequently, there is the so
called “newly rich” the socio-economic class that entered into the picture of Kankana-ey
society and even to other tribal groups. There were mixed bloods now due to inter-
marriages among the foreigners and neighbouring tribal groups. Hence, today there are
descendants of Spanish, Americans, and Chinese traders. And at the mid of the 20th
36 Kanyaw is a very popular term for the rituals of the Kankana-ey people yet it is being denied by both Henry and
Charisse during my interview with them on July 23, 2013 and attested as well by a Kankana-ey author, see the
preface of Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, iiv. 37 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
43. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 William Henry Scott, “The Spanish Occupation of the Cordillera in the 19th Century”, 42.
14
century, elite recruitment into the modern political system has been introduced and
possible even among non-traditional elite class of the Kankana-ey society. This is a result
of educational achievement, experience in politics, and wealth attained through
commercial and professional practice.41
But again, this situation is very much true in the lowlands, in municipalities and
towns and in the upper part where there are still significant communities existing, the
baknang continue to be regarded with the respected position in the community.
Furthermore, aside from this social classification in the Kankana-ey society, there
is also a very important social organization in this community and that is the roles of the
native priests which will be more expounded in the belief system of the Kankana-ey.
D. Belief System
The Kankana-ey people whether Northern or Southern believe in the existence of
the unseen beings that proceed from the skyworld and the underworld.42 These unseen
beings are also believed to be spirits to have power over humanity. Yet, these spirits can
be manipulated by humans at their own advantage. In this kind of belief, the Kankana-ey
people would strive to win the favour of these spirits through prayers and material
offerings in a ritual. Hence, the Kankana-ey must know the qualities and whims of
different spirits in order to classify a particular spirit according to hierarchy and
generosity. This has also a great effect to a kind of sacrifice or ritual that must be done.
In terms of the hierarchy of the spirits43, Adika-ila is believed to be the highest
and most powerful of all spirits in the skyworld for being the maker of the universe. This
spirit is so great that the native priests would call this spirit as “nanpalangka” the Most
High and Great Spirit and regarded as a fair and just spirit. Second to this highest spirit in
the skyworld are the dieties, Kabunyan. Both Adika-ila and Kabunyan look over the
humanity’s welfare and responds to their prayers whenever humans call for help. Hence,
41 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”
44. 42 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 4. 43 Ibid.
15
this perception of the Supreme Being evolves a belief system where lies the Kankana-
ey’s hopes and aspirations. There are also the spirits of the ancestors, ap-apo and spirits
of the people who have just died, kakading that are believed that they can move freely
from the skyworld and the underworld as they would like. Certainly, the Kankana-ey
believed that humans are spirit as well that when a person dies his or her own spirit joins
with the other spirits. And the last group of spirits that belong in the underworld are the
anito. These spirits live in the ocean, rivers, lakes, springs, caves, rocks, valleys, bushy
trees and shrubs and abandoned houses or buildings. In particular, those spirits in the
waters are called pinten and those in the mountains are called tomongao and many
others.44 These anito or spirits in the surroundings when offended could perpetrate
illness, death and adversity to humans. Thus, a specific ritual and sacrifice must be made
to appease the spirit or spirits.
Spirits are also classified as benevolent called as maeya and malevolent called as
makedse.45 And among the maeya, the tomongao, spirits in the mountains, are closest to
human beings since they are believed to own the animals and plants and keeps the
minerals under the earth. Hence, the farmers would befriend these spirits to protect and
bless them in their farms. On the other hand the makedse are very sensitive that when
offended, human beings are easy victims of their anger. Nevertheless, all spirits are
generally regarded to be all good, yet, the degree of goodness and badness of the spirits
depends on the spirits’ perception of human’s actions.46 The degree of offence of a
human being against the spirit is the measure of the degree of his or her punishment
repairable only by soothing the spirit through a prescribed ritual. But those spirits that are
not being offended remain to be benevolent as protectors and providers. Consequently,
both the favours and wrath of the spirits can be availed of and appeased. And this reflect
on the kind of recommended ritual. Hence, those benevolent spirits are offered with
thanksgiving ritual that would consist of sacrificing an animal, food, tapey or rice wine
and other materials and importantly the ritual prayers dances and music. On the other
hand, those malevolent spirits that inflicted illness can also be soothed by performing a
44 Ibid., 19 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid.
16
healing ritual to restore the health of the afflicted and asking forgiveness by also offering
similar materials in the ritual.
These spirits are believed to be able to communicate with humans through dreams
or through a mediator in the persons of the native priests and the rituals they perform
together with the community. It is tantamount in Kankana-ey belief system that rituals are
fulfilment of their aspirations as well as a cure to their illness.47
Moreover, with this kind of belief in the spirits, the Kankana-ey also believed that
every man and woman has a spirit. In fact, they call the spirits of the dead as kakading.
