The Principles Psychology - Forgotten Books

Tau third edifion of tbe Pt-incfplaof Poc ogy difiem

hoo pn ceding editiom ,mainly by containinganew fi ision ;

which occurain tbe second M nnM WW Pe rt

VIII. , Congruifies.”

When I began to prepare tbeedition , I looked fo rward to

I left the

thatall readers would perceive them.

Thu

is h st rm on proved te be in rounded. Fax- frow ne

cognizing the harmon ieswbich l thought conspicuous, sundryccitim hnve en iargod on tbe inpoogm ifiec. Inareview pubfished in tbe Amdcmy forApril l , 1873,Mr. Henry Sidgwicksp in of the m y inconsistency of his [my] metaphysicalm ite.” Similarly,awriter in the Spectator for the 2 l st ofJune, 1873, asserts that “Mr. Speneer

'e system heathen

iam bic dd egt of fandameatal mcoim 'ence. Prof. Green,

the, in two articles whichW in the ContemporaryW im December, 1877,and lim b, 1878, devoteemuch

“ mat. Tim: I find it, “ not nwessary , et m y m te

W h to tnifil my fiu t intention .

VI I’m 10 run THIRD EDITION .

It is a common remark that where party feeling. politics ]or theological, runs high, one who, believing that neitherside is wholly right or wholly wrong, declin es to commithimself entirely to either, is usunlly looked upon by bothwith suspicion, if not withaversion. And it is curious tosee how, analogously, inacon troversy so remote in its issuesfrom human in terestsas that between Realism nud Idealism ,

the euunointion ozf n view whioh recognises sn element of

truth in osch, eeems to beg‘

et sntiputhy rs ther thsn sympethy.

The adherents of either doctrine,believing that it is

entirely true or entirely false, areaverse to s conciliationwhich requiresany sacrifice. Surrender of a part' of theirdoctrine is almost as ofiensive to their career propre so

surrender of the whole ; and the proposer of it is censuredall round.

Recognizing, thus, the disfavour with which bothRenlisteand Idealism unturnlly regard that TrensfiguredRealism which accepts from each u moiety of his doctrinebut rejects the rest, I scarcely expect that where they beforediscovered on ly incongrnities, this new division will showthem that thereare congrnities. I can do no more thanexhibit these, in the belief that they will be apparent toall who have not yet committed themselves to one side orthe other. I m y add that inability to recognize theseoongruities admits of two interpretations, convenien tly suggested by u simile which I have before employed in anotherrelution. Takenat did'

erentangles from the same object,the two photographs plnced in n atemosoope. wheu first

viewed, not nnfrequently form a confused double image ;but after pet-severing contemplation , most observers findthen suddenly unite intoasingle clear representation of the

object. Meanwhile. there nre some eyee which to the lastfoil in combining thorn ; and to which they continuouslyappear conflicting cud confused.

W October, wen

PREFACETO THESECOND EDITION .

thataSecond Edition, of which the uew portion greatly ex

ceedathe old portion in amoun t ; as happens with thisvolume,andaawill happen with its successor. Of the five

Phrtahere honnd together, the two that have previouslyappared cover 2 l7 pages gwhile the three that nowappear for

contained in this work were enunciated many years ago,

must uot he lost sight of. When , in 1855 , the First Edition

of flo Principleaof Ptychology ws s issued, it had to cn

Domino ov olntion evel-ywhere implied iu it, wseat that

in the soientific world. N aturally, therefore, the work,

paed ofer, or mated with but small respect, hy re~

viewers, received scarcelyany attention ; and its contentsremained unknown save to the seleot few. The great changeot

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cttitndo towards the Doctrine of Evolution in geners l.

which hae taken plaee during the last ten years , haamsdethe Doctri ne of Men tal Evolution seem leas unacceptoble ;and ono result haabeen that the leading couceptions set

fo rtha: the First Edition of this work, have of late o btaiuedconsidm ble ourrcncy . In France, some of them have been

reatise of M. Tuiue, DcProt

'

. Ribot in

vi n u m m m sncosn m ms .

all in a systematic form . In England, they have spm d

through various channels . Among these I msy more espe

cially uame TVas Physiology wnd Pat/tolcgy of ths Mind, byDr. Maudsley, the first division of which work is pervadedby them . As most of those who will read this SecondEdition ct

‘

the Principlss of Psychology, uever saw the First

I II .and IV., they will meet with ideas that have beenalready made, in the ways indicated, more or less familiarto them ; it is ueedful

'

that 1 should state thess iaotatoprevent misapprehcns ions .

in the final pamgu ph of the Preface to the First Edition ,as omitted t'or the reasons given. In now fulfilling the halfpmmise them m dg eveutually toadd it to the rest, 1 havethe ss tisfaction of feeling that during tbe fifteen yearathathave elapaed, the hypothesis set forth in it hss assumsdamuch higher development.

The lm g delays in the isaues ot the suoosssive pcrtionactthis worh hsvearisen in part fim distmbanccaot heolth ths t

m psrt from the continuousattendan t-ken in arrangingandsuper-intendingasyatematic collection ot

'

matednlafortbem w

cfivlaof flooid q mpm eutly to be commenced. I have reaaonto bope that neither ct' these causes will opm te soaeriously indelaying the issne d the numbers whichare to compoae ths

m m .“70

PREFACE.

related to each otheras difi'erent views of the same greataggregate of phenomena, are yet, in the main , severally iadependent and complete in themselves. The particularaerial arrangement in which they should be presented, hascomequently been in great measure a question of generalexpediency ; and while the order I have chosen is one

which n einm on the whole, the most advantageous, it isnot one which all readersare bound tg follow. A briefcharm -inafion of esch part, will enable every one to denide tor himself which he may best commence with?The General Analysis (of which the essential portion

'wns

«kind ly published in theWestminster Review for October,1853 , under the title of The Universal Postulate,”and re

concerning the basis of our intelligence . Its

05306 6 is to ascertain the fundamental peculiarity of allmodes of consciousness constituting knowledge propelb

knowledge of the highest validity .

Tho ecial Analysis hs s for its aim, tn resolve esch

themost involved ones, it seeks by successive decomposi

‘ Thaau hsr oi partl is now gm fly inaeaasd uthh volume eontaina

m -fl m w w mm m vnm

tions to reducs cognitions ot'

every order to those of thesimplest kind ; and so, finally to make apparent thecom

mon nature of all thought, and disclose its ultimate con

stituents .

While these analytical parts deal with the phenomena ofintelligence subjectively,and, as a necessary consequence,are confined to human intelh

’

gence ; the synthetical parts

include not human in telligence only, but intelligence under

The General Synthesis, setting out withan abstract statement of the relation subsisting between every living organism and the external world, and arguing that all vitalactions whatever, mental and bodily, must be expressiblein terms of this relation ; proceeds to formulate, in suchterms, the successive phases of progressing Life, cons ideredapart From our conventional classifications of them!t

And the Special Synthesis, after exhibiting that gradualdid

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erentiatiou of the psychical from the physical life whichaccompan ies the evo lution of Life in gen eral, goes on to derelop, in its application to psychical life in particular, thedoctrine which the previous part sets forth describing thenatursand genesis cf the did'

erentmodes of lntelligence, in

terms of the relation which obh ins hetween innerand outer

whcareaccustomed to studies ofanabstract charactea'arerecommended to follow the ordsr in which the parts sm d,

as bsing that most conducive toaclear undsrstsnding ot

them tem in its ensemble ; those whoare unfamiliar with

with Pam flLand I'V. : returning to Parts L snd II.

should they feel sufi ciently in terested to do so.

Apafiou ot ths Part thn dssaibeL is m -abodid inm marm

m ass . is

Bapecfing fiis m cution of the m h l may say thst insundry ways it t'alls mnch short of my wishes . Therearoplace-in which theargument is ineompletely carried out ;

phas in wlfiek fi'om insdequate explanationmhere isanappa

m t incongruity between the statements thm madeaed thosemade elsewhere ; and there sre

, l fear, plsces where the

fom of expmssion is not co preciaeas it should be. Add to

which. thst in treating under sevmal separate aspects a

m r sp ce enongh toany one of the severalaspects under

whieh the subject is presented.

While, however, l am conscious that the work containsmay moraimperfections than it would have done had itsscope been more limitedand its elaboration longer, I wculdencaseme issue of it in its pmsent form on several grounds :partly on the gronnd that it isalmost useless to wait untilany mgnnined body of thonght has reached its full developmm which it never does in the course ofasingle life ;partly on the ground that it is next to impossible for thewriter- efawork like this, to dispense with theaid of

candid criticism ; but chiefly on the grouad that the general

port-at. it seemed to me undesirable to delay their publication with the visw ot

’

byand by presenting them in amorefinished guise.

apd ogy m st bmthat distnrbed health has obliged metoM fr

l purpoeed to bring the severs l lines ofargument to a

th t mt y be shown to snbsist between the doctrines elaborated in the respective divisions, is astrong osnfirmationof fbeir tmth ; but becm se, in theabsence of explanation ,

It may be well further to ssy that, originally , l had in.

tended to sddafifih division , which should include sundrydeductiom snd spsculsfim s that muld not pmperly bs em .

to do w , l hsd decided, thatas this fifth division was not

strictly necessary ; and as certain of the suggestionscontained in it might prejudice someagn'

nst the doctrinss

developed in ths others ; itwould be better towithhold it

atany rste fcs‘ the pressnt.

GONTENTS OFVOL. I.

Pi er I .-THE DATA or PSYCHOLOGY.

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PART IL— THE INDUCTIONS OF

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PART IV.— SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.

l .— 1'll l NATURE 0’ W I N“

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Kl LAW Ol ' M I N OR

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W WDKR W

CHAPTER I.

m m vone SYS’l'

Bll.

bility of ths oaeand the great self-mobility of the other. Amound passing, apparen tly with some rapidity, across thefield of the microscope, reallyadvances with entrsme sloW

ness : its velocity, unen ggerated by combined lenses,beingabont that ot' ths minute-hand ofawatch. The partsofadistnrbed wa-anemcne draw themselves together with

monsd through thowater, is insignificantas measm d by the

speed of most terrestn'

s landaerial cres tm-se. Comparingfire m ents ot

'

Pmtosoc, or o oophytn , with those ot'

thatgnllopam ile inaminate, their locomotive powers seemscarcely appreciable. Masses being supposed equal, the

quantity of metionm ted in the las t casea es a

million times that gensrated in the first.Contrasts of this kind exist within each great divis ion of

fin animal kingdom, as wellas in the animal kingdomtakenas s whole. The snbo kingdom Annulosashom usanimmense difi

’

erence between the slow crawling of wormslad squick fiight cf inaocts. Among Mollualns the slnggish

” e i theW ak m less msrked than theactivity of

Ch M alays ian . And between the in ferior er waters

4 m nan or rsrcnctoor.

breathing mamaand superior or air-breathing Vsrts~

of movement.

distinguishes higher animals from lower,and, indeed, enterslargely into our conceptions of higherand lower, is displayedin several ways . We see it in the changes ofattitude thatare made without moving the body from place to place.We see it in the trs nsferen cs of the body as awhole

external resistances overcome. And we see it in the overcoming of resistances— both those ot

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mediaand thosedue to gravity. All these, however, are man ifestations of

one ability— the ability to generate a force which eithershows itselfas momentum or would generate momentumbut for a counterbalancing force. And it is in this generalform that weare here concerned with this ability. We haveto comtemplate the inferior animals as being generators ofvery small quantities of actual or potential motion,and thehigher animals as being generators of relatively- immensequantities of actual or potential motion .

