Rangka Aksial -Tengkorak
-Tulang vertabra-Sangkar thorasik
rosley i3p, Skeleton 2Figure 5.6
Two sets of bones◦ Cranium◦ Facial bones
Bones are joined by sutures Only the mandible is attached by a freely
movable joint
rosley i3p, Skeleton 3
(The skull)
rosley i3p, Skeleton 5Figure 5.7
rosley i3p, Skeleton 6Figure 5.11
rosley i3p, Skeleton 7Figure 5.8
rosley i3p, Skeleton 8Figure 5.9
rosley i3p, Skeleton 9
The cranium is composed of 8 bones, except for 2 paired bones, they are all single bones.
Frontal Bone : the forehead, also forms the the projections under the eyebrows and the superior part of each eye orbit
Parietal Bones : paired bones that form the superior and lateral walls of the skull
They meet at the sagittal suture and form the coronal suture where they meet the frontal
rosley i3p, Skeleton 10Figure 5.7
rosley i3p, Skeleton 11
The temporal bones are inferior to the parietal bones, and join with them at the squamous suture
There are several important bone markings on the temporal bone.
External auditory meatus: ear canal
Styloid process : allows for muscle attachment
Zygomatic process : the thin bridge of bone that joins anteriorly with the zygomatic bone
rosley i3p, Skeleton 12
Mastoid process provides an attachment site for some neck muscles. Also contains the mastoid sinuses.
Jugular foramen : allows for the passage of the jugular vein .
Carotid canal : anterior to the jugular foramen, allows for passage of the carotid artery.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 13Figure 5.9
rosley i3p, Skeleton 14
Occipital Bone forms the inferior posterior portion of the skull.
The occipital bone contains the magnum foramen, which is the large opening that allows for passage of the spinal cord from the base of the brain down the vertebral column .
The occipital bone joins with the temporal and parietal bones
rosley i3p, Skeleton 15
The occipital bone features the occipital condyles, which articulate with the first cervical vertebrae, called the atlas.
The sphenoid bone is the wing shaped bone which spans the skull, most of which is visible on the interior of the skull .
rosley i3p, Skeleton 16
14 bones compose the face
12 Bones are paired, and only the mandible and the vomer are single bones.
Maxillae ( maxillary bones) fuse to form the upper jaw. All of the facial bones join the maxillae, except the mandible
rosley i3p, Skeleton 17
The palatine processes form the anterior hard palate
The maxillae also contain the para-nasal sinuses
Palatine Bones – paired bones that lie posterior to the hard palate
Failure of these bones to fuse results in a cleft palate
Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
rosley i3p, Skeleton 18Figure 5.10
rosley i3p, Skeleton 19
The Zygomatic bones : commonly called the cheekbones, they also form a large portion of the eye sockets
Vomer : single plow-shaped bone that forms the nasal septum
Inferior conchae : thin curved bones that project from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Mandible : Lower jaw, the largest strongest bone of the face
rosley i3p, Skeleton 20
Hyoid Bone:
The only bone in the body that does not directly articulate with another bone.
It is located in the mid neck, above the larynx, and is anchored to the styloid process by ligaments
Shaped like a horse shoe, it serves as a movable base for the tongue and as a point of muscular attachment for muscles in the neck
The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
rosley i3p, Skeleton 21Figure 5.12
rosley i3p, Skeleton 22
The fetal skull is large when compared to the body of the fetus.
A newborn’s skull has regions that have yet to be converted to bone.
These ‘soft spots’ are called fontanels ( little fountains)
The rhythm of the baby’s pulse can be felt in these areas.
They are usually converted to bone 22 to 24 months post – partum.
The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body length
rosley i3p, Skeleton 23Figure 5.13
Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
◦ Allow the brain to grow
◦ Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
rosley i3p, Skeleton 24Figure 5.13
•
1. Kranium* Berfungsi untuk melindungi otak.* Mempunyai 8 kepingan tulang yang berasingan bercantum melalui satur(sendi tak bergerak).
• 2. Soket mata (atau Orbit)* Berfungsi untuk melindungi kedua-dua bebola mata.
• 3. Tulang hidung* Berfungsi untuk menyokong tisu-tisu hidung yang lembut.
• 4. Lubang telinga* Berfungsi untuk melindungi bahagian dalam telinga.
• 5. Rahang atas (atau Maksila)* Berfungsi menyokong barisan gigi atas.
• 6. Rahang bawah (atau Mendibel)* Berfungsi menyokong barisan gigi bawah.* Rahang berkebolehan untuk bergerak, iaitu untuk menguyah makanan dan sebagainya.