They believed that when a person dies, his or her spirit joins with the spirits in the
skyworld. This spirit is the soul of the body while the person is still physically alive on
earth. And when he or she dies, it is believed that Adikaila has summoned the soul and so
the body becomes lifeless or natey.48
With this belief system it established customs, traditions and taboos. Through the
centuries, this belief system has been imbibed by the people as their way of life and way
of thinking. Yet, there was no written form of this belief system but faithfully preserved
by the native priests in the form of ritual prayers being handed down from one generation
to the next.49
1. The Native Priests and their Priestly Class
The native priests of the Kankana-ey society are the chosen spiritual leaders well
versed in their belief system. Commonly, the Kankana-ey priesthood are men but in some
circumstances there are also women priests collectively called as manggengey.50 These
priests are always consulted when someone is sick; they comfort the victim of
misfortunes by offering sacrifices to the offended spirit and also in offering gratitude to
the spirits for the good things bestowed. Definitely, the priests are the counsels of the
people and of the whole community in times joy, sorrow and distress.51
47 Ibid., 5. 48 Ibid., 60. 49 Ibid., 10. 50 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” 45. 51 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 5.
17
The Kankana-ey priests are also classified. There are three kinds of priests
according to their calling and role in the religious practices who act individually and
collectively as ritual advisers.52 They themselves in collaboration direct and administer
the rituals but are bound to observe particular practices in giving priorities to their very
first function. These priests are also expected to attend first the rituals of their nearest kin
before others. Moreover, they are looked up by the people for the people believed that
they possess certain powers like healing, reading and interpreting the signs and omens,
and ritual counselling. Thus, their words are considered to possess also authority as they
are also endowed with a keen memory of ritual procedures and chants genealogies
orally.53 The following are the native priests and their particular functions:
a. Mansip-ok. They are believed to have been given the faculty to determine the cause of
illness, death or misfortune and prescribe the appropriate ritual healing endowed by
Adikaila, the highest and most powerful spirit. To seek the help of the mansip-ok, the sick
person or the representative would ask the mansip-ok for consultation as to the cause of
the sickness. The mansip-ok would ask some information from the person in order to get
gather data as to how the sickness inflicted the person. Then the mansip-ok employs some
ritual methods to fully determine the cause of the sickness.54 The following are the
methods that can be employed:
i. Baknew is a way of determining the sickness through reading and interpreting the sign
that will be shown through a particular material that will be used. Baknew can be done by
using bobod, homemade yeast and dissolved in clean water. It is stirred like a milk and
left to settle in a coconut shell called, kawil. Then the kawil will be covered with banana
or taro leaf and the mansip-ok says the prayer to Kabunyan to reveal in the yeast the
cause of illness or misfortune. Aside from bobod, tapey also can be used and today when
there is no tapey, Ginebra San Miguel (Gin) or Tanduay Rum. An egg of the chicken can
be used as well, or the blood of the chicken.
ii. Sip-ok/Si’bok is a method by using a piece of flint stone or a piece of iron tied with a
string. Hence, the string is held with the object hanging and swinging in one direction
while the mansip-ok chants the prayer then enumerating the possible cause. When the
52 Ibid., 5-31. 53 Ibid., 22 54 Ibid., 23-25.
18
mansip-ok feels that the object becomes heavy when a possible cause is mentioned, then
the mansip-ok determines the cause. However, when the object would swing around, it
means that the patient will not survive the illness.
iii. Pontos. There are mansip-ok who at the same time are also manpontos. They could see in
their patient immediately the cause of the illness by seeing unusual happenings and from
which the mansip-ok could base the analysis of the cause of the illness and then prescribe
a corresponding ritual.
Commonly, the mansip-ok does not perform the ritual but only prescribes. Performing the
prescribed ritual is the function of the other priest.
b. Manbunong. They are the ones who perform the prescribed ritual from the mansip-ok.
With this function, the manbunong takes a very important role in the Kankana-ey belief
system as they function as the mediator between the sick or evil-stricken person and the
spirits. Certainly, in times of sickness the manbunong is consulted as a healer, in times of
hardships and death – a comforter, in times of victory – an exalter, after a fortune – a
guide in planning to the thanksgiving ritual, sida.
c. Mankotom. This is the third classification of the native priests who functions that when
both the mansip-ok and manbunong may not decide the cause of illness and the prescribe
ritual, the mankotom himself or herself the signs and omens. And they could function as
mansip-ok and manbunong at the same time. Accordingly, they are regarded as the wise
people in the community who also oversee the traditional practices. They are usually
composed of the elders in the community very much knowledgeable to the ways and
practices, so, most of them are also tongtong. They are also regarded as the keepers and
guardians of the customs and traditions with high respect for their strict adherence of the
rituals and taboos. Moreover, they are also regarded as advocates of peace. For this
reason, the people look up to them for advise and comfort in some particular situations
and events to find resolutions such as55:
i. Settling disputes arising from misunderstanding, stealing, divorce, property ownership
and other disorder within the community.
ii. Counselling people disturbed by bad omen out of a taboo committed.
iii. Counselling people disturbed by bad dreams, base.
