THE KANKANA-EY’S HOPE OF RECLAIMING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEIR CULTURE AND RITUALS

0

St. Alphonsus Theological and Mission Institute

Redemptorists, Bajada

Davao City

___________________

THE KANKANA-EY’S HOPE OF RECLAIMING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEIR

CULTURE AND RITUALS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Course Requirements for

Cultural Anthropology and Missiology

___________________

A paper presented by

Jomil C. Baring, C.Ss.R.

A paper presented to

Bro. Karl Gaspar, CSsR

__________________

October 2013

1

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................2

Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………………..3

Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………....4

Scope and Limitation …………………………………………………………………….4

Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………..5

Chapter 2 The Kankana-ey at the Pre-Conquest, at the Age of Conquest and its

Christianization ……………………………………………………………………..6

A. Geographical and Historical Background and the People in General ………………...6

B. Political System ………………………………………………………………………8

C. Social Organization …………………………………………………………………..11

D. Belief System ………………………………………………………………………...14

1. The Native Priests and their Priestly Class …………………………………...16

a. Mansip-ok …………………………………………………………….17

b. Manbunong …………………………………………………………...18

c. Mankotum …………………………………………………………….18

2. On Kankana-ey Rituals ……………………………………………………….20

a. Thanksgiving Rituals ………………………………………………....20

b. Healing Rituals ………………………………………………………..20

3. The Kankana-ey Belief System in the Spanish Colonial Period ……………...22

a. The Foundation of the See of Nueva Segovia ………………………...24

4. American Occupation and Protestantism ……………………………………..26

a. The Kankana-ey Protestants …………………………………………..28

Chapter 3 Theological Reflection and Conclusion …………………………………………...31

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………….35

2

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Every group of people are identified with their own culture. With their belief

system that entails especially rituals, people greatly identified themselves as individual

and as a community. Definitely, without these rituals, peoples of different cultures could

not remain human.1 Hence, rituals in a very great sense are the manifestations and

expressions of the people’s belief and spirituality, thoughtways and lifeways.2 There are

different kinds of rituals and they varied depending on the situation or event. Each ritual

has a corresponding prayer, specific spirit addressed to persons involved, material

offerings, sacrificial animal and time of performance.3 There is a ritual for planting, for

harvesting, for thanksgiving, for healing a sick person, for asking forgiveness, for

initiation, for marriage, for the dying, the dead and the burial, etc. These rituals express

the spirituality of the people as well as the people’s integral relationship with other

human beings, with nature and with the spirits of the world. These rituals are expressed

and performed through dancing, singing or chanting of prayers and other specific

executions like for instance the slitting of the head of the chicken to the gestures of

passing the container (of blood, water or wine).

This aspect of culture is very much common among all groups of people

particularly to indigenous people. Even the “highly civilized” cultures have their own

rituals. And more so to the indigenous people who perform such rituals in a dignified and

sacred manner. And when rituals are suppressed or systematically banned, the people

would also lose their very identity.

Nevertheless, it is undeniable that there are groups of indigenous people who

embraced the civilization and development as what lowlanders call it, gradually departed

from their original way of life. One of the aspects that were affected was their belief

1 Gerald A. Arbuckle, Culture, Inculturation, Theologians: A Postmodern Critique, (Minnesota: Liturgical Press,

2010), 81. 2 Wasing D. Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, (Philippines: BCF Printing Press, 1987), 37. 3 Ibid., 144.

3

system. New religion was introduced and many were baptized especially to Christianity

as a way of development. Consequently, there was the abandonment of their beliefs and

practices that have been handed down to them from their ancestors of old. In particular,

this is the situation of the Kankana-ey4 people of the Northern Philippines who at the

dawn of Christianization abandoned and were forced to abandon their traditional beliefs

for it was against the perspective of the religion of Christianity. This is particularly true

with the fundamentalist Christians who give sole emphasis on the scriptures (sola

scriptura) as experienced by the Kankana-ey who live in the downtowns among the

lowlanders5. Yet, even after those years of embracing Christianity, there were members

of these people who wish to reclaim the aspect of rituals in their culture without

jeopardizing the elements of their Christian faith.

This is the case of the two Kankana-ey anthropology students, Charisse Mae and

Henry who began to realize the lost rituals and their meaning as young Kankana-ey of

today. It is their wish and hope that their rituals as Kankana-ey people will be retrieved

and those young Kankana-ey like them would begin to claim their own culture as they

would grow in faith as Christians.

Statement of the Problem

This study seeks the significance of the life of the indigenous people in Luzon

particularly the Kankana-ey. Moreover, the study would stress the rituals in the life of the

(Northern) Kankana-ey people that would even nourish their Christian faith. To facilitate

this study, the ideas, hopes and dreams of the two young Kankana-eys are to be

considered. Hence, to guide this paper, there are questions that are raised.

1. Who are the (Northern) Kankana-ey people?

4 Also known as Kankanay, Kankanai or Kankana-i. See CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the

Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” (Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994), 38. 5 Personally confirmed and attested by both Kankana-ey students of Pamulaan Center for Indigenous People’s

Education USEP, Mintal Campus, Davao City. They are Charisse Mae Das-ao who is a Seventh Day Adventist and

Henry Astorillo, Jr. who is also member of Full Gospel Christian Church in my interview with them on July 22,

2013.

4

2. How did the colonization and Christianization affect the Kankana-ey people

particularly their indigenous belief system and rituals?

3. What are the intrinsic significance of their rituals and their possible

contributions to the nourishment of the Christian faith which would be a

possible way for evangelization and inculturation?

Significance of the Study

As this paper tackles the Kankanaey people, it also particularly tries to bring out

the various rituals of the Kankana-ey people and the rich meaning and symbolisms of

these rituals. In addition, this paper intends to examine the effects of colonization and

Christianization. In conclusion, this study takes into account these materials as a source

on how evangelization and inculturation of the Gospel be further integrated into the life

and culture of the indigenous people, particularly the Kankana-ey without jeopardizing

and degrading their very culture and tradition, expressed through their rituals.

Scope and Limitation

In the course of this study, internet and published materials are employed. The

accounts of the interview/conversation with the two young Kankana-ey, Charisse Mae

Das-ao and Henry Astorillo, Jr. are also to be used as a primary source. Nevertheless, this

study is limited as to an intensive knowledge of the Northern Kankana-ey since the

researcher’s contacts are the two young Kankana-ey students of Pamulaan only. Hence,

this paper considers the gap of perspectives particularly of the older Kankana-eys whose

mind set is different from the young, yet, the two are very significant for this study.

This study primarily focuses on the Kankana-ey people in general and considers

the integral events and people that directly and indirectly affect the life of the Kankana-

ey. Further, this study takes into account as well the Northern Kankana-ey who are

situated in the town of Cervantes, Ilocus Sur, the town of Charisse Mae and Henry. In

5

addition, this is particularly in a Christian-protestant community setting of Kankana-ey

for Charisse is a member of Seventh Day Adventist while Henry is a member of the Full

Gospel Christian Church.6

Methodology

This paper focuses on the historical events that surrounded and affected directly

and indirectly the Kankana-ey people. This historical approach helps the researcher to

examine the different changes and influences that happened. This study relies more on

the interview from the two Kankana-ey stdents and the book entitled Treasury of Beliefs

and Home Rituals of Benguet (1987) authored by Wasing D. Sacla, a kankana-ey himself

whose sources were the old Kankana-ey themselves. Philippine historical books are also

employed for further research.

6 Personal interview of Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013.

6

Chapter 2

The Kankana-ey at the Pre-Conquest, at the Age of Conquest and its

Christianization in the Spanish and American Era

A. Geographical and Historical Background and the People in General

In the northwest Luzon of the Archipelago of the Philippines, a certain group of

people called Kankana-ey inhabits. This name of the group has no definite etymological

derivation but refers to the culture, language and people. This group together with the

Ibaloy comprise the Igorot of Benguet, the southernmost part of the Cordillera region.