5 2 . With what internal difl'erencesare these difierencssof external manifestation connected ? No doubt withseveral. An active organism contains various appliancesno one of which can be spared without greatly diminishing,or quite destroying, its activity.

If thealhnentary system be incapacitated, theremust preosently result a tie power of generating motion, fromlack of the materials whence motion is obtained ;and hencethe that, conspicuous throughout the an imal kingdom,

thatalong with much locomotive activity there goes a developedapparatus for taking up nutriment . It is manifsst, too,that there cannot be great self-mobility unless the absorbedmaterials are M y distributed to the organs which

0 m am or rsmsower.

initiator or primary generator of motion is the N ervons

System . Where there is extremely little power of genm b

to show iteelfanervous system begins to be visible. And

where the power of self-movement is great, the nervous

mhr systemalso becomes lasgerand batten- organised ; yet

the degree of nervous development . Not,indeed, w aspresently see that it cannot be. But it is so related more

93. Theabaence of meaeurementarendem detailed comparisonamong the various classes of Hollm oaunsatisfactory.

On putting side by side the extreme W hom , “

the nervous systemand the rest of the body . The eedentaryAscidians, whioh do little in the way of moving beyond

occasionally con tracting themselves, severally possess onlyaaingleamall ganglion with its fibres

, bnt Oephalopodao!the dihranchiate order, whichareactive matumathat dartthrough thewater fast euongh to catch fish, contain massesof nerve- tissue that bear much larger ratios to thcir total

It is withannnloeeanimalsas with molluscons animalswe have no defin ite estimates of theaises of their nervom

systems ;and hence can bring in evidence only the marlneddtfi rcnccs . As before, the extreme forms supply these.The sluggish annuloid types, when contrasted with theenergetic kinds ofAmndm , pmsent decided deficiencies of

m u m m srm x. 7

J’

m encs may beafelyaaaerted. Thac m alsofin somaaannloae typeacentrasts between the nervons system in the

mov‘ing caterpilhr has bnt asmall nervous system ; thehuttafly , with its power of vigorons fiight, has -arelativelyhrgo m ; and during the intermediate pupa-state, in

ciom lifimrapid growth ofthe nervons eystem may be traced.B h in tho Vt owevel-Ahat the most striking

ofidance mectans. According to l euret, theamage ratioei the hrain to the body ie—in fiahes, I to in rep

tflm , l to l ,32 l ;- in birde, l to 2 l 2 ;and in mamm ls, l to

the ratio cf the brain to the body is not the mtio of the

whole nervous systcm to the hody ; yet the relations they

cpitn l cerdand the nm es added to that of the brm'

n in

m m fi e etm gths of tho contrasts wonld be consides»ably dimininhed ; but tho contxu ts wonld atill be strong.

And with them there go' the stmng nonmetabetween the

activitieain the reepective olwaes— the Fishes that swim inamcdium of their own specifio gravitn the Beptiles ot

which the higher have to support the weights of their

bo fibaas they moveabont over the land, but eannot dothh for long together ; the Birdsand Mammals thatare in

Here,too, theallsged connection is rendered the clearer by theapp oximate un

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n’ormity of the relativeamonn t of mnscle.

“e n light of mnscle in afish forms something lik eashrge apart of the M weight u it does inan ptiloperlmps alarger part ; and areptite iaacarcely ifatallw wahird oramammal in the proportion of oontracfle fim it pon eaasa. Hence it becomes manifest that

q m fity doeanot d etermine ths qnantity of

8 m am or rsrcs om .

quantity of nerveand quan tity of motion is traceable.Thereare special cases which illustrate this relation . I

that of Man and, perhaps , that of the Gorilla. Sach astructme inacreature leading so simplealife, isaseriousdiflioulty in the way of cnrrent interpretations ; but is qnitein harmony wi th the interpretation here given . Porpoises

cursions on either side without apparent efl’ort, prove, bykeeping up so highavelocity through so denseamedium ,

that theirmotor energies are enormous.

§ 4. A closer examination of the thetasoon .reveals theinsufi cieucy of the foregoing generaliaation. Deepas isthe connection between nervous developmentand locomotiveactivity, further comparisons show that it is complicatedwith some other connection scarcely less radical . If, otherthings being equal, the quan tity of motion generatedvaried directly as the quantity ot

’

m tissne, then , in

the nervous system and the mass of the body : mppoaingthe body , whether large or emalLto bo oarried from place

A horae gallcpamnch faater than ams n runs ; and aIt

spacegreaW than that through whichaman moves his body,or greater than that transposition of his body whiohaman’adaily labonr is equivalent to. Henoe were there a simplerelation betweenamount of nm tissneandamcnnt of motiouewolvedmhnumwhiohweighsaome seven timeaasmnoh

m m vs srm x. 9

uam shonld haveauervons systemat least m en times

as heavy . Instead of this it hasalightm-nervous system . Its

wd addet tho total weight would probahly not m eed two

pounds. Bntaman’s brainand spinal cord weigh betweenthree and four ponnds. Thus the horae’s cerebro-spinal

them ly one. Still clearer is the proof that thsreisaome other relation , when weavoid modifying canses, bycompu ing animals of the same genus, or species, bnt of

difi rent siws. The varieties of dogs supply good illustra

“ m amm mspiratim &c. ; and they are

advantage being on the side of the larger of the two .

n enesis ot'

motion measnred by qnantity of nerve

(orgaxceed inaize that ofaspanielas muchasanewi’onndland's hody m eeds in sme that ofaspaniel. Bnt it hyao

M h the inifiawr of m fiom m d thm gh there is

ment and dsgrae of motor energy ; yet this relation is

the fictain search ot'

it.

Q 5 . In whct otherway than in relative feebleness , do theM af hm r matm difl’er fi'om those of superior

which hal ides'

hemg'

n pul,’

m nnmemus in ldndand seve

mfly h rolvnd in cumposition . The movemente in the one

m m mu or rsronmoer.

oasaare smalland homogeneous, and in the othor oaseexemplifies this second general relation ,as muchas it dooathe first.

any energies beyond those required to con tract their bodies

suitand capture of prey , we have the numerousand com.

hined movements of the suckered w e, used not only ter

motions ofaN emertine worm,and the multiform, variou lycombined motions of the Crab or the Spider, the differenceis parallsted by the ditference in nervons evulution . And alihaetructural contmstaccompanieathe contrast botweenthe fewample actions of the caterpillarand the m erous

comphex actions of the butterfly.But that heterogeneity of movement increases along with

relative size of the nervous system, is best shm by oom

nate oontmctions ot'

its lateral mnscles, and openmg itajaws to take in foodand waterfi he li‘ishadds to thm litfie

elae hut thoao nndnlationaof the finsand tail that serve tobalanceand turn it. ABeptile, using its limhe in thewatercr on land or both, performs muscularactions considerablymore variedand more combined ; hnt still,actions that mdh'ected to comparatively mw ends . An ordinary hlammalu hibitain the ohaooand destrnction of prey , in the makingd hm owmm the naring ot youngfin thalaying np of

compound. Onarrivingat the highernammalsmnding with

m m vecs n m u

cow ofaction directed to mnltiform objects. And with

u d i m ch incremcnt of complem'

ty in the motor funotions

nem us endowment.

and oomplioateathe prnnary connection . Weaaw that were

ahould have afm' ln ger nervons system than al lan,instead ol havingasmallcr one. Bnt finding that thero

iaalso amlation hetwoen quantity of nerve-tismeandoomplefi ty ot m fiom we are led to expect an exceptionally largo nervonsayntem in llan ; and are enablod tounderatand why he hasalalger one thanaflorse haa. Mm-e

ths interpremfion thus yielded of the general rnle,already

m in tho same ratioaathe bodies . We will glanceat

ban-notion becauseof the significan t exception it oonmins ,

W M M W hW fi M m gsnm , h .

M admthe spamaand the mwtonndhnmm aparallolM n. The movements ot

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the little Capnchin monkoyare approximately “ varied and complexas those of the

” Gorilla;and hence, in sc iar as nervons evolution is

retated to hotungeneity of motion , the0apuchin nhould haveam m difl'm'ing bnt little in sise fi'

om that of the

12 m mn or rsrcnomer.

nervous system mnst beabsolntely greater thongh relativelysmaller : whioh we find it to be. Between the GorillaandMan, however, there exists a converse con trast. HeavierthanaMan,and movingabont in the trees ,aGorillaprobably generates daily as much motionas a savage, or as acivilized labourer ; and were it the sole function ot

’

norve

tissne to ofiginate motiom should haveat leaatas largeanervouasystem . But tho nervous system ot

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Man is twicaas heavy . Here, therefore, all other relations being sub

approximatelyalike in the two cases, the relative°

largenouof the human nervous system stands olearly related to the

movemen ts, hut mainly in the combinstion of snccessive

movements, simple and compound, directed to remote

§ 6 . This donble relation must atill be talrei as ap.

proximate only . Seeingas we didat the outset that ths

tho fundamental counections we have traccd must have

detail, it may be well to instance one— that <1menc

‘

e ot'

bodily temperature. Eh-ds as aclasam moro

active than Mammalsasaclass ;and thonghmany Mammalago through motions mm heterogeneous than theae of Birds,yet ths inPerior Mammals can scasoely be said to exceed

Birds in the heterogcneity of‘

theirmotions . N evertheless,tho nervous systems of Birds are relatively somewhatunaller than the nervous systemaof hlammals .

'lfhe explana

tion iathat Bh-ds havoahigher bloodaheat with itaaccom

rate et' molecular change. Andagroatarato of molecular

14 m u n or rm nmoor.

own species, are known to us onlyas motions . Shnttmgout our inferential interpretation s , the leapsand doublingsof the escaping prey in common with the vari ously-adaptedand rapidly-clumged actions of the pursuer, are, to our perceptions , nothing but movements combined in partionhrways 5and so tooam the ehm ges of expressiom toneaofvoice,and verbal articulations of our fellow-beings, on whichwe put such hidden implications . As, then, science requiresus to distinguish the facts as actually presented from the

suppositions we ordinarily join with them , it is needful toexhibit, in all its nakedness , this primordial relation '

betVeen

Yetafurther reason fox- setting out thus, is that we soescape fi'om pro-conceptions . Those who bring with themto the investigation of psychical phenomena, the hypothesesthat have descended to us from the past, areahnost sure tobe more or lees biassed thereby. While intending to avoidassumptions theyare in great danger of having their con

clusions vitiated, if not by some ancient or medie val ideannder its cvert form, yet by corollaries fi-om it that hs veunobtrusively embodied themselves in unsuspected pos

been in some cases thus misled.

Hence, then, without at all calling in question the bathof those otherand quite difl'crent in terpretations of nervous

it is proper for us here to ignore them . Bctbre stndyingthe factafiomapsyohological point of view, we have first tostudy them from a physiological point of view . The pr»mary truth disclosed by the facts as so studied, is the

universality of this relation between the dcgroc of nervom

evolution and the quantityaud hsterogeneity of the pro.

similarly disclosed.