55 Ibid., 28
19
iv. Counselling families afraid of the appearance or a strange bird or animal passing in their
homes as bad omen, gibek.
v. Counselling individuals or a family because of sudden loss of their wealth.
vi. Counselling a family who experienced successive deaths, gupo.
Hence, the manbunong, mansip-ok and mankotom are the very people regarded by
the community to preserve the oral tradition and customs, the flesh of their culture and
identity. However, by virtue of their calling, though greatly respected by the community,
these priests of both men and women do not place high regard on themselves. They
ordinarily live and work among the people and may be call upon whenever they are
needed. These three kinds of priests are believed to be called and possessed special gifts
for religious functions revealed through dreams or taught by a good spirit in secluded
place or tutored by elder priests with the approval of Adikaila. This can be shown by the
priest-elect his or her complete grasp of the bunong, chanted prayers, and who
successfully had the first of any ritual. As they function in the community, they exercise
their ministry without asking for material rewards except for their share on the sacrificed
meat of the pig, as usually it is. Any violation of this, the priests loses his or her ministry.
According to the elders, those who violate this may die for making a mockery of the
rituals.56
2. On Kankana-ey Rituals
The whole traditional rituals of the Kankana-ey generates from two main rituals
which are the thanksgiving and healing rituals.57 Indeed, these rituals are very integral to
the Kankana-ey way of life. And as it is true to other cultures, rituals are very important
for they promote the consciousness of the entire society. Hence, it would be good also to
deal further about these two main rituals.
a. Thanksgiving Rituals or called as Pedit.58 This is the general way of having a
thanksgiving ritual among the Kankana-ey and usually sponsored by the baknang, the
wealthy class. This ritual adheres that the baknang may able to share their wealth and
56 Ibid., 27. 57 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 37. 58 Ibid., 37-38.
20
fortune with the poor and less fortunate in their community. Yet, pedit also can be
performed by the non-baknang through helping each other in providing the materials for
the rituals and whole celebration. Pedit can be celebrated because of an abundant harvest,
victory in war and commonly after wedding celebrations particularly when the couple has
an abundant and wealthy life.59
b. Healing Rituals. The rituals being observed here are not limited to healing the sick
person. Healing rituals can be performed in various reasons and purposes.60
i. In order to welcome an omen of good luck on the belief that the omen will increase the
chance of the person to become rich.
ii. In order to counteract a bad omen so that it would not inflict any illness or misfortune.
iii. In order to strengthen a person’s chance in winning a case/dispute, a contest, conflict or a
game.
iv. In order to ask the kabunyan for protection and guidance before going on a journey.
v. In order to ask the kabunyan and the kakading to bless the person’s or family’s new
project or farm.
vi. In order to ask the kabunyan to bless with abundance the newly acquired property.
vii. In order to be reconciled in a broken relationship.
viii. In order to bless a new home.
ix. In order to ask the spirits for a successful delivery of a child and as well as the fast
recovery of the mother.
x. And to ask the almighty, Adikaila to bless the newly planted filed for a bountiful harvest.
And there are many more purposes for healing rituals which have their own proper name
as well.
Moreover, in terms the healing rituals of the Kankana-ey though it is integrally associated
with their belief system relies also to various herbal plants. Herbal plants are utilized in
their healing rituals considering the reality that these people live in mountainous area.61
Yet, these practices also were affected and gradually faded away in the course of time
due to influences brought by both Spanish and American colonization. Gradually, fewer
59 Pedit is only the general way of thanksgiving ritual; there are more rituals within this ritual also. For further
reading see Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 37-59. 60 Ibid., 60-99 61 Charisse Mae Das-ao, The Health Practices and Beliefs of the Kankana-ey Tribe, Unpublished. September 2012,
16.
21
and fewer Kankana-ey were doing and believing in this kind of healing primarily because
of their new faith. The massive conversion of the natives into Christianity ceased these
practices for it is against the Christian since these practises involves praying to the
spirits.62
Furthermore, these rituals cannot just be performed right away. These rituals also
follow certain procedure, materials to be used and observe taboos. For thanksgiving
rituals they are always performed on odd dates like 1,3,5,7,9 ect. The even numbers are
considered not good dates because these numbers when paired do not leave anything.