Subsequently, among the indigenous people in northern Luzon the Kankan-ey and the

Ibaloy are closely related especially in their belief system and rituals though dissimilar in

terms of linguistics.7 The Kankana-eys are the third largest cultural community in this

part of the archipelago after the Ifugao and Bontoc.8 However, there are two distinct

groups of Kankana-ey here. There are the Northern, also called Lepanto Igorot and

Southern Kankana-ey. This term of Lepanto was used by the Spanish colonizers which

referred to an administration whose boundaries have changed through successive colonial

regimes. It is known today as the missing centre of Cordillera. During that Spanish

colonialism there was an attempt for copper and gold mining at Lepanto yet the Spanish

faced great resistance from the Lepanto Igorots as they called them.9

Additionally, the Northern Kankana-ey are mostly located in the south-western

part of Mountain Province (Bontoc). They settle in the municipalities of Besao, Sagada,

Tadian, Bauko, and Sabangan.10 However, the two Kankana-ey interviewed for this study

are from the municipality of Cervantes, Ilocus Sur. They are one of those Kankana-ey

7 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 4. 8 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

(Manila: Cultural Centre of the Philippines, 1994), 38. 9 There was also an attempt to exploit these mines at Lepanto in the 1860s but the Spaniards failed. See William

Henry Scott, “The Spanish Occupation of the Cordillera in the 19th Century”, ed. by Alfred McCoy and Ed. C. de

Jesus, Philippines Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformation, (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila

University Press, 1982), 42. 10 Ibid.

7

who migrated from the high terrain and settled in town centres in the western part of the

Mountain Province and in the municipalities of Bontok, Quirini, and Abra.11

Moreover, both the southern and northern kankana-ey shared many traits even in

physical characteristics. These southern kankana-ey actually are the expansion of the

northern due to transfer of settlements. They are culturally similar with similar

institutions, beliefs and practices. These people are rice-terracing agriculturists who built

the magnificent rice terraces in the mountain slopes of the central Cordillera. No doubt,

these terraces had been already built long before the Spaniards came and penetrated these

areas of the country. Their rice aside of being their staple food is also special for tapey

brewing or rice wine that is largely a material in all their ritual activities. Aside from rice

they also raise large animals with a lavish care for pigs, dogs, and chicken for ritual

purposes and feasting as well.

These two groups of Kankana-ey are also further differentiated through their

accent. The Northern ones are the soft-spoken Kankanaey, on the other hand, those who

belong in the Southern are the hard-spoken Kankana-ey.12 In terms of the general

linguistics, they also differ in some words that they used, however, mostly are common.

When it comes to their traditional costume, both men of the two groups wear the same

things. They wear the wanes or the G-string made of woven cloth or procured from

certain kind of tress worn around the waist and to cover the private parts. Commonly, a

woven wanes is with a colour of red and blue or a combination of yellow and red. Yet,

are different designs of the wanes which would be according to the social status.13

Nevertheless, men do not wear anything for their upper part except the red head-band

they wear called bedbed or badbad. For women as well, they wear the tapis pingay or

simply tapis which is a wrap-around skirt that covers the lower part of the body from the

waist down to their knees.14 It is usually coloured with dark blue and with ornamental

designs of colours red and yellow. This is being supported by a thickly woven belt called

bagket which is usually about five inches wide. Bagket has also fringes that hang at the

back of a woman. Nonetheless, for the upper part of the women, the soft and hard-spoken

11 Henry Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey Different Dances and their Meaning, (Unpublished) August 2012,4. 12 Taken from the conversations with Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013. 13 Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey Different Dances and their Meaning, 8. 14 Ibid., 9.

8

women somehow differ.15 The dress of the soft-spoken women has a colour combination

of black, white and red in a criss-crossed style. While the hard-spoken women wear the

tapis of mainly in black and red with a little white styles. Both groups of women also

commonly wear a string of beads and earrings made of copper, gold or shells. They have

a head-band also with feathers, leaves and flowers especially during special occasions

and big festivities and rituals. However, these traditional attires of the Kankana-ey have

become more and more extinct. These attires now used as mere costumes that would be

worn only during official civil festivities in the cities and in any public affairs nowadays.

There are several reasons identified of why this tribe had been divided into two.16

First, the group who went up to the hills realized that it would be very much difficult if

another group would be there to control the source of water. It was the time when they

were driven from the coastal belt by the foreigners coming in. The second reason

proposed that the ancestors of the present mountain dwellers may had been attracted by

the salutary climate of Cordillera with its natural resources and to go beyond from their

place which was infected my malaria. This led them to occupy the mountains of 2000 m

above sea level. Other sources would say that it was through the process of displacement

or maybe because of their instinct to look for a terrain more to their liking which is

similar with southern China. This was according to the Austronesian Theory.17

B. Political System

In the Kankana-ey society, there is no formal political leadership except that

which is approved by virtue of a Kankana-ey’s social class, which is defined through the

accumulated wealth, or through the knowledge of oral tradition, possession of healing

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 This theory proposes the migration of a group of people called Austronesians from Asia into the Pacific by means

of Taiwan between 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. Hence, starting from mainland China and reaching Taiwan first in

3500 BC then to the Philippines by 3000 BC and later on to the neighbouring countries around Southeast Asia and

the Pacific. This theory was proposed by Peter Belwood, a linguist and professor of Archaeology which explains the

similarities in culture, language, physical attributes in different counties in most Asian region. Philippine

Encyclopaedia, “Austronesian Migration Theory,”

http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Austronesian_Migration_Theory (accessed October 1, 2013).

9

powers, knowledge of agricultural rituals and venerable wisdom which comes with age.18

Hence, the role of the native priests is also significant in political matters particularly on

giving verdicts and judgments to an offence made which is also entirely related with the

people’s belief system.19

Moreover, the traditional Kankana-ey nobility, which they call baknang,20

exercises the biggest influence especially in religious practices. When the Spanish

settlement was established in 157421 in Ilocus and the expedition to the Cordilleras in

166522 was realized, the baknang were installed as district presidente or village konsehal

and upon retirement would gain the honour of kapitan. Moreover, this wealthy class was

favoured again when the Americans came that as the local elite they were usually the

choice for taking up high offices in the American colonial bureaucracy.23

The elderly men and women called as manabig and manpudpud respectively were

respected in the community and have always significant roles in every community

activity. This is always true during their rituals whether rich or poor. In particular the

elder who would hold the gangsa24 will act as the protocol officer of the ritual. They were

consulted to define and correct the traditions and customs of the community.

Above all, there is also another important function in the Kankana-ey community.

The At-ato and also called dap-ay which is a meeting place of the elders served as the

focal point of community unity.25 These elders would comprise like a council called as

tongtong26 who made community decisions as to giving of judgments and sanctions to an

accuser or accused person in terms of moral issues. Consequently, the customs and

18 Ibid., 41. 19 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 22. The roles of the native priest will be elaborated in the

section of the Belief System and Religious Practices of the Kankana-ey. 20 Ibid., 7. 21 Led by the Spaniard, Kapitan Juan Salcedo, the grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legaspi and also known as the

“Explorer of Luzon” see Martin J. Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the

Philippines 1521-1581, Part 1 Volume 1, (Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1986), 417-434. 22 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

38. 23 Ibid., 41. 24 Gangsa is a musical instrument made of brass, copper or iron that produces sound when hit by a small piece of

wood. This is just one of the main instruments in the Kankana-ey rituals. Henry Astorillo Jr., The Kankana-ey

Different Dances And Their Meaning, (Unpublished), September 2012. 25 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

41. 26 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 7.

10

taboos in the Kankana-ey community are observed as laws even though such practices

are unwritten. Moreover, these practices are integrally attached to their belief system.

The following are also some examples of taboos in the community.27

a. Chanting of ritual prayers without the corresponding ritual celebration.

b. Playing of the musical instruments such as the gangsa or gongs outside the rituals.

c. Eating of the ritual or sacrificed meat while the native priest, mambunong, is saying the

ritual prayer.

d. Opening of the ritual jar of rice wine called tapey/tafey without permission.