II.

m srsucrtms or m m vouasm ut.

5 83 An outline of nervous structure must precede adetailedaoconn t of it ;and thc essenfial facts to be indieated inan outlinemay bebrought most clearly into view hy

MM W and by difl'eren t gmdes of the same type.

A minnte nodule with d iveeging threads constitntes therudhm t-ry nervons system, as existing in the lowestMollmk. In tho ImneBibm-anchs several such minnte

nodnbaor gangha, are distnb uted, usually in pain , in

diflcrent parts of the body gand beyoud the free fihres

m eannes m ong which a considerable heterogeneityis pnodnwd by the great ise of some than of others . And

besideaalocal integmtion of paired gangliainto single bi

m ot thom in which the molluscous type reaches its

l6 m u n m rsrceomer.

integration due to concentrationand coalescence of independent centres ; and they also show us the (BM W

A delicate cord running fiom end to end of the body,andgiving cd

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lateral fibres in pairs, constitutes the nervoussystem in the lower Am ulosa. When from limblessAnnelids we pass to the Articulate types , composed of segments bearing limbs, we find the nervous system fiormed oi

aseries of centres , each sending filn~es to the difl'erent orgamof its own segment, and all of them united by a thickcord of fibres with afused cluster of similar centme

in the head . In the higherArticulate there isan increasedrelative sise of the nervous centresas compamd with theirconnecting struotureu an actual apprM Of the chief

nervous centres to one another, both longitudinallyand

disclosed by comparisons of lowerand higher types , mayalso be observed in prcgress during the development of the

individual insect m ths individual crustacean. An d alongwith advancing growth, consolidation,and combination of

nervous struetures, there may be traced an increasing nn.

likeness , both among the cenn-al masses themselvea,among their connecting cm-da, nud among their-divergentfibres.

in the vertebrate sub-kingdom . Its l owest known membm

the rest by development ot distinct cerebral ganghg andwhich gives ofi lateral nerves that have hut minor dis

gangliathat are bola-ably manifest, lead us to the

Here, however, though in M t, they preserve aserial m ugm ent z theiraggregation is little more tlmn

m m vcrm or m sssvocs srm s . l?

M ag m d tend so to tem a more compact, “ wellasa

relative inoreu e of cemmof the clustemd ganghmand con»

sequent obsouration of the rest, inagreater degree. It iscarried still turther in the inferior Mammals . Frcm them

is anaum tation of the two largest paim of theseaggregated

thathe othm m most of them hidden by inand nw lywaged in it.M on there goes on thc indirect intcgrs tion constituted

are both lonp tndmal and W e. While in the

servc to unite its difi’erent parts ; inasuperior vertebrate

Lateral halves of the ccrebrumare but slightly conneoted in

jeinsd together by atlficlt mass formed of innumerable

due to develcpment od‘

the antertor end of the craniospinal axiainto eercbral ganglia5 and the further one

oi like natnre whioh m nlte fi-om the relatively - enor

havevbeen eonsfimwd by the local unlilcenesses of structure

“W ef tolds or convoluticns ;and their interual

I8 m mn or rsronomer.

multiform by the much greater growth ot'aome than of

others ,and by the inncr difl'erences thataccompany thcse

This cm-sory survey of the nervous system under the

various forms it presen ts throughout the animal kingdom,

sufi ces to show how its evolution conforms to the laws ofevolution in general. Weam also shown by it what here

nervous system, consisting of aibw thxeads and minnte

centres, is very much scattered, its increase of relative sheand increase of complexity, go hand in hand with increasedconcen trationand increased multiplicityand variety

.

of con

nections. Carrying with us this general conceptiom let us

notany particular forms ot’ it but its universal form.

Q 9. The ncrvom system is compomd of two tism eawhichbofi difier considerably from those compom

'

ng the rest of the

organism . Theyare usually distinguished fmm oneauother

at present thrcwn more thanaflickeriug lighton the consfi

one kind of nerve-matteras contrasted with the other. Allthat can be ssserted with safety is, that each kind containa

states in the two tissues. Lot us see what we are told

about them by the microscope,aided by chemical reoagents.Where then- evolutiou can be h'aced, the vesicles or cors

puncles of the grey tissueappear to tahe their rise out ofa

m m w m m vous srm ID

Thegm ulm imhedded mig hoth withinand without the cells,celb in difl'a-m t stam there are seen difl'emnces in tbe

enlom cf the gu nules , indicating aprcg leesive metamorphos ia. To completeageneral ideaof the grey tissue,it must beadded that the more developed of these nucie

bn nche¢ that n ry in nnmberand degroe of rsmifioation gtributed the terminations of nerve-fihres ; and that while inseme uervous cen tres it is common l

'

or these fibreato run

directly into the cells or to be confinuous with certain of

fire ”constrain other nervous cen tres the connectionsbetwecn fibreeand cellsare rarely if ever direct, but where

they ex ist,are made thwugh the remote sub- divisions “

matters thatat firs t sightappearas distinct from the othemin natnreas in mode ofarmngemen t. The fibreaprove tohe m inute tubes . Within the extremely delicate memhm xe

cfwhich moh hxhe iatom ei there isamedullary subetanceor pulp, which is viscid like oil, haeapearly lustre,andconsists d l

’alhuminonaand fatty substanoes . But unlikeasthe contents of the nerve-tubesand the nerve-cells thus

w m baam eful sm tiny discloses between themanessenfia'l kinship. For imbedded in the pulp which fills the

M am mem liesadelicate fibre, or “axis-cylinder,”

M any dmflar to the protein-subsb uoe contained in thecells df thevesicles , this is phys ioallyflifihreut ; since, besidea

20 m m or mmsem

sories, thereare several proofs . Om fi that in the lower

animals ,as wellas in tbe emhryos of the higher, no me

dullsry sheaths exist zthe nerve cons ists of theaxis-cylinderand its protecting membrane, without any pulp lyingbetween them. Another proof is tbatat the peripheral tmsmmafiom of nervemeven in superior animals, the mednllorysheath commonly , if not always , stops short ; while the cen.

tral thread, covered hy the outormost membrane, continuafurther,and ends in delicate ramifications not inchn ed in

distinguishable sheaths. Andafurther proof is tbat wheres nervo-fibre unites with a nerve-cell, the medullary sboathcases betomarrivingat the place ot union ; whilc tbcaxiscylinder joins the conten ts of the cell,and its protectingmembranebecomes continuous with the coll-wall , where thisexists. Hence concluding, “ we are warranted in doing,that the axis-cylinder is its essential part, we see vbatthe matber of nerveo fihm has much in common with the

matter of nerve-vesicle z the difl‘erences betweeu them appeering to be mainly that, in the nerve-vesicle, the protoinsubstance con tains more water, is mingled with fatgm bmand forms part ofan obviously unstable mm ;

whereas in the nerve- tube the protein~substance is denser,surround it : so preoeuttngan m ngement tbat is relativelystablesWhat is the memxing ot

’

thisdifl’emnce? Before seekingun answer we must rememher that compom d substancesundergo two fundamentally diflbrent kinds ofmetamorphocin- one in which the componen ts m some orall of tbem dis

spart or in new combinations ;and one in which the com

M w u w dwr ths'

percsptihls propcrties of tho

23 m nm or rsm onoet .

m kss it probsble that if this i s notflxe tms intwpmh tiu ,

thewue interpretation isanalogous to it. That the mcontained in tbe vesicles is the seat of destruotive moleéuhr

among others, the following.

contaius far more water than the white tissue z'

the propor

tion of solids to water beingabout .12 per cen t in tbe greytissue, while in the white tissue it is some p er eem.

chu ge is high. Hence the implicatiou is that the mm us t-undergoes metamorphosis with much glu ten rapidiq

Stronger evidence'

isafiordsd by theM that the grey or vaiculn suhs tance has s vascularityimmensely exoecding that ot

'

the white or fibrous suh

permeate the m , the difi'

erenoe is conspicuous ; anait isu nch grcota' thanat firstappem An estimate bu ed on

measurements , proves thstagivan bnlk of the one oontnim

about five tixncsas mauy capillu imasan equsl bulk of ths

‘ d M on d ieh thh u tim h h h u dJo contfined in tbe N M-nsh t¢d wd edmd hy 0w m

fi lth .and Thom . Hunk y. Tho ”union to easily made. Anm w d q m pW M W M W W M mM t umhwd plm atuhicb ono d thuau cro-u hlond omunhms gtn n hngth tn y w inchj h m ut snd ths bks hoing dm m h

su q nsl lsngth ol m h ol ths othsr ptn tlol linu tn vru ing ths u m m

M M t y uuq -n sw tho m otw m uy“ M as on-“M M Tho lih pmoa- is thsnm thmagh withfiw d fi e m hngth m n lng thc othanntw k. Tho-saw “not howee uty nw tho coW n numbsn d mch tntsm tiou ln

m m m m zm m m d m m m mm mu d m mhu h-pl . m ahm um u m u uu d m u m

m m om nz or m n m m n m

am matozhh must he hnmsmus in proportion ss

diflhzm hetween tbe mtes of dem'uctivs chm ge in the

Another conn-ast supports this conconn ined in the wrpnsdw is shielded fiumadjacent distorhing t

’orces hyamembrane which even whem thickest,

is so delim that its existence can be demonstratedouly hy the help of m gents g and which in manyoorpuscles cannot he made visibleatall . Henee hetweeu

nnd tbe strem s of blood that run among them so

mbstm ces brcngbt by esch capilln mcan pu s with the

of the neighbow ing vesicles. Quite otherwise is it with

the M sticm of the hlood to the contents of nerve- tubes .

h e waflcf each w ve- tube is tlfick enongh to mahe itcu ily demonstrated ;and between iatand the centn l tluesdof m fid matter, comes the coat of nerve-medulla.

M ugh thesehu ders the dismrbingagmmw fiedamongru dflymss ; md theessential nerve~thm d is prevented from

hmring molecular ohanges set up in itat phces betweenits two extremes . This protection snfi ces so long as theM agents nemain normnl in theiram ts ; bntwben

thcy bwm c m essimas tbcy do it’ the blood-vessels become

whence oue k ind of neuralgia. It should beadded that byN ib - t u d h n pu t with thm this m otam By tnk ing ths

m mm nm haw d ths w ma m g-t s m

o! ths wlatin M uencieovith which them o oocur in

24 m nm os m cnowm .

ing currents of blood,are shieldedagainst distnrbsnces from

lying in lntersl con tact not thus coated,amoleculsr changspmpagoted throngh one would set up molecular changes inits neighbonrs ; as , in fact, it does in an early stage of

s tay, characterised by loss of the medulla-y sheaths.Hence, too, the explnns tion of that normal absence of meo

dullnry sheaths which sundry nervous structures show us .

