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RF Antenna(RT-RFA)

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RT-RFA

Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium

All rights reserved. This module, comprising presentation slides with notes,exercises, projects and Instructor Guide, may not be duplicated in any waywithout the express written permission of the Global Wireless EducationConsortium. The information contained herein is for the personal use of thereader and may not be incorporated in any commercial training materials orfor-profit education programs, books, databases, or any kind of softwarewithout the written permission of the Global Wireless Education Consortium.Making copies of this module, or any portion, for any purpose other than yourown, is a violation of United States copyright laws.

Trademarked names appear throughout this module. All trademarked nameshave been used with the permission of their owners .

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RT-RFA

Partial support for this curriculum materialwas provided by the National Science Foundation'sCourse, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement

Program under grant DUE-9972380 and AdvancedTechnological Education Program under grantDUE-9950039.

GWEC EDUCATION PARTNERS: This material issubject to the legal License Agreement signed by yourinstitution. Please refer to this License Agreement forrestrictions of use.

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Table of Contents

Overview 5Learning Objectives 6

Antennas as Part of All Communications Systems 7Fundamental Antenna Characteristics 12

Antenna Radiation Patterns 19 Antenna Types 27 Antenna Configuration Requirements 49Signal Coverage Problems 56

Advanced System Antennas 63 Antenna Covers and Support Structures 71Contributors 76

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Overview

How antennas transmit and receive signals

Fundamental characteristics of antennas

Types and features of antennas

Signal coverage problems and how to overcome them

How to perform return loss measurement and antennagain measurement

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Learning Objectives

Explain how an antenna transmits and receives signalsExplain fundamental characteristics of antennasincluding radiated power, antenna gain, beam width,and front-back ratioDescribe features of different types of antennas

Describe the different types of radiation patterns

Explain why and how to measure impedanceExplain strategies to address signal coverage problems

Explain antenna diversity and isolation strategiesPerform a return loss measurement on an antennaPerform an antenna gain measurement

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Antennas as Part of AllCommunicationsSystems

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Antenna SystemComponents

Transmit antennaReceive antennaDuplexer

MulticouplerCombinerIsolatorTuning cavitiesCabling

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Antenna Operation

Antenna - a series of metal wires, rods, or other shapesTransmits when an electric current of radio frequency passesthrough it

Current generates electromagnetic field aroundantennaElectromagnetic field moves outward from antenna

At receiver antenna, does same thing in reverse

Tuned to a particular radio wavelength ()Simple fraction or multiple of that length: /2, /4, etc. Most common length is one- half a wavelength, or /2

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Antennas, Frequency,and Wavelength

Resonant length changes with frequency andwavelength of electric signal

The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and theshorter the required antennaThe lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength, and thelonger the required antenna

Cellular band antennaWavelength for cellular telephone transmission is about 0.33 m

Length of a cellular antenna should be 0.165 m (/2)

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Assorted Facts

Antenna Radiation PatternSame radiation pattern and gain for transmit and receive antenna

TransceiverTransmitter and receiver electronics housed in a single box

Generally use a single antenna for bothImpedance Match

Coaxial cable must be terminated with characteristic impedance formaximum power to be passed to antennaIf not, reflections will reduce power passed to antenna and causeprotection circuitry in transmitter to reduce its output power

RF Transmission PlanningOptimizes signal strength received by base station and mobile stationregardless of their positions in the networkChoice and configuration of antenna system plays an important role

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FundamentalAntenna

Characteristics

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Radiated Power

Mean power received at any large distance is calculated by theFriis free-space equation:

P t = transmitted powerP r (d) = received power, a function of transmitter-receiver distanceG t = transmitter antenna gainG r = receiver antenna gaind = transmitter-receiver separation in metersL = miscellaneous loss factor for loss not related to propagation