A person who is found out of doing these things may receive a particular sanction

from the tongtong. More and severe punishment will be imposed if the offence is more

than this like stealing, murdering, adultery etc. Moreover, in settlement cases the

tongtong together with the native priests gather together and with the contesting parties

would make a ritual invoking first the highest god Adika-ila for wisdom. The council

would ask as well both parties to look at the sky to seek fairness and justice from the

spirits. The following are the common forms of trial and settlement done in a ritual

manner.

a. Gaweng28 is a trial by boiling pot where both parties are to dip the right hand into the

boiling pot. This is done when the evidence of guilt is weak commonly applied in thief

cases. Other than thief, it is also applied in determining who is guilty in cases of fraud,

covetousness and land disputes. According to this trial whoever feels the pain and shows

abnormal feelings during the process will be proclaimed guilty.

b. Sapata is a trial by oath which is an old practice in deciding cases when the evidence is

weak or in the absence of a witness. Here, the tongtong does not necessarily pass the

judgment on the guilty. The tongtong’s function here is to let both parties to swear to the

highest god, Adika-ila where the punishment of the guilty is left to Adikaila who is fair

and just. In this case as well the accused after making his sapata will be asked by the

tongtong what curse should he or she will choose if ever he or she is guilty. The

following are the suggested curses29:

i. That he or she will live a very poor life;

27 Ibid. 28 Ibid., 14. 29 Ibid., 16.

11

ii. That the lightning will strike him or her;

iii. That the snake will bite him or her;

iv. That he or she may not live long;

However, these elements of the Kankana-ey political system gradually

deteriorated when the foreign invaders came in and imposed their colonial political

system. Through the imposition of the pueblos of the Spaniards, the system was greatly

affected for they were treated as mere subjects and slaves. But to some extent the

Spaniards were aware of this village system and made this indigenous system as a

tribunal.30 And in the later political development in the Philippines as to the institutions

of the municipalities as political sub-units of provincial governments, the Kankana-ey

political system was left to history. Yet, in the most inner part of the Mountain Province,

separated from the urbanized system in the lowland, the at-ato or dapay and the council

of elders, tongtong, is still looked upon and respected by the community.

C. Social Organization

Like the political structure of the Kankana-ey, their social organization is entirely

intertwined with their belief system. And in this society as well the family is the basic

social unit composed of husband and wife and their children. This society is

monogamous that when the couple starts to have children it is generally permanent. A

nuclear family is also common in this society which is composed of unmarried or

widowed children, aged parents and even relatives who cannot take care and support

themselves caused either by death or left behind by a spouse.31 Yet, what is also

interesting in this kind of society, children particularly are not expected all day to stay in

their homes. Children are expected even to sleep outside their homes. The at-ato which is

also the meeting centre of the elders is at the same time like a social institution meant for

boys and unmarried men or until they would be married.32 Here, the place would serve as

30 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

38. 31 Ibid., 42. 32 Ibid.

12

the sleeping quarter of the young and unmarried men. Until today there are still Kankana-

eys who practise this, yet in the lowlands where Kankana-ey lived with the non-Kankana-

ey this is not observed anymore.33 On the other hand, for the young girls both those who

have and not yet reached the age of unmarried women they also stay together in a house

called ebgan. This house akin to a dormitory served as their sleeping quarter as well just

like the men. This is a house that is may not be used by a regular household or

exclusively built for this purpose. This kind of association is purposely to prepare the

youth for a new phase of relationships which would eventually lead to marriage.

Hence, when it comes to marriage, the Kankana-ey also has the old tradition of

arrange marriage by the parents of both parties. However, in the later years, courtship

gained much favour particularly among the new generation of Kankana-ey. The male

suitors would visit the girl in her sleeping quarter with the rest of other girls. After

sometime of getting acquainted with each other and building of intimacy they may reach

to the decision of marriage. In this case the man proposes to the parents of the woman.

And in the custom of the Kankana-ey society, the man would render service to the family

of the woman by helping in the farm or in any household chores. After few weeks or even

a month of service and if the omens would prove to be good and favourable for the

marriage, the wedding is set for the solemnization at the girl’s house.34

In this society, there is also a social stratification among them. As it was already

expressed in the political structure of the Kankana-ey the baknang who are the rich

people occupies the higher position in the community. This is a hereditary “aristocracy”

which is handed down by virtue of wealth through landholdings, their capacity to

celebrate feasts and also through other evidence of material wealth. In ritual activities, the

baknang are always regarded to be served with the first juice of rice wine called tapey,

given the best part of the meat of the sacrificed animal commonly a pig, and given the

honour to start the ritual dancing.35 Yet, the baknang when they hold feasts or rituals

33 Confirmed by Charisse and Henry during my conversation with them at the Pamulaan Center for Indigenous

People’s Education USEP, Mintal Campus, Davao City on July 22, 2013. 34 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

42. 35 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 8.

13

called by the lowlanders as kanyaw but actually called as sida or dilus36 by the Kankana-

ey are expected to share their blessings to the unfortunates. Furthermore, the komidwa37

follows in the order of social class. They are the intermediate class of independent

property holders. And below them are the kodo38 who are the impoverished ones in the

community. These are individuals or families who do not own any rice fields or any other

possessions of measurable value. They are always dependent to others by working.

Expectedly, the marriages in the Kankana-ey society would also take place among

their own social class which helped to stabilize the class distinctions. Nevertheless,

because of the many factors that happened throughout history there were changes that

challenged also this kind of system. In a contemporary Kankana-ey society throughout

the Cordillera region there has been an undergoing changes in political, economic, social

and cultural aspect of the people and of course in terms of their belief system.39 These

changes had begun with the Spanish Colonialism that brought great injustices. Together

with the neighbouring tribes of the Kankana-ey around the Gran Cordillera Central such

as the Isneg (Apayao), Kalinga, Bontoc, Ifugao and the closely related Ibaloy were

subject to this foreign domination. And what actually attracted the Spanish conquistadors

in the mountains of Cordilleras was their gold and later on the tobacco which was an

industry being monopolized greatly pushed by the Spaniards by force.40 And with these

exploitations new diseases and epidemics came into the community which required

frequent ritual sacrifices that drained the old baknangs economic resources. When the

American colonial regime took power after the Spaniards, there was also a rise of the new

political and economic elite with new sources and prestige. Consequently, there is the so

called “newly rich” the socio-economic class that entered into the picture of Kankana-ey

society and even to other tribal groups. There were mixed bloods now due to inter-

marriages among the foreigners and neighbouring tribal groups. Hence, today there are

descendants of Spanish, Americans, and Chinese traders. And at the mid of the 20th

36 Kanyaw is a very popular term for the rituals of the Kankana-ey people yet it is being denied by both Henry and

Charisse during my interview with them on July 23, 2013 and attested as well by a Kankana-ey author, see the

preface of Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, iiv. 37 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

43. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 William Henry Scott, “The Spanish Occupation of the Cordillera in the 19th Century”, 42.

14

century, elite recruitment into the modern political system has been introduced and

possible even among non-traditional elite class of the Kankana-ey society. This is a result

of educational achievement, experience in politics, and wealth attained through

commercial and professional practice.41

But again, this situation is very much true in the lowlands, in municipalities and

towns and in the upper part where there are still significant communities existing, the

baknang continue to be regarded with the respected position in the community.

Furthermore, aside from this social classification in the Kankana-ey society, there

is also a very important social organization in this community and that is the roles of the

native priests which will be more expounded in the belief system of the Kankana-ey.

D. Belief System

The Kankana-ey people whether Northern or Southern believe in the existence of

the unseen beings that proceed from the skyworld and the underworld.42 These unseen

beings are also believed to be spirits to have power over humanity. Yet, these spirits can

be manipulated by humans at their own advantage. In this kind of belief, the Kankana-ey

people would strive to win the favour of these spirits through prayers and material

offerings in a ritual. Hence, the Kankana-ey must know the qualities and whims of

different spirits in order to classify a particular spirit according to hierarchy and

generosity. This has also a great effect to a kind of sacrifice or ritual that must be done.