Fmamong the IwartsbrMm in which this normal nbsencooccurs, the fibres contained in the ssme bundle hsvo

the structums w d fi ncfious m much lem difiem w

animals ; for thwe bm dlcm serving to estnhlish rolationsamong the viscera, each ofwhich is much lees divided into

ports that sct indepemdently, there needs no such pcr%ct in

suletion of the nerve-fibres . And the likeholds even in csss

olfactory expansion ,which connists ofan extensive plam

of nommedullated fibm and which hss the pecnlinrityths t difl'emnt pats ot

'

its aream notacted upou sepo

rately .

The evidences, d'

ucot and indirect, thus justit’y us in

of matter m der difiemnt t’orms and conditions . In tho

gmy tissue this matter exists in mssses containing cor

puscles , whichare scttand hsve grannles dilpcrsed throughthem, nnd which, hesides being thns nnstably compou d,are plscod soas tobe liablc to disturbsnce in the gmetu t

m am m or m m vom n m u. 25

ditionsd, are seats of destructive molecular '

changes , and

conditioned threads, m the ses ts ofmoEcuh r cbenges that

Q IO. N erve-tubes with their contained protein- threads,

elsmm ts of which the nervous system is built np ;

and we ham now to nsk in what way they are put

tions of fi e nerve-tubes ; or rather, wi& those of them

which lio on fiie onter surface.

of it which form tbe rcceptxve' aress of the special

M w be markedau over m sneh s wayas m formanet-work. Suppoce the meshes ot

’this net-work to vary

M in their sizes ; so that while in some places theyw u ln gn n those ofafishmgvneg theyare in other placescol large enough to admit the point of s ueedle. On to

cqnally ll rge over the middles ot’

the fore-arms,and themiddlad dw thighm they diminish to 2 inches snd b ss

om the neck m d bwast to l i inches at the extremities

of the legs, to l § inches on the bocks of ths bands, to les sdm n ineh on the fomhsfl to lew than half-an-inch over

tho cbeeh w d over the palms of the hnnds , toaquarterto n twelfth ofan inchat the tip of the tongue

06 m u nm or rsrcs onoor.

is mquired to distinguish them. Having imsgintd mé n

nebm k ef which the mesheg irmgulnrly polygom l in

their outlines,are thus wide orer pnrts of the surfuce thnt

have but littlé variety ot'

converse with theater-m l world.

and become smaller in pmportion as the surfacm hon

multipliedand varisble contacts with things ; we shall hnvegained au approximate ideaot

'

the relations among the

sepam te localareas in whicli therearise independent m

be supposed . The large meshes we must represent asmarked out by very broad lines— snyaqusrter of nn inchbroud whsre the meshes are largest. We mnst imaginethem narrowing as the meshes become smaller ; until,when we eome to the meshes over the snrt

’ace ot’

the

retina, the dividing lines have dwindled to the thickness of a gossamer thread. And now let us conceive ths t

within esch of theso nm h rgo or smoll s s it msy happen.

thew oxistnaplem of fibm formcd of the essential nervesubstance, ths tare continuous with oneanother, but lmve

N ot, indeed , that we must conceiveany shn p limitation of

ths space occnpied by esch plexus . We mustassnme ths tthe line separnting two m , herevery brosd snd here verynerrom coversaspsce into which tibrcs finm both the sreasmnn vithout join ing one another. Hence thearesing to each independent plexus, is the internalareaot’ themosh, plus the space occupied hy its circumscrihing brosdor narrow line ; snd the hmadth of ths line mprcsents tbe

exten t to which adjacent areas overlup. Such,then.are the peripheral expansions of those nerves which

arc liuble to hs scted on by ex ternal t’orces . Here eachmonopolim arcls tively-gm t n-nct ot ths surfncs,and hcrem u m mely minute one. Esch isan independent g en tench is capnble ot

'

hsving achangc set up in it withoutchangeabeing sct up in its neighbours. Thank in is , ns it

m m n owm m s srsm . 2?

From the nerve-

plexus occupying one of theseareas, thmtahaits rise ths central fibre, oraxis-cylinder, ofanerve.

tube. Coated with its medullaand inclosing sheath, ittakes its wny from the surface inwards ,and, proceodiugof grey matter with imbedded vesicles-anerve-centre or

thum d rnnm becoming divested of its medullary sheathand where the structure is least involved, the essen tialnerve-fibre frequently if not always ends in a nerve-vesicle.

bu nchm out fi-om some other part of the nervewesicle,

sheath, pm'

sues an outwurd course, ordins rily along ths

m gsnerd m teas the M untiLreaching the samepart of the body , it bm

'ics imelf in abundle of muscularfibrcs anxid which its ramifics tions end. Thus we haveasthe clemcntaof what is called anervous arc— l ,aperipheral expansion, placed where it is liable to be disturbedby m u tes'ns lagent,and so formedas to be most easilydisturbed ; 2, aconnected fihre capable of heing readilyM by distnrbancesat this outer end, but shielded from

apt to

necond fihre divm'

ging from the corpusde, cr its neigb

umtion disengagcd near its m-igin , hut protected fi~om other

influences ; 5 ,at the remote extremity of this second fibre,

a subdivided termination am id a substance that contractsgrmfly when disturbed , and which, in contracting, movestheM l s body in which the fimt

“p l isadingmm representing these elemen ts ofanervousm l being the first, or, as it is calleQ aM t nen e,

with its pes'ipheu l expans ion a; B bcing the nsrve-cor

um with its termination c.

Thisarmngement ofparte is pes'petually rcpeated thmugh»out the nervous system ; and if we generaline the concepticn somewhat by supposing that the commencementaisnot necessarily exteruahbut may be onan inner surt'ace, orwithinau organ , while the termination c is not neceasarilyinamuscle but may be inagland ,

we shall haveaconcepusy in acertain sense, because, until another element is

with the ganglion -ceilacting as adirect or indirect link

between them , recurring everywhere in substantially thesame relations, appear to form acompound structure oot

of which the nervous system is built— its un it of composio

tion . But this is not so . By multiplication of sucharea

bnt notanorvous system. To produceanervous system

thm'

e needs an elsment connecting each such nervousarcwith the rest—there needs athird fibrs running fi

-om the

gangficm-cefl, or its neighbourhood, to some ph ce whm

omer communicating fibres come 3 5nd where, hy dircct or

indirect junctions, actual or oppaoximate, the primarycouplcs ot

'

nerves may be brought into relatiou. That is,

there requires whst i lre may callacentripetal nerve.at In

‘ W W W M W m,M Ny u-d h m

u thq wu oI -M tand rwsm t. mutati on-standm i m wu fu m m m m m m m m

m um mm flm m m “ m athaw her-thism w m m ausm w mm m

80 u rani u m .

- in lihe mm ner thacenuipetal fibru d, ociginat7q in fi il

fibm migim fing elwnm wwudsagm gfim flthat islarger-and hu mou numerous councctions. Ot

'

conrse ths

diagrammatic—give no idea of the separate nerves andhundlesand gangliaas theyactnafly exist; but merely of tharelations in which they stand to oneanother. . It should bo

added that the more central ganglion, to which coumother bundles of centripetal nerves (together with someaflcrcnt nerves that paes thm ugh inferior gangliawithoutstepping) may itself be subordinate to a still superior, or

still more central, ganglion. To this it giveacffl' what maybe calledanperior centripetal nm es ; and other nerveaofthe same or ofalower ordcr bcing brought to it, this higheat

note ganglia, with their afferentand efl'erent fibres .One further kind of connection exists. The immense

majority ofanimals, have their parts symmetrically arranged- sometimearadially but more fi-equently ii i-laterally. For

ganglia ;and the connections that rems in to be named arethosc between these corresponding ganglia, or gangliawhichbelong to the same grade. Such connections consist of

whatare callsd commiu nn l tihres. Bayare indicatodat b,where they txu m u ely join the shucture shown in dstail,withtheanswering structure belonging to thaotheraido nf

used inawidm' sense mclndmg'

fihrcs that unite gangln’ of

did'

ercnt grades. But since the grcat majm-ity ot ths fibru

ohc gangliathat occupy lik e rslations in the him mhyfit

will, I think, conduce te clsu -ness to rem-iet itsapplicationte theae t leavhig thewonl centripeflfor fihm which cen

nect gangliaof lowsr ordewwith thou ot‘

highsr orders.

m am oomn er m m vons‘

srm 81

Themmmissm-es thus bring ing intom lation the members ol

h ro halm ot thc nervous system, complete the nervous

communications througheut the orgauism .

exhihin'

ng the principles of nervous organization , apartM m y pu fiwhr typg may be fifly supplemented by the

M ax i m onany arm ofacnttle fish, has aganglionamted bm eath it. To this descemd theafl'emnt nerves that

M m dis tribnted to the muscular fibres of the

sucker. These form alocal nervous system that is ex

gangliain thearm ;and this bundle of centripetal fibreseventually reachesaganglionat the base ot

’

thearm. Each

m aimilarly constructed, thus has a chief nervous centre

in which thn fibres from all its minor nervous ccntresarebrought into eommunicatson.

’

Further,all round the ringformed by the united base of thearms, there runs an

then fi'om each of them is given ofl'abundle of fim that

M m tripetally to a still higher centre—tho cephalicganglion ; where, consequently , nerves fi

'

omall theaansarc

“con not eu ential to suehaconceptionas concerns us here,

fionand mpmnM Bmfiom that is can 'ied far in proportionu thn orgnn ization iahip .

Q IS. Wo may be sure thatalong withaprincipleaf ar

82 m mn os m m soor .

which are not simply places for the meeting of fiM hnt

places in which there existagents liable to beacted on by

the is -coming fibresand capable of acting on the out-goingfibres . Respecting the principle of composition , our reasonings must be main ly hypothetical ; but they will, I think,

prove of some worth, by leading us to ccnclusions that hn ~monize with obssrvation, so faras fiiis '

carries us .

Inascending fi-osn the lowest to the higbest typeaof the

natiou of nerve-fibresare so modified,as to make possiblean

among difi'

erent paWs of the organism . What ltind ot'

mo

two tibres which hring two parts of the organism into relatiomam always unitedat their central extremities by mintermediate nave-(m uscle, itmay be safelyassumed that

either by a nem -corpw cle or by some less-defined portson'

cf gney substance ; and it is clear that in pmportion to the

number of different connections to be establishedamong thenerves coming toany ganglion, must bc the numbcr ot

'

the

more or less independen t portions of grey substance re

ganiam. To join the nerm s pwcwding hom thsm thm

needs only the oingle ganglionm ll h . Similu ly, to hringinto nervous relation the points cand d, the single ganglion .

cell B sut es. So longas Aand B remain unconnected,thesc two simple rclationsare the only possible onesamongthe poinh mmad . Bnt nowassume that fi-om hand Bthem run tibres to the cen tre G—notasingle fibre fi'

om

each, bnt two fihres , one of which in each case'pmceeds fmmaor b,and t’nom e or d. This being so, theeamay be formedat C, eleven ¢impis and compound relations z thm M r

M m om n m m n m s n m 83

must be at len t ?A7 connectoi the nest,

m o.

eentm F.

smong theae

84 m m w rm em .

be srrnnged in snccess ion in only 2 diw vmys ; threethings can be sm nged in 6 difl

'

emnt n ys ; four thing l in

24wsys ; five things in l 20ways ; six things inflflwnys ;seven things in 5 040wsys ; nnd so on in s progm sim

“ the centne

cosmons'

, there will neqmre'

120mm hnkn’

of conneo

tion for this one gronp of five points only . Thealinkn,

grey mstter, must oocnpy s considen hle spseeg nnd snp

thm msy resnlt s protnberance from the oea, u shovrn

st G. B m mpmse thstmfim d d s gm p d fivms gmnp

or if inntesd of one gronp to be eo denlt with, there sre

wfll he mnch moro bnlky thnn the fihree rnnn ing from them

be sxpected to u-ise, ns nt H , n lntei

-sl oentne sttsohed w

the origins l oentre, F, by s pedicle of fibres .