Compared to the odd numbers these leave one number. This is also observed as they
would sacrifice animals, it has to come in 3 or 5 or 7 etc. so that paired there is one left
unpaired which signifies abundance.63 Rituals are also observed accordning to the
formations of the moon and the twelve seasons of the year, mata-on.64 And most
importantly, these rituals cannot be effective without the manbunong’s various rituals
prayers that would vary depending on the particular rituals being observed. These prayer
rituals are being passed from generation to generation in oral tradition.65
3. The Kankana-ey Belief System in the Spanish Colonial Period
Definitely, in the pre-colonial times, these native priests exercise their ministry as
the crucial point of the Kankana-ey belief system. However, at the dawn of Spanish
colonization, their belief system was greatly threatened. Together with their neighbouring
tribes especially those who were along the coastline were the first victims of Spanish
colonization that brought slavery, robbery and oppression.66
Moreover, along with this colonization was the Christianization of the natives, the
reality of the cross and the sword. Hence, together with the cause of Spain’s imperial
expansion that involved subjugation of huge populations was also the foundation of
62 Ibid., 19. 63 Ibid. 59-60. 64 Ibid., 8. 65 There are many written ritual prayers for various occasions in the book of Wasing Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and
Home Rituals of Benguet. 66 Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the Philippines 1521-1581, 422-
423.
22
evangelical mission during the early years of the Age of Discovery.67 It was when the
Gospel was preached for the first to the whole world. This evangelical mission of
spreading the faith to the whole world came strongly with the Papal Bull “Inter Cetera68”
decreed by Pope Alexander VI in 1493 which gave authority to the Europeans to civilize
every savage that they would encounter. Consequently, the King of Spain through his
command dominated the Philippines and converted the natives through the works of the
missionaries and his battalions of soldiers, thus, to establish Christian dominion over the
New World. In many instances, conversion of the natives was forced by brutal methods
such as murder, perversion of law, arson and the depopulation of villages. Accordingly,
the result of this decree was the genocide of over 100 million indigenous peoples all over
the world in just few hundred years particularly in the continents of Africa, Latin
America and Asia.69
In its full effect, it was also true to the kind of treatment the indigenous peoples
all over the Philippines and particularly this group of Kankana-ey. The abuses and
oppression though directly inflicted by the Spanish soldiers, the missionaries also were
not exempted. They themselves perpetrated the natives by considering their culture
uncivilized and their belief system pagan. Many missionaries identified their European
culture with the Gospel and so treated the natives’ culture as inferior and uncivilized.
Missionaries themselves imposed their own culture as the natives were converted and to
abandon their culture.70 Moreover, when the encomienda system was approved this had
made more trouble in the land and more abuses were caused. This encomienda came
from the Spanish word which means “to entrust,” hence, giving the conquistador the right
to be the landlord of a particular pueblo and the authority to govern it and spread the
Gospel to the natives. Yet, this system made landed nobility out of men whose only skill
were murder, disorder and torture.71 A particular situation would happen such as this:
67 Ibid., 421. 68 “Inter Caetera,” PapalBull.com, http://papalbull.com/ (Accessed October 05, 2013). 69 Ibid. 70 Rodrigo D. Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, (Quezon City:
New Day Publishers, 1981), 3. 71 Christopher Minster, “Spain’s American Colonies and the Encomienda System,” Latin American History,
http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/p/Spain-S-American-Colonies-And-The-Encomienda-
System.htm (accessed October 5, 2013).
23
A group of soldiers would swoop on an unsuspecting village, often a first
appearance of the so-called encomienda, but then would demand extreme tribute
from the people under the pain of death, and collect whatever they could lay
hands on if the people submitted meekly, and kill or wound those who would
refuse before they could escape with a few belongings, and burn wretched shacks
to the ground. This from the auxiliaries of Christianization!72
However, in fairness with the missionaries, there were few of them who felt
sympathy for the indigenous people and even to the extent of demanding justice and
fairness for the native people against the abuses and oppression perpetrated particularly
by the Spanish viceroys and his soldiers. One of those who fought for the right of the
natives was Fr. Diego de Herrera, OSA who wished to bring the issue to the King’s
attention that “the policy (encomienda) followed here in dealing with the native
population, namely to rob them, burn their houses and make slaves of them.”73 It was
indeed a total chaos and confusion for all the natives not just on this part of the Northern
Philippines but also to all colonies of the European Colonization across the world.
a. The Foundation of the See of Nueva Segovia
To further strengthen the commitment of the missionaries in this part of the
Philippines, the See of Nueva Segovia was founded through the Papal Bull on August 14,
1595 and canonically erected by Pope Clement VIII.74 Its territorial jurisdiction extended
over all the provinces of northern Luzon and placed under the principal patronage of the
Immaculate Concepcion of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Together with the diocese of Cebu
and Caceres, the new diocese was made a suffragan to the new Archdiocese of Manila.