L = 1 means no lossL > 1 means loss

= wavelength in meters

Ld

GG P d P r t t

r 22

2

)4()(

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Antenna Bandwidth

Range of frequencies radiated where lowest andhighest frequencies have radiated power that is 3 dBless than the radiated power at frequency with

maximum power, f(max)Upper frequency, f(up), is frequency above f(max) where poweris 3 dB lower than f(max)Lower frequency, f(low), is frequency below f(max) wherepower is 3 dB lower than f(max)

As a percent, B(p), of center frequency, f(ctr)

%100

ctr

lowup p f

f f B

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Antenna Gain

Ratio of antennas maximum radiation intensity tomaximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna withsame input power

dBi If reference antenna is i sotropic source of 100% efficiencydBd If reference antenna is simple dipole of typical efficiency

Gdip (gain with respect to dipole antenna) is 2.15 dB less than Gi(gain with respect to isotropic antenna)

Antenna gain, G ant , is a function of wavelength

A e = Effective antenna area

2

4

eant

AG

physical ape A A

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Antenna Beam Width

Antenna achieves gain by concentrating its radiationpattern in a certain direction

The greater the gain, the narrower the beam width

Beam width is width of radiated pattern where signalstrength is one-half that of maximum signal strength At this point, signal is 3 dB less than that of the maximum Angle between left and right points that are 3 dB down frommaximum is beam angle or beam width

For unidirectional antennas, resulting major lobe ofradiation pattern has a certain width

Common beam widths for cellular antennas: 60, 90, and 120.

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Antenna Front BackRatio

Measure of antennas ability to focus radiated power inintended direction successfully

And not interfere with other antennas behind it

Referred to as f-b ratio or f/b ratioRatio of radiated power in intended direction to radiatedpower in opposite directionRatio of the two gains is the f/b ratio:

180

0

P P

ratio f/b

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Frequency Re-Use

7

61

23

4

5

7

61

23

4

5

7

61

23

4

5 Same frequencies usedrepeatedly in all

directions Ability to radiate power indesired direction iscritical

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Antenna RadiationPatterns

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Isotropic RadiationPattern

CharacteristicsCompletely non-directional antennaRadiates and receives equally well in all directionsTheoretical point source or receiverRadiation pattern is spherical

Exists only as a mathematical conceptThere is no preferential radiation in one direction

Used as a reference to specify gain of a practicalantenna

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OmnidirectionalRadiation Pattern

Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern

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Unidirectional RadiationPattern

Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern

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Radiated PowerCompared

2.15dB dBi

dBd

Practical antenna

Theoretical halfwave dipole antennaIdeal isotropic radiator

2.15dB dBi

dBd

Practical antenna

Theoretical halfwave dipole antennaIdeal isotropic radiator

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Properties ofUnidirectional Antennas

Provide increased gain in a limited direction

Multiply use of separate channels by virtue of enabling

sectorization

Do not overcome major disadvantages ofomnidirectional antennas such as co-channel

interference

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Antenna Polarization

Polarization is an important property of a radio waveRadio waves have magnetic field H & electrical field EOrientation of electrical field determines polarization

If electrical field is vertical, radio wave is polarized verticallyIf electrical field is horizontal, radio wave is polarizedhorizontally

Antenna of receiver should be oriented in samedirection as polarization of transmitter antennaMobile antennas should be in the same orientation forbest reception

This is not always possible with hand-held phones

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Voltage Standing WaveRatio (VSWR)

Ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage ofstanding wave along transmission lineMeasure of impedance match between antenna and

transmission line or coaxial cableThe closer VSWR is to one, the greaterthe efficiency of electrical power transfer

FormulaPr = Power, reflectedPi = Power, incident

i

r

i

r

PP

1

P

P 1

VSWR

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Antenna Types

R di i P f

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Radiation Pattern ofHalf-wave DipoleAntenna

3-D view Vertical section Horizontal section

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OmnidirectionalAntennas

Omnidirectional antenna Hertz antenna

1

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Marconi Antenna

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OmnidirectionalAntenna Limitations

Radiates and receives equally well in all directions inthe horizontal plane

Signal power spread uniformly and only small percentage ofradiated power reaches receiver