Of conrse these diagrems snd numbers m intended to

convey nothing hnt n gsmeu l idee of the prinoiple of oom»

pooition of nerve eentms—not to repm ent m y sm nl oom

position. Itwonld be en sbsm'dassnmption th tamong s

number of points in the body, there hsve to he finn ed asmany nnliks groupe ss m theoretim lly possible ; aud it iscot to be snppoeed thnt the members of nny gronp need

em to be oombined in ns msny difl'

erent orden as theymight be eomhined. Bnt while, on the one hand, the chovc

m u mmy reqnhed m g s given nnmbc of poinh in tho

m m or m nu vove srm 85

to be eo wm latahas m ll as the nnmber,and variety,andcemplexitw, ef the grenpe into which theyare to be com.

well as the plnwe to which eflbrent nerves proceed, are

members put in simultaneous communication . The difierent

the su ne greup ;aewellasameng difl’ereut gronps'

. Hence

plicity tud hetaogeneity of nervons connections , there must

ge increaaing masaiveness of the nervous centres, or aconmulatiem of vesicular matter.

Oue furthm' corollary fieserves noting. Each vesicle, or

M m the central termin i of fibres , is not merelyacon.

it gives ontwhen disturbed. Hence, if the composition of

m formedamong difl'erent parts of the organ ism ,will be

§ 18 . As adatmn for Psychology of the most generalkind, the foregoing deemiption of nervous structure m ight

Psychology disfinguiahedae humam itwill be preper toaddnome ncw unt ef the human nervous system . A few facts ofmoment respecting its peripheral parts, may be set down

At flxe surface of the body, where the extremities of

nave-M are w plaeedas to be most eu ily dis tnrhed, “geom lly find what may be called multipliers of distar

3

06 m cm or ran som

bances . Sundryappliances whiehappear te havenofi ingfin

ends of nerves , theactions of externalagente. That this isthe eifect pmduced by the huses of the eyeg isafnmilinfact. It is a less familiar fact that c ertain otolites andminute rods or fibres , immérsed inaliquid coutained in tho

internal ear, serve to transferm the less sensible vibmtiem

communicated to this liquid, into themore sens ihle vibrationsd whd m m wbmg mm dim dy wm m mnerve- terminations. So, too, is it ever the integument; or,

atany rate, over the parts of it subject to manyand variedcontacts. Though men have not, like many infcrior Mam

(b een : inacat as of which isalemthat intsnsifiesaslight touchat the outer end intoash'eng

pressme of the imbedded end npon snadjacent nerc fibm ;

yet evm'

y one of the short hairs onamsn ’s skin w ts in the

someway. And then , in addition to these, thereare,atplaces where the contacts with olg

'

ects are perpetual, sndwhers hairs do nut grow

,certain multipliers below the sur

of whichanm e-fihre mm ifies, and each of which, when

moved by the tcnch ofaforeign body , gives to itsattached

the surrounding substance homogeneous :afact which willbe undm tood on remembering the efl'ect of pressm on the

akin when some small hard body, “ a therm is imbeddedin it.So much for the instruments that are external to the

peripheral expansions of the nerves, and serve to exag~gem

-ate the effects of incident forces. We may now con

template these peripheral expansions themselves, as beingadapted to receive these exaggerated incident form .

In the fimt plwe, tho ultimate nerve-fibrillan mifymg

nerve-pectoplasm unprotected hy medullary sheathnand not

as m mu er rsrcnowor.

smallareas, or both. The quantity of matterwhich,floatingas faint odour through theair, reaches the end of the olo

thctory nerve, is infinitesimal. Such luminiferous undnb

tions as are allowed, during a momentary glance, to fall onone of the minute aneas of the retina,are equivalent toamechanical force inappreciable by om measures, if not in

expressible by our figures . Sim ilarly with those atmo.

away ,and weakeningas they spread in all directions,areconveyed to the minute otolites and rods of the inner ear,to be by them impressed on the anditory nerves. And inthese places it is that we find peripheral deposits of the

s14. Arising from these variously-specialised peripheral

and compound bundles, run inwards to the spinal cord ; out

In one sense the spinal cord may be regardedasacontinuous nervous centre ; and, inanother sense,asaseries ef

nerves with its segment of the spinal cord, haeacertain

enter the pairs of massive nerves from the limbs, haveindividualities considerably pronounced ; since it is experi~

mentally preved that when severed from the rest theyarenot incapacitated. The trac t of grey matter in the spinalcord to which the sflersnt nerves ofalimb come,and frem

centre of that limb, having very much of automatic independemos ; and being joined by commissural fibres to alike centre belonging to the fellow limb, it forms with this

cranio-spinalaxis is originally oneand continuous,and thatit

‘

santorior part has beendifi rentiatedand developed intoquite distinct centres we may say that its postesior part, &e

m m crm or m m vous srsm r. w

apinal c ord , has also besn so difiereutiated, though to a

addifiom must be made. Beyond the internal tracts ot' greyenter- inte nd issue from them laterally ; and beyond the

filamd oining theee suecesaive pairs of nervom centres with

m onother,and sm ing to integrate the series ot’

pairs in

of the same order, there are what we t'ound it des irable tod

'

mtingnishas centripetal fibres , running fi-em therelativelywith ccntrifiigal fibres running back.

to notice the medullaoblongatc ; including those partsof the pm o

-oh

’

i which t re woven in to it,and sim ilarlyarise out ef the fourth ventricle. This is the enlargedtermmation of the spiaal cord, lying within the skull.li stingnishedas it is fi'em lcwer parts of the spinal cord byih gm term ssivmesmit is much more distinguished by the

While the successive segments of the spinal ccrd proper,

in their distributions to particular regions oi' the body ;and

the Im and the lower part of the body ; the m duuaM by the intennediation of centripetal fihseaisbrmlght into relation m t only with the lower part of the

Wy n d its limbe, but with thenpper part of the bodyandib fimh i m d w t m ly with thesmbutalso with sundry ot

the partswhichwe knowas the organs of the special senses ;

W m nm or rsrmeceor.

viscera. The m ditory m and the nerves at tes ts godirectly inte it,and thongh the eptie nerves do not, yet

fiom the centres towhich theyrun there srefibres comm nicapting with it , from its laterally-appended parte m o ths

nerves ei the eye-muscles and the ficial nerves 5 nnd the

it fhi communics tion wifi the larynx, the lungmthe heart,m am m m mmasm ineh m wmknowm justifies the conclusion that the msdnllaobbngd u,

including the structures that are adnate, is aportion

been difi‘

erentiated intoaeentre ofahigher order thanthoee behind it, er thoseat the base of the mass in fi-ent

et it - higher in the sense that it hu become that portionof theaxis in which centripetal fibree running from the

poswiior gm ghq and fiom wme, if notall, of theantcriorganghg called by some sensory, are brought in te r-elation

centresare nnited into one system .

Passing overwithamere recoguition theanterier gsnglia.

inst named, the exact relations of whichare ill-understood,but some of which comparative morphology preves to

mbe

portions ot’

the fi'ont end of the cerebro-sphxalaxishave become difi

'

erentiated into gsngliaof the first order,receiving thoee special external stimuli to which the Pri n tend ct

‘

the body is u posed ; there remain only to be noticed

the two great bhlobed ganghmwhich in Man ferm the chief

mass of the brain— the eerebellumand the cerebrum . Phy

ccntres ot‘astill higher order. Anatomical proof ot' their

mperiori ty , ss being the seats ot'

still higher contrnlisauon,is vcry incemplete ; for the diificulty ot

'

traeing tho com-seaafall the nerve-fibres that en ter in to and issue fi'

om them,

mm m m m m m m w

m m em un or m m vous srsm . C1

m cuch s s to mahe it certain that tlnm gh the intermedia

m m ;andare places in which cen tripetal fibres

poss ibly, with some s implyafl'srent fibres, are brought intom m : mlatiens , however, that most likely difi'

er

M r, perhape, as those snpposed to be formed in the

m flM fi difi‘

er fi-cm those fermed in the centre li‘.

M ong the ficts of fimdamental significance with which

W m m gm sn-nctures of nervous cennes . In

cells is habxtual.’

Throughout the spinal cord the “ axis-cylin

m much less readily mfi e eut ; snd it is question

able whether in the highest they oeeur at all. In thed thaém brm , the delicate nerve-fibreswhich, divested of medullary sheaths , run among the im.

bedded corpuscies , do not d irectly nnitewith them ; or if it is

toem d i to u y tlmt thereare no such nnions, m may sayappan ntly between the hranched terminations ef the fibresand the ramified processes of the mrpnsoles . Thusat the

arethe m-slew at the other extrem involved, vague,and

§ 15 i 8m eacccunt must be givcn efioerts in remainingnervous structurm with which Psychology is indirectlyconcerned. Thus far we have dealt on ly with the fibresand

d lsfionato the extemal world.

a m nm or rsrcm ocr.

fi eh t toch imattenfien m fln m motorm Bun

mam m m mw m m m ww

soas to snpply fihru toall their hrm chu down to the meet

serim of efl'erent ncrvea. h e m m rmder its loweat

tmmity expowd to u tmn d w tieng the ganglion-oorpm cle

thenee imuing to end in some muscle. Bat es we hm

seen , the un it of compositien et the developed

system indndes acenn'ipetal fibm m nning fmm the first

or submd inate centm to ahighsr centre; ahd here wehave to sdd, as an habitual element ot

'

this nn it cf

running to that part ot'

the body in whieh the two wds

of that part into relation with the other parte of the

direct communications with the mnscular wallaof the tubeswhich bring blooi beth to iteelfand to the muscles it scndsfibzec to, is also put into relation with other partaonwhich it is equally, though less immediately, dependen tthe viscera. These have, indeed,anervous systsm of their

om pmeeesingapparentlyaoensiderable degme of inde

viecus, the heart, hasanervous system that is dem0nstrablyou t l nervous system is notaettled ; but whether it haaaM arin er bclongs to the periphery of the cerehm

spinal'

M the nndonbted fact is that the cerebro-spmal'

the nerves running from it into thetrunks ol the cympathetiomommuniates vithall thesevitalergau g m d th t m the M ccmpletea- is its lecal

m m em'm er m m vous srm 48

t hy the vagus or pneumogastxi e nerve,

offlne same olaas is not nm here. The general t'ac t ofsignificance for u , i3 , that the brainand spinal eord whichtlxreugh theirafiereut nerves are put in relation with the

efi rent nerves are put in relation with the structures that

the orguns immediately or remotely instrumental in supply

16 . In the foregoing description l have endeavonrcd to

be wt dowm sre reanyaltogether irrelevant. That in thespinal cord the gmy mattcr is plaeed internally , while in thecerebrnm it formsan outside stratum, isafact ol’ momenth ans tomy, hnt onewhich throws no light on the scisnce ofmind. Knowledge of the truth that the posterior roots ofme spim lmm s m afiment while the mwnor m efiment,isalln importnnt to the pathologist ; but to the psychologistit is quite unimportant, since this arrangement might havebeen revm ed without the principles of nervous structureheing in the least ohangechand it is with these principlcs

w m m psmpnm ay be mm d up m

b g the higher types of the nervous system, there goes thatothn kind of integmtien implied by increase of structuralcombination. There is multiplicationand enlargement of