Originally, the diocese was first situated in the progressive city of Nueva Segovia with
Miguel de Benavides, a Dominican as the first bishop. This city was founded by Pablo
Carreon in 1581 in the Cagayan Valley, near the mouth of the Ibanag River or called as
72 Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the Philippines 1521-1581, 423. 73 Ibid., 424. 74 Cbcponline.net, “Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia,” Jurisdiction,
http://www.cbcponline.net/jurisdictions/nueva_segovia.html (accessed October 13, 2013)
24
Rio Grande de Cagayan.75 Nueva Segovia was named after the old city of Segovia in
Spain. It was the capital and principal port of the region that time. However, because of
the frequent flooding caused by the river, the city gradually deteriorated.
Afterwards, the locus of the see was transferred to Vigan, Ilocus Sur which
was a small pueblo then but later progressively developed. And in 1758 at the request of
Bishop Juan de la Fuente Yepes, during the pontificate of Benedict XIV, the See was
officially transferred to Vigan but retaining the name of the See of Nueva Segovia.76
Vigan was founded by Juan Salcedo in 1572. In consequence, with the establishment of
the See, this effectively helped the missionaries to penetrate far flung areas and convert
the natives to Christianity.
With the effort of the missionaries, the See had become an Archdiocese on
June 29, 1951 by Pope Pius XII with the papal bull Quo in Philippina Republica.77 At
present the territorial jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia is the civil
province of Ilocos Sur. The Archdiocese lies along the north-western coast of Luzon,
with China Sea to the west and the Cordillera mountain ranges to the east, Abra and
Ilocos Norte to the north, and La Union and Benguet to the south. With a land area of
2,579 square kilometers and a population of 549,212 people and of which 94 per cent are
Catholics. Nueva Segovia has 38 canonically established parishes, 21 of which were
established before the 1900's.
Certainly, this establishment helped the Church for a massive conversion of
the natives particularly in that area. And in the latter years, the missionaries as they were
able to build parishes focused merely on the town centres. With this expansion of the
Spanish territories both civilly and ecclesiastically, more and more the natives were
driven farther and farther into the deepest part of the mountains. And for those who were
converted thought to be uncultured, they were assimilated into the “culture” of the
colonizers, the evangelization and the hispanization of the people.
And in particular, as to the Kankana-ey people, those who were converted into
Christianity accepted in one way or another the rituals that Catholic Church have. Yet, in
terms of their animistic belief, it was completely banished and indigenous rituals
75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid.
25
ministered by their own native priests were obviously banished and considered heathen
beliefs and practices. Surprisingly, there were still remnants in the way people would
relate with nature and with other people. This way of life that has been part of the soul of
these people for many generations cannot be just eradicated. As to the native priests of
the Kankana-ey, the manbunong who performs the rituals of the Kankana-ey has
remained influential.78 It was of the conditioning that since the pre-Christian era the
manbunong takes a very important place in the priestly ministry in the preservation of the
indigenous/traditional practices. It was being attested that the influence of the manbunong
did not diminish as Christianity was introduced. Hence, in 1755, the Governor-General of
the Philippines noted that the Igorots accepted the faith, be baptized and go to Church but
strongly refused to do away their traditional sida or kanyaw as called by the lowlanders,
as way of worshipping.79 It is also true with the Kankana-ey traditional political structure,
the baknang, maintained their influence over their own people and even made stronger as
it was civilly structured by the Spanish Colonization. The tongtong had also gained and
remained influential as they were tapped to be the council of elders formally recognized
by the Spanish establishment as a tribunal80.
4. American Occupation and Protestantism
The Spanish Colonization lasted for almost 400 years. In terms of the religious
aspect, the Spanish missionaries had founded and built churches across the country,
dioceses and parishes. These establishments were mostly in the lowlands that later on
became the commercials and political centres as well. With this kind of system also, the
missionaries more and more, after the churches were established, focused on the
maintenance of these churches and their parishioners around the cities and towns.
Although the missionaries had still contacts and attempts to go after those natives being
driven farther and farther, the Spanish friars generally settled and found comfort in their
78 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 25. 79 Quoted by Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 26 in the book of Laurence Lee Wilson, The
Skyland of the Philippines (Baguio: Printed Bookman, Inc., 1956) 68. 80 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” 41.
26
convents in the town centres. Hence, there were still unbaptized natives at the periphery
who continually resisted to these changes. And so, at the end of the Spanish colonization
a continuation of evangelization to the natives was again attempted through the Protestant
missionaries from America which was the dawn of another colonization from the
American regime.
The year of 1898 was the end of Spanish colonization that through the deceitful
victory of the American troops led by Commodore Dewey who had sunk the Spanish
fleet in the harbour of Manila, entered into the land of the Filipinos.81 This year was at
the same time the beginning of the American Colonization. Changes had occurred again
in the Philippines from its social, political and cultural aspect.
Hence, with this new genesis, it paved the way also in terms of religious aspect.
Protestantism which was widespread already in America found the opportunity to push as
well their cause of converting non-Christians in the new colony of United States.