• 7. Bukaan pada dasar tengkorak* Berfungsi untuk menyambung tengkorak dengan turus vertebra.
• • • • • • • • •
(Vertabral Column)
Is formed by 26 irregular bones Is a flexible, curved structure extending
from the skull to the pelvis Protects the delicate spinal cord Transmits the weight load of the body to the
lower limbs
rosley i3p, Skeleton 27
Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
The spine has a normal curvature
Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
rosley i3p, Skeleton 28Figure 5.14
There are 33 separate vertebrae at birth Nine of these fuse to for the composite
bones of the sacrum and the coccyx From superior to inferior the bones are
designated by location and number Cervical 7 Thoracic 12 Lumbar 5
rosley i3p, Skeleton 29
The number of bones in each group can remembered by the time of day we typically eat.
7 Cervical 12 Thoracic 5 Lumbar Individual vertebrae are separated by
flexible fibrocartilage intervertebral disks
rosley i3p, Skeleton 30
The intervertebral disks absorb shock, and are highly compressible.
They are 90% water As we age, the water content decreases and
the disks become less flexible This helps explain why some elderly people
seem to ‘shrink’ with age.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 31
Herniated, or ‘slipped’ disks can press against the spinal cord or nerves that exit the spinal cord..
This can result in extreme pain, and loss of function
Spinal Curvatures The spine is curved to help absorb shock.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 32
rosley i3p, Skeleton 33
The thoracic and sacral curves are called primary curves because they are present at birth.
The secondary curves develop later. The cervical develops when the baby begins
to raise it’s head, and the lumbar when the child begins to walk.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 34
All vertebrae have a similar structural pattern.
Some common features: Body or centrum: the weight bearing part
of the vertebra, and it faces anteriorly. Vertebral arch: formed by the joining of all
the posterior extensions from the body of the vertebrae.
Vertebral foramen: canal through which the spinal cord passes.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 35
Transverese Process: Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch
Spinous Process : Single projection arising from the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch.
Superior and Inferior Articular Processes : paired projections that allow vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae
Vertebral arch: formed by the joining of all the posterior extensions from the body of the vertebrae.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 36
rosley i3p, Skeleton 37Figure 5.17a–b
Cervical vertebrae ( C1 to C7 )form the neck region of the spine.
C1 and C2 are specialized, they perform functions not shared by other vcervical vertebrae
The Atlas ( C1) Has no body
rosley i3p, Skeleton 38
Transverse processes have depressions that receive the occipital condyles.
The Axis ( C2 ) Acts as a pivot for the atlas and the skull
C3 through C7 are the smallest and lightest vertebrae
Their spinous processes are short and divide into two branches.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 39
rosley i3p, Skeleton 40Figure 5.17a–b
The transverse processes contain foramina for the arteries to pass through on their way to the brain.
They are the only group of vertebrae with this feature.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 41
rosley i3p, Skeleton 42Figure 5.17a–b
Thoracic vertebrae ( T1 – T 12 ). Larger than cervical vertebrae Have two costal demifacets on each side to
receive the head of the ribs Have long spinous processes that angle
sharply downward. When viewed from the side resemble the
head of giraffe
rosley i3p, Skeleton 43
rosley i3p, Skeleton 44Figure 5.17c–d
Lumbar vertebrae ( L1 – L 5 ). Are the strongest and stursiest of all
vertebrae. Have large block- like bodies Spinous processes are short, and hatchet
shaped. When viewed from the side resemble the
head of a moose.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 45
rosley i3p, Skeleton 46Figure 5.17c–d
Formed by 5 fused vertebrae Superior aspect articulates with the inferior
aspect of L5 Laterally the wing-like alae articulate with
the hip bones to form the sacroiliac joints It forms the posterior wall of the pelvis The vertebral canal continues inside the
sacrum as the sacral canal
rosley i3p, Skeleton 47
rosley i3p, Skeleton 48
Formed by the fusion of 3 to 5 tiny irregular vertebrae
It is the vestigial tail in humans
The ThoraxThe sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae
make up the thorax, or thoracic cage
rosley i3p, Skeleton 49
The Thoracic cage surrounds and protects the heart, lungs and major blood vessels.
The Sternum Is a flat bone composed of the fusion of 3
bones. Superior to inferior they are: Manubrium Body ( Gladiolus) Xiphoid process
rosley i3p, Skeleton 50
The jugular notch: the concave upper part of the manubrium, usually at the level of T3
The sternal angle : site where the manubrium and the gladiolus meet to form a slight angle.