Receiving antenna receives signals equally well from alldirections in horizontal plane

For mobile transmitter to be distinguished, it must be strongerthan other signals and the background noise

Limited bandwidth efficiencyVery limited re-use of frequencies in adjoining areas

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Radiating Coaxial CableAntenna

RF in from transmitter RF out (terminated)

Radiating Coaxial Cable Antenna

Radiating Cable Radiation Pattern

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Multi-antenna SystemExamples

Pair of directional antennas mounted in differentdirections

Radiation patterns point in opposite directions

Series of antennas around a given buildingUsed when omnidirectional antennas would not be effective

Series of antennas located on the side of a buildingMinimizes interference with other receivers

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Panel Antennas

Transmitter

Substrate

Radiatingpanel

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Unidirectional Antennas

Referred to as beam antennasFocus beams in one directionConcentrate radiated power into a beam while

minimizing emission in other directionsClassifications:

LinearLogarithmicParasitic

Broadband antenna

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Unidirectional Antennas

Traveling-wave Wire AntennaFolded Dipole AntennaTurnstile Antenna

Loop AntennaRhombic AntennaYagi-Uda AntennaLog Periodic AntennaMobile AntennaSector Antenna

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Traveling-wave WireAntenna

Reflected wave

Dipole antenna

Incident wave

Resonant wave ofwavelength antenna

Reflected wave

Incident wave

Antenna

Traveling wave fornon-simple antenna

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Folded Dipole Antenna

Beam

Driven element

length =

Reflector length / 2 + 5%

Radiation patternFolded dipole antenna

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Turnstile Antenna

Turnstile antenna Radiation pattern

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Loop Antenna

Loop antenna Radiation pattern in

horizontal plane

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Rhombic Antenna

a

a

a

a

800 W Preferreddirection ofradiation

a

a

a

a

800 W

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Rhombic AntennaRadiation Pattern

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Yagi-Uda Antenna

Yagi-Uda

Antenna

Director

Driven element

Reflector

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Yagi-Uda Antenna

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Log Periodic Antenna

All elements driven by transmitter

All elements driven but not active at same frequency

Has broad frequency response

Operates on more than one frequency

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Mobile Antennas:Collinear Gain Antenna

/

/

Low-gain antenna

Two types

- Through-the-glass- Standard mount

Have upper and lower portion

separated by phase matching coil

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Sector Antennas

1 2 0

120

1 2 0

6 0

6 0

6 0 6 0

6 0

6 0

3-sector cell 6-sector cell

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Sector Antennas

Realistic antenna coveragein 6-sector cell

Antenna overlapin 6-sector cell

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Antenna ConfigurationRequirements

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Antenna ConfigurationRequirements

Antenna separationDiversityIsolation

InterferenceRadiation patterns not distorted by obstacles orreflections

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Space Diversity

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Polarization Diversity

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Isolation

Needed to avoid distortion due to intermodulationNeed to fulfill these isolation values

TX RX isolation > 30 dBTX TX isolation > 30 dB

Horizontal physical separation requirements30 dB isolation: 11.5 800 MHz: 10 feet1900 MHz: 6 feet

Vertical separation requirement for antenna is 0.2 meter

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Antenna Downtilt

Beam of vertically-mounted antenna

Beam of vertically-mounted-antenna with tilted beam

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Antenna Height

Reducing antenna height by 50% will reduce averagereceived signal by 6 dB

Repositioning transmit and/or receive antenna can helpmaintain system balance

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Signal CoverageProblems

Si l C

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Signal CoverageProblems

Design problemsMaintenance problemsSystem maturation

Site location and geometryShadows in patternNulls in patternIntermodulation, co-channel, and adjacent channelinterference problems

R l i Si l

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Resolving SignalCoverage Problems

Reduce antenna height

Downtilt the antenna

Use higher or lower gain antenna

Use antenna with wider or narrower horizontal orvertical beam width

R L f

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Return Loss of anAntenna

Power difference between incident and reflected wavein transmission line feeding the antenna