Consequently, all the major denominations and some minor denomination of protestant
churches in US sent their missionaries to the Philippines.82 The protestant missionaries
found indeed a fertile land for conversion among the natives who were not reached by the
Catholic missionaries in the far flung areas.
As the American Missionaries set out to convert the non-Christian Filipinos, they
were almost similar in their perspective also with the Catholic Spanish Missionaries.
These Protestant missionaries considered their American culture far superior than the
natives. Hence, the conversion of the natives was leading to assimilation into the
American culture and religion. Clearly, the emphases of these missionaries were more on
evangelism, pastoral work and church expansion without considering the very culture of
the native people in the Christian faith.83
One of the most effective ways of conversion was through the American school
teachers who were Protestants and pioneered in the new Philippine public school system.
These people laid the groundwork for Protestant churches in many lowland barangays
and towns. Filipinos who were converted to Protestantism experienced most often
81 Gleeck Jr., Lewis E. Gleeck Jr., General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century 1898-1946, Part
V Volume 1, (Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1984) 1-6. 82 Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the US Library of Congress, 1991,
http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.htm (accessed October 17, 2013). 83 Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, 11.
27
significant social changes in the American period. Most were middle-level bureaucrats,
servants, lawyers, small entrepreneurs, and some became nationally prominent despite
their minority religious adherence.84
Aside from education, these American Protestants also pioneered better
foundation in the field of medicine. They have built churches together with their schools
and hospitals which greatly helped in their endeavour of evangelizing the natives at the
periphery. The denominations planted by the early missionaries numbered among their
believers about 2 percent of the population in the late 1980s.85 Indeed, these
developments brought by the Americans to the mountains and introduced to the natives
brought great changes into the traditions and culture of the people. Through education
and the western medicine, there were natives who ceased to practise also the old ways.86
Consequently, the new generations of Kankana-ey are ignorant to some extent with the
traditional healing practices and rituals for they are already assimilated into the western
culture, of education and religion. Yet, there would be still old people who continue to
practice this kind of way particularly those places that are far from the municipal
hospitals and clinics.87
a. The Kankana-ey Protestants
One of the major denominations that were sent to the Philippines was the
Seventh-Day Adventists. Charisse Mae Das-ao is a member of this protestant Church.88
This particular denomination insists on private interpretation of the Bible that developed
into the theory of private inspiration independently of the Scriptures, with visions and
prophecies which amplify the Christian revelation.89 They believe that the Scriptures is
84 Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the US Library of Congress, 1991,
http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.htm (accessed October 17, 2013). 85 Ibid. 86 Das-ao, The Health Practices and Beliefs of the Kankana-ey Tribe, 19. 87 Ibid. 88 A personal interview of Charisse Mae Das-ao on July 22, 2013. 89 John Hardon, SJ, The Protestant Churches of America, (Maryland: The Newman Press, 1959), 3.
28
all sufficient and the only unerring rule of faith.90 And in common with other Protestant
Churches, the Adventists has also recognized two sacraments namely the adult baptism
and the Lord’s Supper.91 These are the only things which the Adventist would have some
rituals. In the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper which is done quarterly, the service begins
with the ritual of foot washing and there will be sermon that will be delivered and the
ritual of the partaking of the bread and wine (an unfermented juice of the grape)
follows.92 They believe also in the nearness of the Second Coming, without knowing the
precise date as, although they always predicted the Parousia in their early years. They
also advocate observing the Sabbath day of rest and worship on the seventh day, or
Saturday, as a way to devoutly await Jesus' return following the tradition of Judaism.
Nevertheless, Charisse Mae confirmed that she herself as a Kankana-ey felt
degraded that their own culture and traditions have faded away because of these
influences. Because of the imposition of the Christian faith not just the protestant
influence but also the Roman Catholic influence, have contributed to the degradation of
the Kankana-ey culture particularly their indigenous rituals.
There were minor denominations also that were sent to the Philippines and
throughout the years there were more and more minorities who came and even new
protestant churches also were founded in the Philippines. Hence, in the case of Henry
Astorillo, Jr., he is a member of a minor protestant denomination, the Full Gospel
Church. Henry’s Church, the Full Gospel Church like other denominations confesses that
the Bible in its entirety is the inspired Word of God and the only infallible rule of Faith
and conduct.93 Henry himself shared Charisse’s feeling of loss over their lost culture and
rich tradition. Nevertheless, both of them confirmed their difficulty as Kankana-ey and
Christians that according to their Christian faith their very indigenous belief and practices
are not acceptable and compatible with their Christian faith.94
90 Seventh-Day Adventists, “Fundamental Beliefs,” http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html,
(Accessed September 30,2013) 91 Patheos Library: Hoisting the Conversation of Faith, “Rituals and Worship,”
http://www.patheos.com/Library/Adventist/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism (accessed September 30, 2013) 92 Hardon, SJ, The Protestant Churches of America, 13. 93 Full Gospel Churches International, “Doctrinal Statement,” http://fgci.us/doctrine.html (accessed September 30,
2013) 94 Personal Interview of both Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013.