In terms of the hierarchy of the spirits43, Adika-ila is believed to be the highest

and most powerful of all spirits in the skyworld for being the maker of the universe. This

spirit is so great that the native priests would call this spirit as “nanpalangka” the Most

High and Great Spirit and regarded as a fair and just spirit. Second to this highest spirit in

the skyworld are the dieties, Kabunyan. Both Adika-ila and Kabunyan look over the

humanity’s welfare and responds to their prayers whenever humans call for help. Hence,

41 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,”

44. 42 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 4. 43 Ibid.

15

this perception of the Supreme Being evolves a belief system where lies the Kankana-

ey’s hopes and aspirations. There are also the spirits of the ancestors, ap-apo and spirits

of the people who have just died, kakading that are believed that they can move freely

from the skyworld and the underworld as they would like. Certainly, the Kankana-ey

believed that humans are spirit as well that when a person dies his or her own spirit joins

with the other spirits. And the last group of spirits that belong in the underworld are the

anito. These spirits live in the ocean, rivers, lakes, springs, caves, rocks, valleys, bushy

trees and shrubs and abandoned houses or buildings. In particular, those spirits in the

waters are called pinten and those in the mountains are called tomongao and many

others.44 These anito or spirits in the surroundings when offended could perpetrate

illness, death and adversity to humans. Thus, a specific ritual and sacrifice must be made

to appease the spirit or spirits.

Spirits are also classified as benevolent called as maeya and malevolent called as

makedse.45 And among the maeya, the tomongao, spirits in the mountains, are closest to

human beings since they are believed to own the animals and plants and keeps the

minerals under the earth. Hence, the farmers would befriend these spirits to protect and

bless them in their farms. On the other hand the makedse are very sensitive that when

offended, human beings are easy victims of their anger. Nevertheless, all spirits are

generally regarded to be all good, yet, the degree of goodness and badness of the spirits

depends on the spirits’ perception of human’s actions.46 The degree of offence of a

human being against the spirit is the measure of the degree of his or her punishment

repairable only by soothing the spirit through a prescribed ritual. But those spirits that are

not being offended remain to be benevolent as protectors and providers. Consequently,

both the favours and wrath of the spirits can be availed of and appeased. And this reflect

on the kind of recommended ritual. Hence, those benevolent spirits are offered with

thanksgiving ritual that would consist of sacrificing an animal, food, tapey or rice wine

and other materials and importantly the ritual prayers dances and music. On the other

hand, those malevolent spirits that inflicted illness can also be soothed by performing a

44 Ibid., 19 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid.

16

healing ritual to restore the health of the afflicted and asking forgiveness by also offering

similar materials in the ritual.

These spirits are believed to be able to communicate with humans through dreams

or through a mediator in the persons of the native priests and the rituals they perform

together with the community. It is tantamount in Kankana-ey belief system that rituals are

fulfilment of their aspirations as well as a cure to their illness.47

Moreover, with this kind of belief in the spirits, the Kankana-ey also believed that

every man and woman has a spirit. In fact, they call the spirits of the dead as kakading.

They believed that when a person dies, his or her spirit joins with the spirits in the

skyworld. This spirit is the soul of the body while the person is still physically alive on

earth. And when he or she dies, it is believed that Adikaila has summoned the soul and so

the body becomes lifeless or natey.48

With this belief system it established customs, traditions and taboos. Through the

centuries, this belief system has been imbibed by the people as their way of life and way

of thinking. Yet, there was no written form of this belief system but faithfully preserved

by the native priests in the form of ritual prayers being handed down from one generation

to the next.49

1. The Native Priests and their Priestly Class

The native priests of the Kankana-ey society are the chosen spiritual leaders well

versed in their belief system. Commonly, the Kankana-ey priesthood are men but in some

circumstances there are also women priests collectively called as manggengey.50 These

priests are always consulted when someone is sick; they comfort the victim of

misfortunes by offering sacrifices to the offended spirit and also in offering gratitude to

the spirits for the good things bestowed. Definitely, the priests are the counsels of the

people and of the whole community in times joy, sorrow and distress.51

47 Ibid., 5. 48 Ibid., 60. 49 Ibid., 10. 50 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” 45. 51 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 5.

17

The Kankana-ey priests are also classified. There are three kinds of priests

according to their calling and role in the religious practices who act individually and

collectively as ritual advisers.52 They themselves in collaboration direct and administer

the rituals but are bound to observe particular practices in giving priorities to their very

first function. These priests are also expected to attend first the rituals of their nearest kin

before others. Moreover, they are looked up by the people for the people believed that

they possess certain powers like healing, reading and interpreting the signs and omens,

and ritual counselling. Thus, their words are considered to possess also authority as they

are also endowed with a keen memory of ritual procedures and chants genealogies

orally.53 The following are the native priests and their particular functions:

a. Mansip-ok. They are believed to have been given the faculty to determine the cause of

illness, death or misfortune and prescribe the appropriate ritual healing endowed by

Adikaila, the highest and most powerful spirit. To seek the help of the mansip-ok, the sick

person or the representative would ask the mansip-ok for consultation as to the cause of

the sickness. The mansip-ok would ask some information from the person in order to get

gather data as to how the sickness inflicted the person. Then the mansip-ok employs some

ritual methods to fully determine the cause of the sickness.54 The following are the

methods that can be employed:

i. Baknew is a way of determining the sickness through reading and interpreting the sign

that will be shown through a particular material that will be used. Baknew can be done by

using bobod, homemade yeast and dissolved in clean water. It is stirred like a milk and

left to settle in a coconut shell called, kawil. Then the kawil will be covered with banana

or taro leaf and the mansip-ok says the prayer to Kabunyan to reveal in the yeast the

cause of illness or misfortune. Aside from bobod, tapey also can be used and today when

there is no tapey, Ginebra San Miguel (Gin) or Tanduay Rum. An egg of the chicken can

be used as well, or the blood of the chicken.

ii. Sip-ok/Si’bok is a method by using a piece of flint stone or a piece of iron tied with a

string. Hence, the string is held with the object hanging and swinging in one direction

while the mansip-ok chants the prayer then enumerating the possible cause. When the

52 Ibid., 5-31. 53 Ibid., 22 54 Ibid., 23-25.

18

mansip-ok feels that the object becomes heavy when a possible cause is mentioned, then

the mansip-ok determines the cause. However, when the object would swing around, it

means that the patient will not survive the illness.

iii. Pontos. There are mansip-ok who at the same time are also manpontos. They could see in

their patient immediately the cause of the illness by seeing unusual happenings and from

which the mansip-ok could base the analysis of the cause of the illness and then prescribe

a corresponding ritual.

Commonly, the mansip-ok does not perform the ritual but only prescribes. Performing the

prescribed ritual is the function of the other priest.

b. Manbunong. They are the ones who perform the prescribed ritual from the mansip-ok.

With this function, the manbunong takes a very important role in the Kankana-ey belief

system as they function as the mediator between the sick or evil-stricken person and the

spirits. Certainly, in times of sickness the manbunong is consulted as a healer, in times of

hardships and death – a comforter, in times of victory – an exalter, after a fortune – a

guide in planning to the thanksgiving ritual, sida.

c. Mankotom. This is the third classification of the native priests who functions that when

both the mansip-ok and manbunong may not decide the cause of illness and the prescribe

ritual, the mankotom himself or herself the signs and omens. And they could function as

mansip-ok and manbunong at the same time. Accordingly, they are regarded as the wise

people in the community who also oversee the traditional practices. They are usually

composed of the elders in the community very much knowledgeable to the ways and

practices, so, most of them are also tongtong. They are also regarded as the keepers and

guardians of the customs and traditions with high respect for their strict adherence of the

rituals and taboos. Moreover, they are also regarded as advocates of peace. For this

reason, the people look up to them for advise and comfort in some particular situations

and events to find resolutions such as55:

i. Settling disputes arising from misunderstanding, stealing, divorce, property ownership

and other disorder within the community.

ii. Counselling people disturbed by bad omen out of a taboo committed.

iii. Counselling people disturbed by bad dreams, base.