3 dB return loss means reflected power is half ofincident power

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Interference

Multipath condition

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Interference

time

S i g n a

l A m p l i

t u d e

+

-

Non-fade period

Fading

Rayleigh fading

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Co-Channel Interference

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Advanced SystemAntennas

Ad d A t

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Advanced AntennaSystems

Are expensiveIncrease cell coverage and capacity without buildingadditional sites

ExamplesMulti-beam antenna systemsSmart antenna systems

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Multi-Beam Antennas

Standard cell divided into 18 microsectors

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Smart Antenna Systems

Fixed Beam Strategy Adaptive Beam Strategy

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Smart Antenna Systems

Time division duplex (TDD) communication systemstransmit and receive on same frequencyFrequency division duplex (FDD) transmit and receiveon separate frequenciesCapacity for frequency reuse is greater than a standardcell systemPower needed for radio beam is less than for fixedbeam strategyUse code division multiple access method to balancethe traffic load

Traffic Load Balancing

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Traffic Load BalancingSmart Antenna Systems

Cell with unbalanced load

Cell with balanced load

Handling Capacity of

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Handling Capacity ofSmart Antenna Systems

Adaptive area

Switched beam area

Conventionalsectorization area

Switched Beam versus

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Switched Beam versusAdaptive Array Systems

Factors to considerInterference suppressionRange and coverageSpatial division multiple access (SDMA)

Enables wireless system to efficiently use available frequencieswhere customers are locatedCreates a sector for each receiver while maximizing signalstrength at receiver and minimizing interferenceUses multiple antennas to combine signals in space at location ofreceiver

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Antenna Covers andSupport Structures

Antenna Covers and

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Antenna Covers andSupport Structures

Antenna coversProtect antenna element from weatherMake antenna more aesthetically pleasing

Types of support structuresSelf-supporting towersGuyed towersMonopole

Camouflaged towersExisting structures

Antenna Support

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Antenna SupportStructures

Self-supporting towersLarge 3-D framework of galvanized girders

Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based ontransmission requirements

Guyed towersMade of crisscrossing steel girdersHeld in place by guy wires that form a 15 degree vertical angle

Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based ontransmission requirements

Antenna Support

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Antenna SupportStructures

Monopole with 3-sector head

Requires less land areaand is more aestheticallypleasing than other structures

Antenna placement dependson transmission requirements

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Industry Contributors

AT&T Wireless ( http://www.attwireless.com )Ericsson ( http://www.ericsson.com )

LCC International, Inc. ( http://www.lcc.com )Motorola ( http://www.motorola.com )Nortel Networks ( http://www.nortel.com )Northeast Center for TelecommunicationsTechnologies( http://nctt.org/index2.htm )RF Globalnet ( http://www.rfglobalnet.com )

The following companies provided materials andresource support for this module:

Industry Contributors

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Industry Contributors,cont.

Space 2000 ( http://www.cdmaonline.com )Telcordia Technologies, Inc ( http://www.telcordia.com )

Verizon ( http://www.verizon.com )

The following companies provided materials andresource support for this module:

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Individual Contributors

The following individuals and their organization orinstitution provided materials, resources, and developmentinput for this module:

Dr. Chaouki AbdallahUniversity of New Mexicohttp://www.unm.edu

Dr. Jamil AhmedBritish Columbia Institute of Technologyhttp://www. bcit.ca

Dr. John BaldwinSouth Central Technical Collegehttp://[email protected]

Individual Contributors

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Individual Contributors,cont.

Dr. Derrek DunnNorth Carolina A&T State Universityhttp://www. ncat.edu

Mr. Robert Elms ACRE Engineering Serviceshttp://[email protected]

Mr. Stuart D. MacPhersonDurban Institute of Technology

Dr. James MasiSpringfield Technical Community Collegehttp://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asp

Individual Contributors

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Individual Contributors,cont.

Ms. Annette MugaEricssonhttp://www.ericsson.com

Dr. Dave VoltmerRose-Hulman Institute of Technologyhttp:// www.rose-hulman.edu