W m Very fieép en tly there isanapproach or

u m m m m

clustce‘

ring of nervons centres thatwere prsviowy fc mAnd there is both areh h’veand en abwlufi inm in

those centms which have thc mest mnltiplied reh ticns withiocd cea thm gh them withall parts of thwbody lThe nervous system is made np of threads inclossd in

cf the pefiphem l parts,whilethe cof pm claswitb theirm ix

arefimnd ehiefly in the den tral parts. Havingat its ontsrex.

tmmityaplem of highly-unstable matter,ancrvo-thmnd,

consisting as we conclnde of less nnstoble lnsttu bnt

hm Eventually it reaches amass of highly nnstable

greatsst facility ;and i om the place whm this lies thm

run oflxer like fihres to other mu ses of nnstablematten of

the eame kind, ow ofadifl'erent kind, or both—here to .

here to a superior cen tre con taining more of the eas ily-de

and ccnhipetah with their connecting oorpnscls or portionof gmy matter, we rcgardas forming the nnitof composifionof the nem ns system.

local gsnglicn is aplace where manyafiummtand m yefiarent nerves m connected by many pm'tiou of thew

molecularmoticn. M snperior ganglion isaploce whore

ganglimm similarly connected by similar matter‘ And so

fies of difi m t componnd relations inmaseas fiutas theccntralizsfion progresses .

m m m s w m m vous srm 4?

does it libcn te thc insensihle motion locked up in certain

i How doaitadjust sens ible motions into those ccm

actiou osn theatemal wm'ld ? These questions cover the

whole of its functiom ; or, atany rate, all thoss of itc

directly ccncerned. We hsvs

io intsrpret its psssive fnnctionasareceim of disturhancesthat sat it going ; its active function as aliberator of

m tiou 3 m d itsactive function us adistributor or sppor

tinnsr of the motion liberated.

afuncfion disfinct fiem those helbre named. It secms thst

tho mcun ng"

of disturhances, or stunuli,' '

can he included'

né thaunder the head of disengaging motious nornnder the

b M M W amd to fi ose temns which Phyaiologyall nerwas stminhare motions molar or molwular andlho function of oo-ordinating motions comprehends not

simply the combiningandapportioning of the motions ex

and theadjustmait cf the one set into harmony with the

ci n nli to ths nerves of touchare smm'

hle mofions cf the

moving bodies or by motions of the organism whieh bring

am m we m fiens conveyed to it from masses of

nats the ncrres of the retinam acted on by luminifsrous

by s pidand odm s mhah m arefin facg emcited by ths

un bmlm mom m fi ese mhstances cause in their eattre

48 m mn or rm ower.

isarecipient of inetion gim to its molem lsaz eithu ehy

mohw mofiomas vhen ahlow is reeeivedq er hy ths

m M M oM W u whm thm is m M fi

l t will be well te

ef nervens fnncdoag and tham for hm proecefi l gupon it.

§ 18. Physiology isan ohjective scienee; cand iu limih dto snch dataas can he reached by ohstwvatiom un de on

sensible objects. It cannot, tharsforq pmpsd yw

psychically considm d,m fed ings; itm y hesafelyafim sd

m om that go on in organisms, in terms known to

into ih intu pi'eui tions apuychicnl facwr—a-afactor nhioh

no physical resen ch whatem m discloss , or identify, or

got the i emotast glimpse of. Then lations batwotn ncua

Doing thh , we have no sltsruative hut to formulate thmnin tarms of motiom And liaving recognisod the prims y

lhom -mdimfion cf modong we find that thh ln t divisionmust he suh-divided. “W M M Wof the motions reoeired with one onothm ; cnd, sccond, tho

co-ordim ficn of ths motions expsnded with ths n nfim

m m m m m

“W otanand di'rigm tor.

s m s m mm n To fi e dmplost types of

M um s isaf cdptom otoragsntg swh gmglion isaM am -gu t ; mch cfi rent nm is a din

'

go-motoragent Bat in m plex nermns systsmsfiorm d cl infericr

tho priniary fiinctioas. B remeins tm s thatall theafl'ercutm m m d m m m m m mm m directors of motions ; and it remains tm e that

M m l ihch tors of motfims ; hut ef the fihm largely

b m idm bly hclped hy thinking d theaflasnt nerves

u m d thm eflm nt nsrves as dirigwm m ;

vhils we think of the nervous centres as oomposed of

In du ling with functionc we wfll follow the same ordcr ss

w did i‘n dd ing with stmotures—q e will'consider first the

§ 19. The greyanhstsnceand the whfite suhstm ce— or,

thenitrogenous matter in m d sround

n itrogenous matter o ccupying the

80 i m m at u re-meat .anti-hon”

; and thcus is p ud thst m in the highaat'

l the d'

m isOaths one M d the vedm hr t vmg for ih

molecular mofion. Win : the fihrous pu taof the spinaland h re hsm it is found that if the contr-al colnmns ofgrey mattsr rmain m m g or if thm remains em anm vv

ance is still oommuniated through it to the bn in : not, i:i

h rbanoe passesalong the grey matter fmm end to m d.

issne fi'om the grey matter ;and,again protected by thcirsheaths, proceed upwards to the brain in me smronndingwhitematter. Very likely thmetalre npand conrey moleculardisturhm css setup in the grey matter imbedding thsm . But

axtant through the grey mattar ; and theargument requiruConven ely , it is fonnd that thematter ferming the “axis o

cylinder,” or easm tial nerve- th u d, can do somethingmore than k -W W W It haaacertainpower of simultmwously giving out molecular motion :so aharing the property ol

'

the w siculn matter. Whenancrre is irritated not farahove its terminaticn in amuscle, the efl

‘

ect is hutsmall. If the irritation isatapointfirther removed from the muscle, the efl

'

ect is grcater. And

the ed’

ect increasesas the length of nerve through which fim

there is moleculm' motion h'

berated in the nerve-fibre M

m rummos s oo m m vous srsm . 51

bahly it isaconcomitant of the isomerie tmnsformsh‘

on

inferred, é prim-i, if the conduction is efiected hy isomeric

hm d orm fiomor hy m y kind of molecularm gcment.

t n the moleoules ofamass chsnge from one form of

combinatiom to another, oithem‘ shsorption or m>emtion of

motion h sure to occur. That there cm ot in this cese

he ahsorpfion of mh tion is manifest ; since that wouldinvolroaproportionate resistance to the transfer— theamountof fm or motion received by the extremity of the nerve,

m ld quickly be used up in tn naforming theadjscent partd tb m m d the chm ge m m uavd hutahttlem y.Being thns ohliged to infer that motion is liberated,weat

hamdd y symbolis cd by the tmnsfcr of senm'

hle motion

alongarow of hrieks on endflo placed that each in—

fallingknoch ovsr its neighbour. For if instead of hricks wlxich

lu ln ced on nw '

owands ;and if we further suppose them’

cu m or fn ctwm'

; we shall see that themotion’

transmi tted’

wi laceumulataEach hrich hesides the moticm it re

cam wm pau on to the next the motion which it has

h o w d umhs te be carried with usarefi hat in its '

molecular motion ; but that with the advance of

W it heccmes specislized into two kinda, of which

d givhg ot cfiomthough it cm sfinto some eatent con

a m ai n s- ram “ .

w am am m w am fllto m c tant girs it ons

Q m Bam fion d thm diM fiatcd fi nds mf

ib inner m i'flmahod of molew lar dbtufbancg im

memaly inm sed hy the dcocmposifion set up in fi is

ati ts othsr sndamong the fibres ofammch this powufi l

m aels up in thcman isomeric transfermation ofanothcrkind, m nlting in con tmcticn (W of Biology,The belief thattheu are the cficeaof therw ectm pata,

is borne cut by thcsc pecnliarltieanf structmiawhich weredacribed as occurring in the sweat fibres of certain

madam e-organs. We saw thatthe outerends of theoptic

chamotw ’

sed by the prescmce of vesicularmsttw; and ihatwhile in this they difier fi

-om tho outer ends of the nm

of touch, theyalso difl'cr in being cxcassively seusitive. If

m m ttcrmr thc matter of 'vaaicleg hn the functiou of

passing on themngmented wavanof changs clong cm eoud

fibm m at once haveasatisfactoq sxplanation of thm

pwahar psriphsu h straotm M u m m ptadieram Q ue cf the m inntc cones in fis m sltivahym

M m em or rsi cnowor.

pagatesashock through the M t nerve toalarge dapoaitofm h blem wu mthe opfic cm hmwhm an imm

cfm igin to ths phm whau ih eflactisaeempam thmugh

apointat which its comse is bw t or teflected 3m d in so fhr

as it describes this vu -

y gcnsn l huit the term is ageodone. But if the forsgoing intaprch fim be wm cg the

tarm is in othcr reapach‘

ohjecfionahh mimplics as m ent

'

n l what is non-esssntial. M the wavcol disturbsmco makeaasndden tm-uat ene part ol itsmum isafact of no intrins ic momeh t— is merelyaconcomitant of the fict that the nerves it tram seahavs to bepat in wmmu icafiou with othanerm m d that pointaofjunction imply anglcs. On the othcr hand, it lesveaout of sight the fact that one of these points of junctioufrcm which the m e of disturbance is snid to bs mflected,inaplweat which it is grsatlyaugmcntsh and that thiaaugmentation cf the wave is thsall-important oflice of themattcr lyingat thc point of juncfion.