29
However, both of them have felt the need to reclaim what was lost and to
bring back the rich tradition expressed through their rituals and practices. What they hope
for is that their rituals and practices would not just become a mere showcase of their
identity being performed during civil celebrations and festivals. What Charisse and Henry
hope for is that the Kankana-ey people particularly their co-young people would gain the
consciousness of the importance of their own culture and way of life greatly expressed
through in their belief system. As a consequence, they anticipated as well the difficulty
on this kind of endeavour. The difficulty today is on how to reconcile their own rituals
and practices with their Christian faith.95 More difficulties as well that in the doctrines of
their respective religions, both the Seventh-Day and Full Gospel Church are minimalist
and abhor many rituals and practices.
Another problem also that they faced now as Kankana-ey people is the
attitude of the elder ones who seemed to completely forgotten already their own culture
for they do not want to go back what was old already.96 They are supposed to be the ones
who should support and encourage the young to live their own way of life. There are
more difficulties also in dealing their co-young people especially those who are
completely assimilated in the modern way of living who do not have any more the sense
of their identity as Kankana-ey. This is truer in the town and city areas according to
Charisse and Henry. Despite these difficulties both of them also still hope for retrieving
their own tradition and culture integral to their identity as Kankana-ey people.
As part of the new generation of Kankana-ey people they dream to bring back
and maintain their culture. They see education as an effective tool of bringing the young
Kankana-ey into the consciousness of the importance of their culture.97 To be conscious
of their culture is not about excavating a corpse but to be culturally sensitive by
respecting and recognizing and living their own and not banishing or forgetting the past.
It is not also about retreating to the mountains and living remotely from other people. The
hope of reclaiming their own culture is to establish ones again their very own identity as
people, as Kankana-ey. It is the hope that they would become real Kankana-ey not just
during festivals and civil celebrations when they dance with their costumes but beyond
95 Ibid. 96 Ibid. 97 Ibid.
30
that. In the words of Charisse she said, “We become the present because of our past.”
What they are now is primarily because of what was in the past that must be continued to
be lived and treasured. It is something that they must be proud of and cultivate more that
through their very culture they will grow in their Christian faith and that their Christian
faith will in return enrich their culture.
Chapter 3
Theological Reflection and Conclusion
The Kankana-ey people have been through many changes over the past centuries
particularly since the beginning of the Spanish colonization and Christianization up to the
present. The different epochs in history had brought tremendous effect and influence into
the entire life and culture of the Kankana-ey people. There are positive effects that
penetrated the thoughtways and lifeways of the people which helped the Kankana-ey to
establish their communities with the changing political, social, cultural and religious
structures. These influences also helped the people to avail good chances like education,
commercial and job opportunities. However, there are also worst and devastating
influences brought about by these changes coming from foreign thought-to-be-superior
cultures. One of the many destructive effects generated by colonization was the
oppression experienced by the people in many ways. Through Christianization also, the
evangelization seen in the one sided European mentality of superiority made a
catastrophic effect in the culture and belief system of the natives, particularly also to the
Kankana-ey. This is very much true also to every indigenous group of people not just in
the Philippines but all over the world. In many cases, these things led to cultural
degradation of the people. History would attest to this kind of destruction and oppression.
However, the situation is not entirely hopeless. There was a tremendous change
that happened among the indigenous people’s culture and beliefs especially with the
Kanakana-ey, but there are still obvious remnants of that culture among the people.
31
Culture itself cannot just be erased from the people. The hope lies here that the Gospel
will be appropriated into the culture of the people so that culture itself will be enriched by
the Christian faith and that through the very culture of the people they may grow in faith.
Undeniably, both the Catholic and Protestant missionaries in Spanish and
American periods respectively showed a little sensitivity to the culture of the Filipino
people. If there were missionaries who showed sensitivity, it was very minimal and must
have come in the latter years. The Gospel that was preached to the natives was
completely conditioned in a very western way that which was not western was considered
unchristian at all. However, in the latter years the Catholic Church particularly was able
to realize the devastating western imposition of Christianity to the people’s culture and
way of life. After all, the Church had realized that what was primarily preached in the
past was the western culture rather than the Gospel itself.
Although, this was practiced for many centuries but the Church took the side to
correct herself from this kind of error in preaching the Gospel of salvation. Hence, the
Church saw the need that the Christian faith must be made meaningful and relevant to
particular historical-cultural milieus.98 This is especially coined as the indigenization of
the Christian faith. Every culture here is seen as it is neither something superior nor
inferior but a culture where the Gospel is made compatible and relevant. Although there
might be some loopholes in a particular culture but not everything, every culture can be a
vehicle of revelation and of salvation.99 Indigenization allows the Church to preach the
Gospel in a new culture and to take root and grow in a new cultural soil. With this
concept came also the acceptance of the native clergy to minister their own flocks.