It is the reference point for locating the second intecostal space for listening to the heart valves
Xiphisternal joint : Where the sternal body and the xiphoid process meet. Used as a landmark to locate the level of T9
rosley i3p, Skeleton 51
12 Pairs of ribs form the thoracic cage Men and women have the SAME number of
ribs All ribs articulate with the vertebral column
posteriorly The first 7 pairs are known as true ribs
because they attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilage
rosley i3p, Skeleton 52
The next 5 pairs are false ribs because they either attach indirectly to the sternum, or not at all
The last 2 pairs of false ribs lack sternal attachment, and are called floating ribs
rosley i3p, Skeleton 53
Tulang-tulang vertebra terdiri daripada 33 ruas tulang bersendi. Pada setiap hujungnya terbentuk satu turus yang boleh luntur. Turus vertebra berfungsi untuk melindungi saraf tunjang yang terletak dibahagian tengahnya. Diantara tulang-tulang vertebra, terdapat cakera rawan yang bertindak sebagai kusyen untuk penyerap hentakan(daya) dan mengurangkan geseran semasa pergerakan.
Bahagian-bahagian turus vertebra ialah:
* 7 vertebra serviks - Bahagian leher* 12 vertebra toraks - Bahagian toraks* 5 vertebra lumbar - Bahagian pinggang* 5 vertebra sakrum - Bahagian punggung* 4 vertebra koksiks - Bahagian hujung tulang belakang
1. Sentrum* Bersifat Pejal dan tegar* Memberi sokongan* Menentang daya mampatan
• 2. Arka* Merupakan lengkuk saraf* Terletak pada bahagian dorsal sentrum* Melindungi saraf tunjang
• 3. Salur saraf* Merupakan salur rongga kosong* Berfungsi sebagai laluan saraf tunjang
• 4. Zigapofisis* Merupakan muka sendi antara 2 vertebra.* Prazigapofisis mengarah ke atas.* Postzigapofisis mengarah ke bawah.
• 5. Cuaran spina* Berfungsi untuk melekatkan otot
• 6. Cuaran melintang* Berfungsi untuk melekatkan otot
• Sangkar rusuk berfungsi untuk melindungi jantung dan peparu.
Tulang-tulang yang membentuk sangkar rusuk ialah:
* 12 pasang tulang rusuk bersendi dengan vertebra toraks dan melengkung ke hadapan.* 7 pasang tulang rusuk bersendi dengan sternum secara terus.* 3 pasang yang lain dihubung secara tidak langsung dengan rawan.* 3 pasang tulang rusuk terakhir tergantung bebas dan tidak dihubungkan kepada sternum.
-Pectoral girdle dan tangan- Pelvic girdle dan kaki
Composed of 126 bones Shoulder girdle Also known as the pectoral or shoulder
girdle, consists of 2 bones Clavicle Scapula
rosley i3p, Skeleton 59
Also called the collar bone Attaches medially to the manubrium Attaches laterally to the scapula Serves to hold the arm away from the
thorax, and helps prevent shoulder dislocation
A broken clavicle causes the shoulder to collapse medially
rosley i3p, Skeleton 61
Also called the shoulder blades Flat, triangular in appearance, has 2
important processes Acromion process: the enlarged end of the
spine of the scapula Coracoid process : points over the top of the
shoulder and helps anchor the muscles of the arm
rosley i3p, Skeleton 62
rosley i3p, Skeleton 63
The scapula does not attach directly to the axial skeleton, but is held in place by muscles
The scapula has three borders: Superior Medial Lateral
rosley i3p, Skeleton 64
rosley i3p, Skeleton 65
The scapula has three angles: Superior Inferior Lateral
rosley i3p, Skeleton 66
rosley i3p, Skeleton 67
The glenoid cavity is the shallow socket that receives the head of the humerous
The shoulder girdle is exceptionally free to move
However the price of this range of motion is that it is easily dislocated
rosley i3p, Skeleton 68
rosley i3p, Skeleton 69
There are 30 bones in each upper limb The arm is formed by the single long bone,
the humerus The proximal end has a rounded head that
fits into the glenoid cavity
rosley i3p, Skeleton 70
rosley i3p, Skeleton 71
The greater and lesser tubercles opposite the head are sites for muscular attachment
The deltoid tuberosity is a roughened are at the midpoint of the shaft where the deltoid muscle attaches
The radial grove allows for the passage of the radial nerve.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 72
rosley i3p, Skeleton 73
The distal end of the humerus has a spool shaped trochlea on the medial side, and the ball like capitulum on the lateral side
On the anterior surface the coronoid fossa is a depression above the trochlea
On the posterior surface you will find the olecranon fossa
These 2 depressions allow for free movement of the elbow
rosley i3p, Skeleton 74
rosley i3p, Skeleton 75
The radius and ulna form the forearm In anatomical position the radius is the
lateral bone The radius and ulna articulate with each