§ 2L Bemcmbming that hundles cf mch hfi cent w m

are joined to bundlm d mch efierentm hy clustmu of

m d that bundlcs of centripetal ncrves proceed thence to

highaganglia; we bers m t to cousider the functious of

these structum as wholes .A m ous cenM even ofan infei-iorm-derfis not simplyaplwewhm aflfm-eat newesare seven lly linked with thsirmrru pcuding ederentm by cm

'

puscleacr pcrtious cf

is thaonly fiirthsr cfi cs itaervcs that of sending to highcr

M M d‘

these disturbances ; but it is aboa

m m w m m vocs srm m 55

Por iu all gsmglia perhaps , the very chnplcst,

their com exions . And, second,along with increme in the

total qm fity of molecular motion giveu out, directly or

h lly to understand the importance of this last implicaM it is needfiil to refm' back to Fig . 4,and to the sccompanying dasm-iptioh of the way hi whichanew ous centre

establishing mlatious among these many pmts in variousorders . For it will be seen thatas fs stas the connexiom

hm ce the quami ty of molecular moticn evolved in the

md fiplying mofim descrfiied under their siniple form ic

to our éflilmwfic see how themst ceatralmagazine cf foice

m m cn oss or m n si‘oos srm 57

m lem iudh-wtly hy the ahafing of the bed . Thus the

bru ohod corpuscles and fihrcs contained at that poiut inthe m 'd i t ith whieh theafi'

eim t und efi'

erent nerves of

the lcgare connected, hareat once the function of givingout, when the ~distnrbsnce is communicated to them , the

requis itaquanfity of moleculas motion,and ol’ so directingthis to the rsspsctire uiusclcs of the leg,as to canse the

u dm m emscwd by the m pm ticn of sm l snch

m ortionaof the gmy substance, contained inM M M the spinal oord. In the human subjectdemonstration of this is uot easy ; bnt it is shown by ex

M on infm'ior Vev-ubm ta. A decapitated frog thatto lheapohand mcve it soas to displace the irritatiugobject. Evenaomething furthes is done. Ifascalpel beappfied to the skin between the hind legmtheseact jointlyin suchamsnneras te pushaway the scalpeL Thc explaaa

How snch definite co-ordinationsu thu e n e cfl'ected by such m appuatug we shall bettarpositious on tboaxinand the movements needed to bring

aily by one particnlarmnaeularadjustment ; er, atany rate,byamnscularadjustment that varies with'

m narrow limita.

portions of parta,and therefore the relations of muscularuijm tmcnts tc given pod tionsn emain pmctically the same ;

m m m cfim that M atouchatany point ml y

58 m um m u rm m .

canse the combined coutrac tionaw edful to bring the m d

cf the limb to that point. Itahould be observed

M that the couceptiou of thm acts of the spinal cordas

head of motions mnst be inclnded the disturbancss couvcyed d ch g theafi'erent nerves ; for thamuscular motionsare soadjustad that their joint msults hw s special rch

is hetween the rscipiom tor acts and the difl'

goou otor

sch . We may , then, iegard the spiual ocrd ssa

mnch alike fiom all parts ; simple, inasmuch as eachmmcnlaradjustment is mainly ofafixed or invariable kind ;and simple, inasmuch as the component actaof the co

called the msdullaoblosgata, including the root -

portiou of

the poas Varolii , adnate with it and structuraliy so

roughly distiuguishasacentre of compcund cc-crdinafion.

of h ste,and, indirectly throngh the covy om quadr€gm , is

afiected by visnal impressions : meanwhile sending impulssato thc various musclcs of tho eycs, the facq the jaws ,andths mouth. By it the movemente cfall fonr limbs m cow

bined iu jointacts ;aud by simultaneously regulating tham,

various impressions and muscular motions implied by theact of swallowing , it brings into due relation. Receiving

sausing inapiration' and expiratm'

;and,asaconsequsnce, ith thc wnm whioh dis turbed by the mom rtolent in itatiou

m u m m or m m voos srsrxx. 59

d the ruspiratory aurface, scnds cnt to ths rcspiratm'

y

andaneu ing z to which may beadded,asactions belongingw tlm mme clam crying and yawning. Lastly, throughthe pnsumogaats'ic nerve, it controls theaction of the hsart,and the actioms of other visocra. Thus it is acentre to

whk h wm in scme cases directly bnt in most cases indimedyfimpressions fi

-omall parts of the extemal surface,

as wall as fram tho mucous lining of thc month,

m oplngm and lnngs ; and to which there also come,

highcr scuscs . At the same time the minor ccntres sevemllycomm ding groups of muscles , are by it put in relationm m m i m d their respective simpleactions so

comhmed‘ as to constitute coanpoundacticns'

. In short it

“ W or mh tions withall the parts that hold con

verse with the exterual world, while it has dcrigovmetorrelations withall the psrts that react on the external world ;and its function is that ofadjusfing the complex movemen ts

in obaiiesice to the complex stimuli. This is notall. Being

in which the dcmand formatec'ials is indicated ;and henoc ithemmes thc regulatorof the ciwuh tiomcf theaeration ol

'

the

its co-ordmations’

m compound in comparison'

with those of

M m d esutripetal uerves hring to it,are not only morenumerous butalso more heteregeneous ; compound, becauseths impulaes which it sends outarealso more numerousandm ;and compound, because itbrings more

M inam d the m cbm h have now to be dcfined in terms

ei the su ne nature. How shall we express them ? Both“M arat hi-lobed masses ariseas buds out of the

4

m n ioq nnnlam gandas they

may, I think , be mfely

ai m M um Without comm itting my self to it manything more M a hypothesis, I will hemsm u t a not improbable intm'

prctation.

b F al l; t ea-m Of hhfltwo M g that Of m m in

m naracr rarcucwsnpeculiar capacitiss of the species. Thm mfcr b tanca,ths fact that thc m bslluu is unnaually dew loped in birdsof ln

'ey , which have to co-ordinate with greataccuracy thewintions of distanm dhectiomand complex formmawsllasm y precisely to co-ordinate the involved movements appropriate to these involved impressions. And there is , ou

ccncatenated compound immessiom .‘

Of com-se this clasaificafion of the functions of the nsrvcus

N o dafinite divisicns can be made. The fnnctions arisethrough incrcasiug complications ; and theae general con~

M in thmY- main outlines . Here, however, where the

‘ M mahm dn wattauticn tc papm in the I dW M M M”December l laud Dacambrrfil. 1367. in t Dr. HughllugaJachacahaspublishedaoms facuaud infem csaihai quitaharmouisawi ih thsaatutapnM g in w hr u tbam mafaamfoad ihs gm tam ou m uu h

l tahm ld h nmarkd th t thaahcw pn po sd drduitim m h acuaidm bls u teut. coiucidant with current ascension Tho m is

M ym ulu d u tbc chief orgsu d miad gmd m m lu cnflu ryW M W W Iyam lMm dmao-hM oon sh in e-rac em es

“ lookiag bafcnaadaac fiacd mlugm w w m hu futm coam lu llkaaiaaaor thc fuuciioaW mm m m cmm mw ly w mthatwhich ll l lm m infcn ed fm his u psfim taltdi lu g hom laN o ra-pastalt impllo tbat thawM -i iaaotauagaafcr thawnatisu d motionacnlv, cr ofq uchmncuamoticaaoaly gbat that it ioalaoanm for thaco-oaliaatlou cfaimultaaeoualu pin-locaand for thaco-cnllu tiou of thsayachroeouammlonainadaptation to thsalmultsueoualuptadcuaAnd it fuflbsr luipllcl thai not all almulranmualmpn d cnaaudadaptadayu hm m motiouam cc-crdlm -d hs iham : boi coly fiw

du bly-m pound m eawhich hm fot thdr cfland m latiru thaluuicatocombination-cl attributes that diaimgulah olgasu frcui casanotharand“.m mnltiplhd md n i ied lou lin dom d oblm iu tbeapacc ihat u m daw am m u m am m

m m m m m n m 63

obiect h eo givam idcaof the prinoiplee ofw fnnc

§ 23. A fisw wmfls m dno to tbe fnnctions of that snb

ordim lo nervous apparatus, the structure of which we

gh noed nh in fihe lnsb dmw e nm ons appamm pre

uding over tho vital pmoeaaes. Ibwill snflioe if we takotho fnnctiom of fiho vm omowr division ofi tas m mplifying

N taso-motor nm , hnfi ng roots in both the oerebroo

u n n u fi'om tboactivideaof the visom . Probably theadinu '

yamonnt of diatnrbnnoe propvm ted slong each vasoW m dmgfly exoim the mnw nlar ooataof the sdjaou t n fi rj mfi oiondy to maintain its due elasticity. Bub

“wager disturbu oee produce marked alteration; of its

w d to m uso oonm'ncfion ; and those bmught by fibm from

the m bm -spmal mum beang w d w oauso ciflnh tion.

in tbo part itaolf ; nnd others to nctions going on in the

M vitnl orgnna, or in the body u awhole. Bnfi nll

ot them dww ns'

thnt by means of fihe m o-mobor newona

Q ne fnrther fnct belonginn dfiaolaaamay be ndded ; pm1y becnuse of its in

Manhood; seen that, nmong itamany duties, the

M G M oonh -ols , thmngh tbe medinm of the

m m m d m m m w m m m

fl m m an m owat .

m d M oh-ngo m t by it thmngh tho pu ma

w m am am m m mwfion oflho beug orm p it nhoguhc : co u nt ing “

wo m flu t this iaou of tho most m h bb fiom of

M W M W EM M VM N W

propels blood to tbm ; “ mo

mn k hov it htppeu tu

h ibnnd to exht n sysfim ofw m ' hich fiiminiahwfimM un-y not

-ves t s tkey m onflod. w ane-0 36 5:

h t in is ont oflzbeoome so mnch mm m rb d. And throngh

ono of theso it is oonch dod thnt thoad ullaofloayd o rafuin tho benfi when tho om bn l iu itafion is em n .

Be thiau it mayfi he fncts m ed illnm fi e m in

mannfi oimfly for present purposes, how demand form torials nnd m pply of mm iah m harmafiwd.

§ ?A. In mmming np the fimofiom of tho nm om q amu flms formnh ted in term of motiom itwill be m efidmobsave the greaterW M M W M

m m m e ovm m vom erm x. 66

When om pu t oe oovbyte iabonohedfi he contmofion

body. M thingem bm to be noted. There ian propa

which the crenm e is eompoeed ; for'

distent parte ere

cm ntm lly nfi'eched. There is nlao nn increeee of dismwoez fior in mm ive mmnenbe fim mm of fiem nmdero

M ol theee eimple nnimels, exhibiee the twoeeew del

phenomene u hibited by the nervous eyeeem in nll phm of

inacvelopmenh there is propegation of moleenlnr momm,’

mamm ie n eimnltnneone engmemmtion of khis mole

W m m me fimited m nau-ow finee end em ll

flw gu eml imubflity. Since, tlxen, the fnnctions of the

m fnncfioneexhibited in en gaewey by thenndifi'erenfiued

alar m s by so expressing them we include elilee their

Gm

M anly h theee terme cen tbere be given en

'

uq ciafinifion of fully - dova10ped nm one functiena.

el m-M eme, m ot bq e complete conception. On the

hg in flw m veynnoo md mulfiplimfion of molecn ler

l em mas in nflm ee. Ib inclndaeqnnlly dxe eondne

fion of w mnde on e m of m m dfln‘

metamorphoeeainaglend.

“ r, h also the m of gu ts comprehensiveneas. Ko M nfim in m-em the ofiioe which

M m h m in m m specifiu lly th n the

A va-y ew

m m m e or m m vom srsm . 67

m emen t of distnrbonoe cspsble of censing mnecnlsr con

m fiom mnonghont the whole body .