Vatican II even encourages the acceptance and adaptation of local customs and
traditions into the liturgy of the Church.100 However, this is not everything because
indigenization is not merely external but internal. It makes Christ as one with the people
rather than making Christ appear like a European so that the faith will grow and bear
much fruit in the lives of the people.
98 Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, 11. 99 Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Theology, (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications,
1975), 5. 100 Constitution of the Sacred Liturgy, no. 37 quoted in Mercado, Elements of Filipino Theology, 5.
32
A closer movement and integrally related with this movement of the Church is
also the concept of inculturation which has been widely discussed all over the world.
This inculturation is the Church’s effort to make the message of Christ live at a given
socio-cultural environment that it may grow according to its particular values as enriched
by the Gospel.101
This is a process of reliving the incarnation itself which demands the insertion of
the Gospel at the very heart of the culture of the people. Thus, inculturation “means the
intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in
Christianity and the insertion of the Christian faith in the various human cultures102.”
This also entails that the Church who evangelizes a culture through the missionaries will
be enriched by the people being evangelized. Clearly, there would be a mutual giving and
receiving between the Church (missionaries) and the people being evangelized. This
process would also lead the missionaries and the people to have a good grasp of what that
mission of the Church is. Evangelization involves which would help the
individuals/people to a personal and community conversion to the Lord, to an
understanding of the importance of one’s culture and the interaction of faithful and their
culture that would lead to Christian commitment to faith.103
For this reason, the missionaries and the local Church has a remarkable role in the
Church’s mission. Pope John Paul II in his encyclical letter emphasized this role which is
also a challenge to every missionary. Indeed, there is a great need for the missionaries to
be immersed in the given cultural context where the missionaries are sent and to move
beyond their own cultural limitations. Accordingly, the missionaries are to learn the
language of the people and to be familiar with the significant expressions of the local
people and to discover the values of the people and their culture through direct
experiences.104 Through this, the missionaries will have a better understanding and
101 International Theological Commission, “Faith and Inculturation,” 1988
http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1988_fedeinculturazione_en.html
(accessed October 10, 2013). 102 Extraordinary Assembly of 1985, Final Report, II, C,6 qouted in the Encyclical Letter of John Paul II, On the
Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate, December 7, 1990, 89. 103 Gerald A. Arbuckle, Earthing the Gospel: An Inculturation Handbook for Pastoral Workers, (Australia: St. Paul
Publications, 1990), 18-20. 104 John Paul II, On the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate, December 7, 1990 (USA: United
States Catholic Conference), 91.
33
appreciation of the culture of the people and further fostering and evangelizing the
culture. In this way the missionaries set in themselves the manner of living according to
the Gospel and in solidarity with the people.
In terms of the rituals of the Kankana-ey which are integral to their belief system
as well as with their relationship with nature, they express the Kankana-ey’s
connectedness and rootedness in creation. The rituals per se express also how the
Kankana-ey articulates their relationship with one another as a community and their
relationship with other people outside their community. Moreover, the rituals enunciate
the Kankana-ey’s spirituality and their relationship with the spirits in the world and their
experience of God. This is the intrinsic significance of these rituals. This is one thing that
the Church must dialogue with the Kankana-ey people and also true with other
indigenous people. Their rituals that express their hopes and aspirations are very much
important on how they see themselves as people and everything else both the seen and
unseen. They are indeed religious, though they don’t operate in a very dogmatic and
hierarchical structure of religion. This is very important to note that the mission of the
Church will also facilitate the rootedness of these people through their very expressions
wherein they would also experience and recognize the presence and salvific action of the
Universal Christ.
Although the rituals of the Kankana-ey are innately animistic for they are
primarily addressed to the spirits that reside in nature, the Church and the missionaries
should continually discern and reflect on the sacredness of these rituals. Subsequently,
the missionaries also have to be open to the materials being used in the rituals for these
things are integral. These materials used in the rituals are very basic and again these are
part of the symbols and signs that express the people’s faith. The Church also has to be
respectful to the people especially those designated persons who perform the sacred
rituals of the Kankana-ey. But of course, the Church while respecting and recognizing the
people’s culture, has to adhere also the fundamental revelation of God to the Church
rooted in the Church’s Tradition so that the people will be guided and grow deeply and
confidently in their Christian faith. Certainly, this is not anymore the time of inquisition
wherein the indigenous practices were condemned as heathen and demonic. This is not
anymore the time of clothing Christ in very European way for Jesus is in fact Asian. This
34
is the time of appreciating and recognizing the sacred and the God who revealed first to
these people long before the missionaries came. This is the time as well that the Church
herself must be rooted and grounded again to the basic, to the indigenous faith where it
first started.
35
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