55 Ibid., 28

19

iv. Counselling families afraid of the appearance or a strange bird or animal passing in their

homes as bad omen, gibek.

v. Counselling individuals or a family because of sudden loss of their wealth.

vi. Counselling a family who experienced successive deaths, gupo.

Hence, the manbunong, mansip-ok and mankotom are the very people regarded by

the community to preserve the oral tradition and customs, the flesh of their culture and

identity. However, by virtue of their calling, though greatly respected by the community,

these priests of both men and women do not place high regard on themselves. They

ordinarily live and work among the people and may be call upon whenever they are

needed. These three kinds of priests are believed to be called and possessed special gifts

for religious functions revealed through dreams or taught by a good spirit in secluded

place or tutored by elder priests with the approval of Adikaila. This can be shown by the

priest-elect his or her complete grasp of the bunong, chanted prayers, and who

successfully had the first of any ritual. As they function in the community, they exercise

their ministry without asking for material rewards except for their share on the sacrificed

meat of the pig, as usually it is. Any violation of this, the priests loses his or her ministry.

According to the elders, those who violate this may die for making a mockery of the

rituals.56

2. On Kankana-ey Rituals

The whole traditional rituals of the Kankana-ey generates from two main rituals

which are the thanksgiving and healing rituals.57 Indeed, these rituals are very integral to

the Kankana-ey way of life. And as it is true to other cultures, rituals are very important

for they promote the consciousness of the entire society. Hence, it would be good also to

deal further about these two main rituals.

a. Thanksgiving Rituals or called as Pedit.58 This is the general way of having a

thanksgiving ritual among the Kankana-ey and usually sponsored by the baknang, the

wealthy class. This ritual adheres that the baknang may able to share their wealth and

56 Ibid., 27. 57 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 37. 58 Ibid., 37-38.

20

fortune with the poor and less fortunate in their community. Yet, pedit also can be

performed by the non-baknang through helping each other in providing the materials for

the rituals and whole celebration. Pedit can be celebrated because of an abundant harvest,

victory in war and commonly after wedding celebrations particularly when the couple has

an abundant and wealthy life.59

b. Healing Rituals. The rituals being observed here are not limited to healing the sick

person. Healing rituals can be performed in various reasons and purposes.60

i. In order to welcome an omen of good luck on the belief that the omen will increase the

chance of the person to become rich.

ii. In order to counteract a bad omen so that it would not inflict any illness or misfortune.

iii. In order to strengthen a person’s chance in winning a case/dispute, a contest, conflict or a

game.

iv. In order to ask the kabunyan for protection and guidance before going on a journey.

v. In order to ask the kabunyan and the kakading to bless the person’s or family’s new

project or farm.

vi. In order to ask the kabunyan to bless with abundance the newly acquired property.

vii. In order to be reconciled in a broken relationship.

viii. In order to bless a new home.

ix. In order to ask the spirits for a successful delivery of a child and as well as the fast

recovery of the mother.

x. And to ask the almighty, Adikaila to bless the newly planted filed for a bountiful harvest.

And there are many more purposes for healing rituals which have their own proper name

as well.

Moreover, in terms the healing rituals of the Kankana-ey though it is integrally associated

with their belief system relies also to various herbal plants. Herbal plants are utilized in

their healing rituals considering the reality that these people live in mountainous area.61

Yet, these practices also were affected and gradually faded away in the course of time

due to influences brought by both Spanish and American colonization. Gradually, fewer

59 Pedit is only the general way of thanksgiving ritual; there are more rituals within this ritual also. For further

reading see Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 37-59. 60 Ibid., 60-99 61 Charisse Mae Das-ao, The Health Practices and Beliefs of the Kankana-ey Tribe, Unpublished. September 2012,

16.

21

and fewer Kankana-ey were doing and believing in this kind of healing primarily because

of their new faith. The massive conversion of the natives into Christianity ceased these

practices for it is against the Christian since these practises involves praying to the

spirits.62

Furthermore, these rituals cannot just be performed right away. These rituals also

follow certain procedure, materials to be used and observe taboos. For thanksgiving

rituals they are always performed on odd dates like 1,3,5,7,9 ect. The even numbers are

considered not good dates because these numbers when paired do not leave anything.

Compared to the odd numbers these leave one number. This is also observed as they

would sacrifice animals, it has to come in 3 or 5 or 7 etc. so that paired there is one left

unpaired which signifies abundance.63 Rituals are also observed accordning to the

formations of the moon and the twelve seasons of the year, mata-on.64 And most

importantly, these rituals cannot be effective without the manbunong’s various rituals

prayers that would vary depending on the particular rituals being observed. These prayer

rituals are being passed from generation to generation in oral tradition.65

3. The Kankana-ey Belief System in the Spanish Colonial Period

Definitely, in the pre-colonial times, these native priests exercise their ministry as

the crucial point of the Kankana-ey belief system. However, at the dawn of Spanish

colonization, their belief system was greatly threatened. Together with their neighbouring

tribes especially those who were along the coastline were the first victims of Spanish

colonization that brought slavery, robbery and oppression.66

Moreover, along with this colonization was the Christianization of the natives, the

reality of the cross and the sword. Hence, together with the cause of Spain’s imperial

expansion that involved subjugation of huge populations was also the foundation of

62 Ibid., 19. 63 Ibid. 59-60. 64 Ibid., 8. 65 There are many written ritual prayers for various occasions in the book of Wasing Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and

Home Rituals of Benguet. 66 Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the Philippines 1521-1581, 422-

423.

22

evangelical mission during the early years of the Age of Discovery.67 It was when the

Gospel was preached for the first to the whole world. This evangelical mission of

spreading the faith to the whole world came strongly with the Papal Bull “Inter Cetera68”

decreed by Pope Alexander VI in 1493 which gave authority to the Europeans to civilize

every savage that they would encounter. Consequently, the King of Spain through his

command dominated the Philippines and converted the natives through the works of the

missionaries and his battalions of soldiers, thus, to establish Christian dominion over the

New World. In many instances, conversion of the natives was forced by brutal methods

such as murder, perversion of law, arson and the depopulation of villages. Accordingly,

the result of this decree was the genocide of over 100 million indigenous peoples all over

the world in just few hundred years particularly in the continents of Africa, Latin

America and Asia.69

In its full effect, it was also true to the kind of treatment the indigenous peoples

all over the Philippines and particularly this group of Kankana-ey. The abuses and

oppression though directly inflicted by the Spanish soldiers, the missionaries also were

not exempted. They themselves perpetrated the natives by considering their culture

uncivilized and their belief system pagan. Many missionaries identified their European

culture with the Gospel and so treated the natives’ culture as inferior and uncivilized.

Missionaries themselves imposed their own culture as the natives were converted and to

abandon their culture.70 Moreover, when the encomienda system was approved this had

made more trouble in the land and more abuses were caused. This encomienda came

from the Spanish word which means “to entrust,” hence, giving the conquistador the right

to be the landlord of a particular pueblo and the authority to govern it and spread the

Gospel to the natives. Yet, this system made landed nobility out of men whose only skill

were murder, disorder and torture.71 A particular situation would happen such as this:

67 Ibid., 421. 68 “Inter Caetera,” PapalBull.com, http://papalbull.com/ (Accessed October 05, 2013). 69 Ibid. 70 Rodrigo D. Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, (Quezon City:

New Day Publishers, 1981), 3. 71 Christopher Minster, “Spain’s American Colonies and the Encomienda System,” Latin American History,

http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/p/Spain-S-American-Colonies-And-The-Encomienda-

System.htm (accessed October 5, 2013).