other proximally and distally at small radio-ulnar joints
The bones are also connected by a long interosseous membrane
rosley i3p, Skeleton 76
The forearm has two bones
◦ Ulna◦ Radius
rosley i3p, Skeleton 77Figure 5.21c
The head of the radius forms a joint with the capitulum
The radial tuberosity is the location for the attachment of the biceps tendon
The ulna is the medial bone The coronoid fossa can be found on the
proximal anterior surface of the bone The olecranon process can be found on the
proximal posterior surface
rosley i3p, Skeleton 78
The forearm has two bones
◦ Ulna◦ Radius
rosley i3p, Skeleton 79Figure 5.21c
The coronoid and olecranon processes grip the trochlea like pliers to form the elbow.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 80
The hand consists of the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
The carpals are 2 rows of 4 irregular bones, and form the wrist
Hamate Pisiform Triquetral Lunate
Trapezoid Trapezium ScaphoidCapitate
rosley i3p, Skeleton 81
The hand◦ Carpals – wrist◦ Metacarpals – palm◦ Phalanges – fingers
rosley i3p, Skeleton 82Figure 5.22
The carpals are bound together by ligaments that restrict movement between them
The palm consists of metacarpals numbered 1 to 5, starting on the thumb side.
Each hand has 14 phalanges, and all of the fingers are composed of three phalanges, except for the thumb, which has 2.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 83
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Hip bones Composed of three pair of fused bones
◦ Ilium◦ Ischium◦ Pubic bone
The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
Protects several organs◦ Reproductive organs◦ Urinary bladder◦ Part of the large intestine
rosley i3p, Skeleton 89
rosley i3p, Skeleton 90Figure 5.23a
The pelvic bone is formed by 2 coxal bones Each of these bones is formed by the fusion
of 3 bones. Ilium Ischium Pubis
rosley i3p, Skeleton 91
rosley i3p, Skeleton 92Figure 5.23b
The pelvis is constructed of fairly large and heavy bones
The hips are responsible for bearing the entire weight of the torso
They also bear the stress associated with locomotion
Reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the large intestine are protected by the pelvis
rosley i3p, Skeleton 93
rosley i3p, Skeleton 94Figure 5.23c
The femur is the only bone in the thigh It is the largest, strongest bone of the body The proximal end of the femur has a ball-
like head, and an obvious neck The femur slants medially to bring the
knees in line with the body’s center of gravity
rosley i3p, Skeleton 95
The thigh has one bone
◦ Femur – thigh bone
rosley i3p, Skeleton 96Figure 5.24a–b
Distally, the lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia
The LEG The larger and more medial bone in the
lower leg is the tibia(shinbone) Proximally, it articulates with the distal
femur to form the knee joint Distally the medial malleolus forms the
inner bulge of the ankle
rosley i3p, Skeleton 97
The leg has two bones◦ Tibia◦ Fibula
rosley i3p, Skeleton 98Figure 5.24c
The smaller, lateral bone of the lower legThe fibula does not form the knee jointThe distal end of the fibula forms the outer
part of the ankle with it’s lateral malleolusThe tibia and fibula are connected by an
interosseous membrane, just like the radius and ulna are.
rosley i3p, Skeleton 99
The leg has two bones◦ Tibia◦ Fibula
rosley i3p, Skeleton 100
Figure 5.24c
The thigh has one bone
◦ Femur – thigh bone
rosley i3p, Skeleton 101
Figure 5.24a–b
The leg has two bones◦ Tibia◦ Fibula
rosley i3p, Skeleton 102
Figure 5.24c
The foot◦ Tarsus – ankle◦ Metatarsals – sole◦ Phalanges – toes
rosley i3p, Skeleton 103
Figure 5.25
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-pola artikular dan fungsi-klasifikasi sendi
• Articulations• Junctions between bones• Bind parts of skeletal system together• Make bone growth possible• Permit parts of the skeleton to change shape during childbirth• Enable body to move in response to skeletal muscle contraction
Joints of the Skeletal System
Articulation – site where two or more bones meet
Two Fundamental Functions of Joints:Allow the skeleton to have mobilityHold the skeleton together
Joints = Articulations
Three Functional Classifications
•Synarthrosis – immovable •Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable •Diarthrosis – freely movable
Three Structural Classifications:
•Fibrous – suture, syndesomosis, gomphosis•Cartilaginous – synchondrosis, symphysis•Synovial
Joints – Structural and Functional Classes
Sinarthrosis – Dua tulang akan rapat tetapi tiada pergerakan .