23

A group of soldiers would swoop on an unsuspecting village, often a first

appearance of the so-called encomienda, but then would demand extreme tribute

from the people under the pain of death, and collect whatever they could lay

hands on if the people submitted meekly, and kill or wound those who would

refuse before they could escape with a few belongings, and burn wretched shacks

to the ground. This from the auxiliaries of Christianization!72

However, in fairness with the missionaries, there were few of them who felt

sympathy for the indigenous people and even to the extent of demanding justice and

fairness for the native people against the abuses and oppression perpetrated particularly

by the Spanish viceroys and his soldiers. One of those who fought for the right of the

natives was Fr. Diego de Herrera, OSA who wished to bring the issue to the King’s

attention that “the policy (encomienda) followed here in dealing with the native

population, namely to rob them, burn their houses and make slaves of them.”73 It was

indeed a total chaos and confusion for all the natives not just on this part of the Northern

Philippines but also to all colonies of the European Colonization across the world.

a. The Foundation of the See of Nueva Segovia

To further strengthen the commitment of the missionaries in this part of the

Philippines, the See of Nueva Segovia was founded through the Papal Bull on August 14,

1595 and canonically erected by Pope Clement VIII.74 Its territorial jurisdiction extended

over all the provinces of northern Luzon and placed under the principal patronage of the

Immaculate Concepcion of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Together with the diocese of Cebu

and Caceres, the new diocese was made a suffragan to the new Archdiocese of Manila.

Originally, the diocese was first situated in the progressive city of Nueva Segovia with

Miguel de Benavides, a Dominican as the first bishop. This city was founded by Pablo

Carreon in 1581 in the Cagayan Valley, near the mouth of the Ibanag River or called as

72 Noone, General History of the Philippines: the Discovery and the Conquest of the Philippines 1521-1581, 423. 73 Ibid., 424. 74 Cbcponline.net, “Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia,” Jurisdiction,

http://www.cbcponline.net/jurisdictions/nueva_segovia.html (accessed October 13, 2013)

24

Rio Grande de Cagayan.75 Nueva Segovia was named after the old city of Segovia in

Spain. It was the capital and principal port of the region that time. However, because of

the frequent flooding caused by the river, the city gradually deteriorated.

Afterwards, the locus of the see was transferred to Vigan, Ilocus Sur which

was a small pueblo then but later progressively developed. And in 1758 at the request of

Bishop Juan de la Fuente Yepes, during the pontificate of Benedict XIV, the See was

officially transferred to Vigan but retaining the name of the See of Nueva Segovia.76

Vigan was founded by Juan Salcedo in 1572. In consequence, with the establishment of

the See, this effectively helped the missionaries to penetrate far flung areas and convert

the natives to Christianity.

With the effort of the missionaries, the See had become an Archdiocese on

June 29, 1951 by Pope Pius XII with the papal bull Quo in Philippina Republica.77 At

present the territorial jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia is the civil

province of Ilocos Sur. The Archdiocese lies along the north-western coast of Luzon,

with China Sea to the west and the Cordillera mountain ranges to the east, Abra and

Ilocos Norte to the north, and La Union and Benguet to the south. With a land area of

2,579 square kilometers and a population of 549,212 people and of which 94 per cent are

Catholics. Nueva Segovia has 38 canonically established parishes, 21 of which were

established before the 1900's.

Certainly, this establishment helped the Church for a massive conversion of

the natives particularly in that area. And in the latter years, the missionaries as they were

able to build parishes focused merely on the town centres. With this expansion of the

Spanish territories both civilly and ecclesiastically, more and more the natives were

driven farther and farther into the deepest part of the mountains. And for those who were

converted thought to be uncultured, they were assimilated into the “culture” of the

colonizers, the evangelization and the hispanization of the people.

And in particular, as to the Kankana-ey people, those who were converted into

Christianity accepted in one way or another the rituals that Catholic Church have. Yet, in

terms of their animistic belief, it was completely banished and indigenous rituals

75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid.

25

ministered by their own native priests were obviously banished and considered heathen

beliefs and practices. Surprisingly, there were still remnants in the way people would

relate with nature and with other people. This way of life that has been part of the soul of

these people for many generations cannot be just eradicated. As to the native priests of

the Kankana-ey, the manbunong who performs the rituals of the Kankana-ey has

remained influential.78 It was of the conditioning that since the pre-Christian era the

manbunong takes a very important place in the priestly ministry in the preservation of the

indigenous/traditional practices. It was being attested that the influence of the manbunong

did not diminish as Christianity was introduced. Hence, in 1755, the Governor-General of

the Philippines noted that the Igorots accepted the faith, be baptized and go to Church but

strongly refused to do away their traditional sida or kanyaw as called by the lowlanders,

as way of worshipping.79 It is also true with the Kankana-ey traditional political structure,

the baknang, maintained their influence over their own people and even made stronger as

it was civilly structured by the Spanish Colonization. The tongtong had also gained and

remained influential as they were tapped to be the council of elders formally recognized

by the Spanish establishment as a tribunal80.

4. American Occupation and Protestantism

The Spanish Colonization lasted for almost 400 years. In terms of the religious

aspect, the Spanish missionaries had founded and built churches across the country,

dioceses and parishes. These establishments were mostly in the lowlands that later on

became the commercials and political centres as well. With this kind of system also, the

missionaries more and more, after the churches were established, focused on the

maintenance of these churches and their parishioners around the cities and towns.

Although the missionaries had still contacts and attempts to go after those natives being

driven farther and farther, the Spanish friars generally settled and found comfort in their

78 Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 25. 79 Quoted by Sacla, Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet, 26 in the book of Laurence Lee Wilson, The

Skyland of the Philippines (Baguio: Printed Bookman, Inc., 1956) 68. 80 CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun, Volume 1, “Kankanay,” 41.

26

convents in the town centres. Hence, there were still unbaptized natives at the periphery

who continually resisted to these changes. And so, at the end of the Spanish colonization

a continuation of evangelization to the natives was again attempted through the Protestant

missionaries from America which was the dawn of another colonization from the

American regime.

The year of 1898 was the end of Spanish colonization that through the deceitful

victory of the American troops led by Commodore Dewey who had sunk the Spanish

fleet in the harbour of Manila, entered into the land of the Filipinos.81 This year was at

the same time the beginning of the American Colonization. Changes had occurred again

in the Philippines from its social, political and cultural aspect.

Hence, with this new genesis, it paved the way also in terms of religious aspect.

Protestantism which was widespread already in America found the opportunity to push as

well their cause of converting non-Christians in the new colony of United States.

Consequently, all the major denominations and some minor denomination of protestant

churches in US sent their missionaries to the Philippines.82 The protestant missionaries

found indeed a fertile land for conversion among the natives who were not reached by the

Catholic missionaries in the far flung areas.

As the American Missionaries set out to convert the non-Christian Filipinos, they

were almost similar in their perspective also with the Catholic Spanish Missionaries.

These Protestant missionaries considered their American culture far superior than the

natives. Hence, the conversion of the natives was leading to assimilation into the

American culture and religion. Clearly, the emphases of these missionaries were more on

evangelism, pastoral work and church expansion without considering the very culture of

the native people in the Christian faith.83

One of the most effective ways of conversion was through the American school

teachers who were Protestants and pioneered in the new Philippine public school system.

These people laid the groundwork for Protestant churches in many lowland barangays

and towns. Filipinos who were converted to Protestantism experienced most often

81 Gleeck Jr., Lewis E. Gleeck Jr., General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century 1898-1946, Part

V Volume 1, (Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1984) 1-6. 82 Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the US Library of Congress, 1991,

http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.htm (accessed October 17, 2013). 83 Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, 11.