contoh : tengkorak (skull)Diarthrosis – Pergerakan pelbagai arah
contoh : sendi lutut, sendi bahuAmphiarthrosis – Pergerakan yang sedikit
contoh : vetebra (tulang belakang)
Sendi melonsor: buku lali / pergelangan tangan
Sendi engsel: siku / lutut Sendi pangsi: leher Sendi elipsoid: pergelangang tangan Sendi pelana: trapizium Sendi lesung: femur & pelvis, humerus
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2.6.1 Sendi Berdasarkan Fungsi
Rajah 1.4 Jenis Sendi Sinovial
2.6.2 Sendi Berasaskan Struktur
Fungsi Struktur Contoh Sendi Contoh Pergerakan
Fungsi Struktur Contoh Sendi Contoh Pergerakan
Jenis ContohPenerangan
Jenis Penerangan Contoh
Rajah 1.5 Model RIngkas Pergerakan Artikular
• Fibrous Joints• dense connective tissues connect bones• between bones in close contact
• Cartilaginous Joints• hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage connect bones
• Synovial Joints• most complex• allow free movement
• synarthrotic• immovable
• amphiarthrotic• slightly movable
• diarthrotic• freely movable
Classification of Joints
3 Types• Syndesmosis• Suture• Gomphosis
Syndesmosis• long fibers connect bones• amphiarthrotic• distal ends of tibia and fibula
Fibrous Joints
Suture• between flat bones• synarthrotic• thin layer of connective tissue connects bones
Gomphosis• cone-shaped bony process in a socket• tooth in jawbone• synarthrotic
Fibrous Joints
2 Types• Synchondrosis• Symphysis
Synchondrosis• bands of hyaline cartilage unite bones• epiphyseal plate (temporary)• between manubrium and first rib• synarthrotic
Symphysis• pad of fibrocartilage between bones• pubis symphysis• joint between bodies of vertebrae• amphiarthrotic
• diarthrotic• joint cavity• synovial fluid• joint capsule• synovial membrane• bursae
Ball-and-Socket Joint• hip• shoulder
Condyloid Joint• between metacarpals and phalanges
Gliding Joint• between carpals• between tarsals
Hinge Joint• elbow• between phalanges
Pivot Joint• between proximal ends of radius and ulna
Saddle Joint• between carpal and metacarpal of thumb
Flexion — bending movement that decreases the angle of the jointExtension — reverse of flexion; joint angle increasesDorsiflexion and Plantar flexion — up and down movement of the footAbduction — movement of a limb away from the midline or median planeAdduction — movement of a limb toward the midline or median planeCircumduction — movement of a limb describing a cone in space
Angular Movement – Change of Angle Between Bones
• abduction/adduction• dorsiflexion/plantarflexion• flexion/extension/hyperextension
The turning of a bone around its own long axis
Examples:Between first two vertebraeHip and shoulder joints
Rotation
• rotation/circumduction• supination/pronation
Supination and Pronation – refer to movements of radius around the ulna (also applied to foot movements)
Special Movements
• eversion/inversion• protraction/retraction• elevation/depression
Inversion and Eversion
Protraction and Retraction
Special Movements
Elevation and Depression
Opposition
Special Movements
• ball-and-socket• head of humerus• glenoid cavity of scapula• loose joint capsule• bursae• ligaments prevent displacement• very wide range of movement
• hinge joint• trochlea of humerus• trochlear notch of ulna
• gliding joint• capitulum of humerus• head of radius
• flexion and extension• many reinforcing ligaments• stable joint
• ball-and-socket joint• head of femur• acetabulum• heavy joint capsule• many reinforcing ligaments• less freedom of movement than shoulder joint
• largest joint• most complex• medial and lateral condyles of distal end of femur• medial and lateral condyles of proximal end of tibia• femur articulates anteriorly with patella• modified hinge joint• flexion/extension/little rotation• strengthened by many ligaments and tendons• menisci separate femur and tibia• bursae
Sendi melonsor: buku lali / pergelangan tangan
Sendi engsel: siku / lutut Sendi pangsi: leher Sendi elipsoid: pergelangang tangan Sendi pelana: trapizium Sendi lesung: femur & pelvis, humerus
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