27

significant social changes in the American period. Most were middle-level bureaucrats,

servants, lawyers, small entrepreneurs, and some became nationally prominent despite

their minority religious adherence.84

Aside from education, these American Protestants also pioneered better

foundation in the field of medicine. They have built churches together with their schools

and hospitals which greatly helped in their endeavour of evangelizing the natives at the

periphery. The denominations planted by the early missionaries numbered among their

believers about 2 percent of the population in the late 1980s.85 Indeed, these

developments brought by the Americans to the mountains and introduced to the natives

brought great changes into the traditions and culture of the people. Through education

and the western medicine, there were natives who ceased to practise also the old ways.86

Consequently, the new generations of Kankana-ey are ignorant to some extent with the

traditional healing practices and rituals for they are already assimilated into the western

culture, of education and religion. Yet, there would be still old people who continue to

practice this kind of way particularly those places that are far from the municipal

hospitals and clinics.87

a. The Kankana-ey Protestants

One of the major denominations that were sent to the Philippines was the

Seventh-Day Adventists. Charisse Mae Das-ao is a member of this protestant Church.88

This particular denomination insists on private interpretation of the Bible that developed

into the theory of private inspiration independently of the Scriptures, with visions and

prophecies which amplify the Christian revelation.89 They believe that the Scriptures is

84 Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the US Library of Congress, 1991,

http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.htm (accessed October 17, 2013). 85 Ibid. 86 Das-ao, The Health Practices and Beliefs of the Kankana-ey Tribe, 19. 87 Ibid. 88 A personal interview of Charisse Mae Das-ao on July 22, 2013. 89 John Hardon, SJ, The Protestant Churches of America, (Maryland: The Newman Press, 1959), 3.

28

all sufficient and the only unerring rule of faith.90 And in common with other Protestant

Churches, the Adventists has also recognized two sacraments namely the adult baptism

and the Lord’s Supper.91 These are the only things which the Adventist would have some

rituals. In the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper which is done quarterly, the service begins

with the ritual of foot washing and there will be sermon that will be delivered and the

ritual of the partaking of the bread and wine (an unfermented juice of the grape)

follows.92 They believe also in the nearness of the Second Coming, without knowing the

precise date as, although they always predicted the Parousia in their early years. They

also advocate observing the Sabbath day of rest and worship on the seventh day, or

Saturday, as a way to devoutly await Jesus' return following the tradition of Judaism.

Nevertheless, Charisse Mae confirmed that she herself as a Kankana-ey felt

degraded that their own culture and traditions have faded away because of these

influences. Because of the imposition of the Christian faith not just the protestant

influence but also the Roman Catholic influence, have contributed to the degradation of

the Kankana-ey culture particularly their indigenous rituals.

There were minor denominations also that were sent to the Philippines and

throughout the years there were more and more minorities who came and even new

protestant churches also were founded in the Philippines. Hence, in the case of Henry

Astorillo, Jr., he is a member of a minor protestant denomination, the Full Gospel

Church. Henry’s Church, the Full Gospel Church like other denominations confesses that

the Bible in its entirety is the inspired Word of God and the only infallible rule of Faith

and conduct.93 Henry himself shared Charisse’s feeling of loss over their lost culture and

rich tradition. Nevertheless, both of them confirmed their difficulty as Kankana-ey and

Christians that according to their Christian faith their very indigenous belief and practices

are not acceptable and compatible with their Christian faith.94

90 Seventh-Day Adventists, “Fundamental Beliefs,” http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html,

(Accessed September 30,2013) 91 Patheos Library: Hoisting the Conversation of Faith, “Rituals and Worship,”

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Adventist/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism (accessed September 30, 2013) 92 Hardon, SJ, The Protestant Churches of America, 13. 93 Full Gospel Churches International, “Doctrinal Statement,” http://fgci.us/doctrine.html (accessed September 30,

2013) 94 Personal Interview of both Charisse and Henry on July 22, 2013.

29

However, both of them have felt the need to reclaim what was lost and to

bring back the rich tradition expressed through their rituals and practices. What they hope

for is that their rituals and practices would not just become a mere showcase of their

identity being performed during civil celebrations and festivals. What Charisse and Henry

hope for is that the Kankana-ey people particularly their co-young people would gain the

consciousness of the importance of their own culture and way of life greatly expressed

through in their belief system. As a consequence, they anticipated as well the difficulty

on this kind of endeavour. The difficulty today is on how to reconcile their own rituals

and practices with their Christian faith.95 More difficulties as well that in the doctrines of

their respective religions, both the Seventh-Day and Full Gospel Church are minimalist

and abhor many rituals and practices.

Another problem also that they faced now as Kankana-ey people is the

attitude of the elder ones who seemed to completely forgotten already their own culture

for they do not want to go back what was old already.96 They are supposed to be the ones

who should support and encourage the young to live their own way of life. There are

more difficulties also in dealing their co-young people especially those who are

completely assimilated in the modern way of living who do not have any more the sense

of their identity as Kankana-ey. This is truer in the town and city areas according to

Charisse and Henry. Despite these difficulties both of them also still hope for retrieving

their own tradition and culture integral to their identity as Kankana-ey people.

As part of the new generation of Kankana-ey people they dream to bring back

and maintain their culture. They see education as an effective tool of bringing the young

Kankana-ey into the consciousness of the importance of their culture.97 To be conscious

of their culture is not about excavating a corpse but to be culturally sensitive by

respecting and recognizing and living their own and not banishing or forgetting the past.

It is not also about retreating to the mountains and living remotely from other people. The

hope of reclaiming their own culture is to establish ones again their very own identity as

people, as Kankana-ey. It is the hope that they would become real Kankana-ey not just

during festivals and civil celebrations when they dance with their costumes but beyond

95 Ibid. 96 Ibid. 97 Ibid.

30

that. In the words of Charisse she said, “We become the present because of our past.”

What they are now is primarily because of what was in the past that must be continued to

be lived and treasured. It is something that they must be proud of and cultivate more that

through their very culture they will grow in their Christian faith and that their Christian

faith will in return enrich their culture.

Chapter 3

Theological Reflection and Conclusion

The Kankana-ey people have been through many changes over the past centuries

particularly since the beginning of the Spanish colonization and Christianization up to the

present. The different epochs in history had brought tremendous effect and influence into

the entire life and culture of the Kankana-ey people. There are positive effects that

penetrated the thoughtways and lifeways of the people which helped the Kankana-ey to

establish their communities with the changing political, social, cultural and religious

structures. These influences also helped the people to avail good chances like education,

commercial and job opportunities. However, there are also worst and devastating

influences brought about by these changes coming from foreign thought-to-be-superior

cultures. One of the many destructive effects generated by colonization was the

oppression experienced by the people in many ways. Through Christianization also, the

evangelization seen in the one sided European mentality of superiority made a

catastrophic effect in the culture and belief system of the natives, particularly also to the

Kankana-ey. This is very much true also to every indigenous group of people not just in

the Philippines but all over the world. In many cases, these things led to cultural

degradation of the people. History would attest to this kind of destruction and oppression.

However, the situation is not entirely hopeless. There was a tremendous change

that happened among the indigenous people’s culture and beliefs especially with the

Kanakana-ey, but there are still obvious remnants of that culture among the people.

31

Culture itself cannot just be erased from the people. The hope lies here that the Gospel

will be appropriated into the culture of the people so that culture itself will be enriched by

the Christian faith and that through the very culture of the people they may grow in faith.

Undeniably, both the Catholic and Protestant missionaries in Spanish and

American periods respectively showed a little sensitivity to the culture of the Filipino

people. If there were missionaries who showed sensitivity, it was very minimal and must

have come in the latter years. The Gospel that was preached to the natives was

completely conditioned in a very western way that which was not western was considered

unchristian at all. However, in the latter years the Catholic Church particularly was able

to realize the devastating western imposition of Christianity to the people’s culture and

way of life. After all, the Church had realized that what was primarily preached in the

past was the western culture rather than the Gospel itself.

Although, this was practiced for many centuries but the Church took the side to

correct herself from this kind of error in preaching the Gospel of salvation. Hence, the

Church saw the need that the Christian faith must be made meaningful and relevant to

particular historical-cultural milieus.98 This is especially coined as the indigenization of

the Christian faith. Every culture here is seen as it is neither something superior nor

inferior but a culture where the Gospel is made compatible and relevant. Although there

might be some loopholes in a particular culture but not everything, every culture can be a

vehicle of revelation and of salvation.99 Indigenization allows the Church to preach the

Gospel in a new culture and to take root and grow in a new cultural soil. With this

concept came also the acceptance of the native clergy to minister their own flocks.

Vatican II even encourages the acceptance and adaptation of local customs and

traditions into the liturgy of the Church.100 However, this is not everything because

indigenization is not merely external but internal. It makes Christ as one with the people

rather than making Christ appear like a European so that the faith will grow and bear

much fruit in the lives of the people.

98 Tano, Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of Theology, 11. 99 Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Theology, (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications,

1975), 5. 100 Constitution of the Sacred Liturgy, no. 37 quoted in Mercado, Elements of Filipino Theology, 5.

32

A closer movement and integrally related with this movement of the Church is

also the concept of inculturation which has been widely discussed all over the world.

This inculturation is the Church’s effort to make the message of Christ live at a given

socio-cultural environment that it may grow according to its particular values as enriched

by the Gospel.101

This is a process of reliving the incarnation itself which demands the insertion of

the Gospel at the very heart of the culture of the people. Thus, inculturation “means the

intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in

Christianity and the insertion of the Christian faith in the various human cultures102.”

This also entails that the Church who evangelizes a culture through the missionaries will

be enriched by the people being evangelized. Clearly, there would be a mutual giving and

receiving between the Church (missionaries) and the people being evangelized. This

process would also lead the missionaries and the people to have a good grasp of what that

mission of the Church is. Evangelization involves which would help the

individuals/people to a personal and community conversion to the Lord, to an

understanding of the importance of one’s culture and the interaction of faithful and their

culture that would lead to Christian commitment to faith.103

For this reason, the missionaries and the local Church has a remarkable role in the

Church’s mission. Pope John Paul II in his encyclical letter emphasized this role which is

also a challenge to every missionary. Indeed, there is a great need for the missionaries to

be immersed in the given cultural context where the missionaries are sent and to move

beyond their own cultural limitations. Accordingly, the missionaries are to learn the

language of the people and to be familiar with the significant expressions of the local

people and to discover the values of the people and their culture through direct

experiences.104 Through this, the missionaries will have a better understanding and

101 International Theological Commission, “Faith and Inculturation,” 1988

http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1988_fedeinculturazione_en.html

(accessed October 10, 2013). 102 Extraordinary Assembly of 1985, Final Report, II, C,6 qouted in the Encyclical Letter of John Paul II, On the

Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate, December 7, 1990, 89. 103 Gerald A. Arbuckle, Earthing the Gospel: An Inculturation Handbook for Pastoral Workers, (Australia: St. Paul

Publications, 1990), 18-20. 104 John Paul II, On the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate, December 7, 1990 (USA: United

States Catholic Conference), 91.

33

appreciation of the culture of the people and further fostering and evangelizing the

culture. In this way the missionaries set in themselves the manner of living according to

the Gospel and in solidarity with the people.

In terms of the rituals of the Kankana-ey which are integral to their belief system

as well as with their relationship with nature, they express the Kankana-ey’s

connectedness and rootedness in creation. The rituals per se express also how the

Kankana-ey articulates their relationship with one another as a community and their

relationship with other people outside their community. Moreover, the rituals enunciate

the Kankana-ey’s spirituality and their relationship with the spirits in the world and their

experience of God. This is the intrinsic significance of these rituals. This is one thing that

the Church must dialogue with the Kankana-ey people and also true with other

indigenous people. Their rituals that express their hopes and aspirations are very much

important on how they see themselves as people and everything else both the seen and

unseen. They are indeed religious, though they don’t operate in a very dogmatic and

hierarchical structure of religion. This is very important to note that the mission of the

Church will also facilitate the rootedness of these people through their very expressions

wherein they would also experience and recognize the presence and salvific action of the

Universal Christ.

Although the rituals of the Kankana-ey are innately animistic for they are

primarily addressed to the spirits that reside in nature, the Church and the missionaries

should continually discern and reflect on the sacredness of these rituals. Subsequently,

the missionaries also have to be open to the materials being used in the rituals for these

things are integral. These materials used in the rituals are very basic and again these are

part of the symbols and signs that express the people’s faith. The Church also has to be

respectful to the people especially those designated persons who perform the sacred

rituals of the Kankana-ey. But of course, the Church while respecting and recognizing the

people’s culture, has to adhere also the fundamental revelation of God to the Church

rooted in the Church’s Tradition so that the people will be guided and grow deeply and

confidently in their Christian faith. Certainly, this is not anymore the time of inquisition

wherein the indigenous practices were condemned as heathen and demonic. This is not

anymore the time of clothing Christ in very European way for Jesus is in fact Asian. This

34

is the time of appreciating and recognizing the sacred and the God who revealed first to

these people long before the missionaries came. This is the time as well that the Church

herself must be rooted and grounded again to the basic, to the indigenous faith where it

first started.

35

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Primary Sources

Astorillo Jr., Henry. The Kankana-ey Different Dances and their Meaning. Unpublished. August

2012.

Das-ao, Charisse Mae. The Health Practices and Beliefs of the Kankana-ey Tribe. Unpublished.

September 2012.

Personal Interview with Henry Astorillo Jr. and Charisse Mae Das-ao in Pamulaan Center for

Indigenous People’s Education, USEP, Mintal Campus, Davao City. July 22, 2013.

Sacla, Wasing D. Treasury of Beliefs and Home Rituals of Benguet. Philippines: BCF Printing

Press, 1987.

Secondary Sources

Arbuckle, Gerald A. Earthing the Gospel: An Inculturation Handbook for Pastoral Workers.

Australia: St. Paul Publications, 1990.

________. Culture, Inculturation, Theologians: A Postmodern Critique. Minnesota: Liturgical

Press, 2010.

CCP Encyclopaedia of Philippines Art: Peoples of the Philippines Aeta to Jama Mapun. Volume

1. “Kankanay.” Manila: Cultural Centre of the Philippines, 1994.

Gleeck Jr., Lewis E. General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century 1898-1946.

Part V. Volume 1. Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1984.

Hardon, SJ, John. The Protestant Churches of America. Maryland: The Newman Press, 1959.

John Paul II, Pope. On the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate:

Redemptoris Missio. Encyclical Letter 7 December 1990. USA: United States Catholic

Conference.

McCoy, Alfred and Ed. C. de Jesus, Editors. Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Social

Transformations. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982.

Mercado, Leonardo N. Elements of Filipino Theology. Tacloban City: Divine Word University

Publications, 1975.

36

Noone, Martin J. General History of the Philippines: The Discovery and Conquest of the

Philippines 1521-1581. Part 1. Volume 1. Manila: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., Inc., 1986.

Tano, Rodrigo D. Theology in the Philippines: A Case Study in the Contextualization of

Theology. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1981.

Internet Sources

Cbcponline.net. “Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia.” Jurisdiction.

http://www.cbcponline.net/jurisdictions/nueva_segovia.html (accessed October 13,

2013).

Dolan, Ronald E. ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the US Library of

Congress, 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/49.html (accessed October 17,

2013).

Full Gospel Churches International. “Doctrinal Statement.” http://fgci.us/doctrine.html.

(accessed September 30 2013).

International Theological Commission. “Faith and Inculturation.” 1988

http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1988_fed

einculturazione_en.html (accessed October 10, 2013).

Minster, Christopher. “Spain’s American Colonies and the Encomienda System.” Latin

American History. http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/p/Spain-

S-American-Colonies-And-The-Encomienda-System.htm (accessed October 5, 2013).

PapalBull.com. “Inter Caetera.” http://papalbull.com/ (accessed October 05, 2013).

Patheos Library: Hoisting the Conversation of Faith. “Rituals and Worship.”

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Adventist/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism

(accessed September 30, 2013).

Philippine Encyclopaedia. “Austronesian Migration Theory.”

http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Austronesian_Migration_Theory (accessed

October 1, 2013).

Seventh Day Adventists Church. “Fundamental Beliefs.”

http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html. (accessed September 30, 2013.)