Meanwhile these cen tres in which molecular motion isM ore also the centres in which it. is oooordins ted ;

snd the snocessively higherand larger cemtres which evolve

n ew Whence follows the genem l resnlt ths t slongwith each further developmen t of the nervous system,

enabling it to make nll perts of the body work hogether

M e goeo nn increseed power of evolving the energy re

M prineiples we foend to be wcll exemplified in the

m .whioh most nesrly concerns ns . It is needloes to

re-sh fie lhe rcsnlts eo reoently arrived at. One rems rk,

M em m y be odded. In the fnnctions of the euc

in the hnmsn being, we see well exemplified the lew of

of fnnoticns in geneml (Flin t Pri ncip les.Pol This pmgress fiom co-ordins tions thot

and be those thob sre still largerand doubly m ponndfie

THE COSDlTlOSS TO nam es Am

§ 25 . 0f these, the first in order is continniby of m

n ncrve thot hs s been cnt in m ; nnd eeotion ofam re~

of the dissevered pm'ts bo the olher.

cohesion. Plecing in npposifien the tmo ends ofadifidod

whom d ter o cnb, the surrounding flmh hu hm hedfllfit

Further, there mnst he no destruction of oontinnity hy

change which incopooitooes the nerveo fihres— ou atrophy, oro hraking-up by decomposition : the resnh heing o de

which receive ond pm on the wnvcs of distnrbnnoe.

§ 26. N ew e-sh'nctnres, whethor peripherol or omm l,

oomtinnitg ol'

xnolecnhr eqnilihrinm. Presm is etpohle of

70 m nm ow rsrcmm

u nnotn fely basean infmm on fi. M b , hom one

conclusive piece ol evidm ce. A fiactme of tho s knll fiat

bone intrnding on the spaoewéviom ly fifled by the bn in,stops the fnnctions of the brain—d ismrbances sent to it

no motiom ct nll. Bet whem by means M am a”

Furfimr support is yieldcd by what msy be mgn ded u

notion, and if the normnl omonnt ot’

pu m allows the

normolamonnt of nerve-oction g then it is infian blo thatnave-disturbances wfll psm with nndce faciliey if the presm is deficient. N ow es the bn in is contained in snal.

pass with nnnsnsl facility ; and ordinnry imprcssiom proo

pagated to the centres , will prodcce exm orfiw y motor

impulses. Hence the seemingly-anomalous fact that greatloss of hlood; or grcot local anwmiacansed by stowof e cerebmlartory, causes convnlsions. Su harceolt

tion begins to teil ; though innntrition will afierwards

which the phenomenasctnnlly occur.oyvpears trne of the periphers l nervons system. The ofl‘cren t

lax tissnes, are often nndnly impwssible. Anathema-eof this

'

interpretation. It hu been fonnd that an am

w m n m m m d mgm g wamphy ,

72 su m o-m m .

m m fl m d flfis tflafiu d m'

oflm ;

d b m m t M M n h m n dm it

eqmfly hoids fin t p olm ged u pocu e to et oold de

u d dn t denth m lh if tho bofi y tm panme isanowedto fill stfll lower.

M iocal hu of heat whm cnu ied b r, is followed hyloal h cfion of them is shm hy the fiot fil t pm

or u fificinlly , m y be ptiched or cnt or ]i nched fi thootmyol the “ disturbances hi m conveyed to the nerveocon'ee. It is m fin t whan tho rcfiiM ismthe -c is m llyapu tinl ficpdn tion ot

'

biood ; but thereis u idence that when this is not the m —wbn , ind“ ,

the bloodm h m wngs fi u in red hm dl onawdayJoss of hu t entnih decm e ol

’

nu ve-fimofion. mm m m amm m em wu m

themine beingamm of diminishing rfi u excitnbflity .

It is worth remu king thnt this dermm d nm om

set forth in fwegoing chspten . I fl u m w the

by each tnolecnle ss it passcs on theaccnmflaeed wsve te

m m ding m tm s them in proportion to the heat of

fit to tn nsmit enother wm of moleonhr ohonge.

§ 28. Thst ncrvceand ncrve-centresact only eo long u

m m moss s sm an m n svcns wrws . 78

blood ie propeiled to the parh bothafl’ect the degree of

mtal qm fity ef blood in the body is much diminished, the

great nervons centres m the firat orgsns to feel the change.

of om-ebral action ; and permanent deficiency of blood isaccompanied by debility, which impliesadecreased nervons

w snppb ths hrain with fi'

eeh hlood in plsce of the blood

it eontains. Or if there is chronic feebleness of the heart’sm m n proportionate diminntion of nervons power.

Wh fiiemtnl qnantity of blood isadeqns teand the heartis m t h hd g looal nervons function mqy nill be hinderedby lacalanM resulting fi

-omam mi sm inan nrtery, or

fiom ' hat is celled an embolism—aplngging np of an“ with coagnlatod blood. Thns paralysis is caused byembolin n ol

'

the cerebrsl blood-vessel which mpplies the

highest part ot'

the motor tract.

W m difimaheing nM anerm -cenm is highly

rq idity to the distnrbances it receivcs ; and evolves more

tlfinadinsryamonnts of force, shown in secondary nervous

W ar in mnscular motions, or both. Supposing,

M ths t there is no hyperm iaofanervons cenh'efltWmmfinhsppen that if the heart propels h lood to it withm alu pfi im iteh

'

beroqmotor function wfll he exalted.

” h ym en of the nerm s systemflike variations olsfi sicnoy fioflow like variations of circnlation . A rednction

in fiae qm nfity cf bb od present cansed by constricfion of

M ain s part that is expoeed to oold ; and to them m m erhaps tn beam ibed some of theoompamfive

74 m nau or rerenowcr.

sluggishnesawith whioh the mm cleaot’ the part mspondto

motor impulses. If instead ot' looal lack of blood thene iaretardation or stoppage ot

’

the looal current of btood, thenerves ot

'

the part similarly become inmpacitated inapro

bioching np the central retinal u -tory ; or instance the gu dm ldisappearanoe of irnpressibility in aregion of tho skin that

maely, excess of bloodaround the periphenal nerveofihrea,canses nnusnal encitability of themf A gentie tonch on the

skin in its normal state, eends through the sfl'erent nm etadisturbance so smallas to call forth fi-

em the ccntral organascarcelyany response; bntwhere theakin is highly inflamed,alike tonchafl'ecte them so much that the disturbanoe, whenreh cted fiom the ccntral organs , prodnces aetart of the

whole hody . If in addition to local excess in the qusntityot

'

blood thm isan acceleratedflow of blood,astill grostsrexaltation of local nervons action followe. It isafimiliartem th that, other things remaining the eame, an inflamedpart is made more irritable by anything which inm the

action of the heart.

5 29 . N ervons acn'

on depends notalone on the qnanfityof blood supplied bntalso on its qnality—os the pro portionof the needful elements contained by it.

Little is knownabont vsriations in the conatintution of the blood ;and still lessabont the relations betm n

these and variations of nervons activity. That a bloodgreatly impoverished, “ in dropeieal pemonah hoso tissnca

th ough thewails of the capillaries), ismaceompanied by enervation , is pretty cleargand we can scsroely be wrong insonciuding thst a blood rich in the concn

’

tuents ot’

nervem bswnm rendeu poedhleagm t evolntion of nerve-fom

But there is’

mdireot cvidenoo w ving to cnforce tho ecanty

78

ol'

them '

onsayatun fiil to call thrth the nsm l responaes.bility isaoon produoal ; follo\ved qnickly by arrest of theinferior nervoas fi ncfiom and conseqnmny of all otherfunctions. And these efl'ech afise sfill moremj dly if thm

richnss of

centres , us activity . Yet there is aplethoric state which is not nervous lyactive ; and starvation ,

with its greatly impoverished blood, has aphaseatwhich delirium sets in , in consequence of the unduly rapiddisin tegration of the nerve-centres. Analogous incongruities,

tanglement of the conditions must be borne in mindandallowed for in each M

m om STIMULATION AND NERVOUS nrscmm

§ 32 . Everyagent ca’pable ofaltering the molecular stateofanerve, cansm the nerve to produce theparticular chsnge

nerve is made to work the same kind of efifect by stimuli of

all orders ; or, to speak strictly , it is fonnd that the efi‘

ect is

of the same kind wherever its kind renders itaccessible to

Thas,if sn expoeed end of anerve which goes to a

nmscle is roughly touched, the muscle contracts. If it is

eroded byanalksli oranacid, the muscle contraots . If it

is galvamzedfi hemuscle contracts . If it is suddenly heated,still the muscle contracts. Similarly with a vase-motor

paiphm-al extremityalike ohange in me state of the w

An allied truth is that whetheranerve be irritn tedat thesnd which normally receives the distnrbnnce, or whether itbe irritatt dataomo place hetween thisand the organac tcdupon by ig the efl'eots wronghtarealike— ianature, “M fl' not in degwe. As alrendy eaid, the quantity ot

'

M ast up increascs with the lcngth of the nerve through

which ths impulae is trnnsmitted. But the quolily of thia

80 m om m rsrcnonocz.

chm ge rcmains identical be tire stimnlm appliedat e nesr

point oraremote poin t.This last truth, equally with the first, harmonizes with thesupposition on which we have thus far proceeded. If ths

disturbance that travels along a nerve isawnve of isomerictransformation, the kind of efi

'

ect produced by thewave at

stimulus set it up, or wherevm' it commen ced.

§ 83. N eri e is not capable of continuous stimulation or

onanervc-terminarion or the cut md ofanerrmdom not

produce s persistent efl‘

ect on the connected nerve-centre,a

denly preesed the mnscle will euddenly ccntract ; but maino

'

tenance of the preesure will not canse maintenance ol'

the

contraction. Or if this nerve is made part ofan elecme'

circuit, then , at the momen t of completing the circuit, the

and the subsequent continuance of the current works novisible cfi

'

eot. To keep up muscnh r conb'wfiom it is reqni

site to send through the nerveaquick snccessicn of scpam tedisturbances . If the nerve forms part ot'an electric circuit

in which there isanapparatus for breakingand oompletingtho circuit ; then , at eech completion of the circuit, themuscle contrncts ; snd when thealternate brcaksand cm ~

pistions follow one another very rapidly, the contraction of

the muscle beoomes praotically persistent. This truth is

detnonstrnhle by enperiment onadead fi-og, snd also byexperiment on the living human subject. A man who

grnsps the two mets llic cylinders fiirming tho poles ofa

when the intermittent cm ont is pu sed through hisarma.

33 m m or rsrmower.

a.“ m M “W m mm um m i fi am .m m u m h m

m M M with M sw imof bu t. A

W with M WY “I‘m! prod-e. as M And m 3 alsom m mm m m ; m d nt . M W M i

nmas thewholem onemin dm m M m m the

more sadly sat up. travelled with p oster may . W“ ai

m m m aw d fi h m m m w mW h it etamh vamq imm wan t-n agam

at is.evolved hast hya. copperwire.m E the

flbug“

m y w hsd heu w vbualy n dm d b m m d mm

aim to pal-h of tho whatn ot thatwees favourably .31.f i

Wehm it M EN n h nsrvs.by raised

m agma-mam m al.“ banal-yamm m wnndsd hyahsaths d medallary w ; d i s saw

navoos m m mon m m vons mscm m 88

§ 85 . Adlied with ths fact thatanerve-disturbm e taltea

from centm to psriphsryfis the fact ths t the edbct produced

m h ln p qusntity olasuhstanee callsd pm flm ; and thiasnbm irror- ec ho ed exes-ively eomplex eomposition

— hasamolm le

“ b em u eonductou ot n oleeulsr motion It is inten hle . then.

“ W W W -We h imhedded inasubstance espscially distinW hy bahflity toahsorb ths molemhrmotion disengaged dnfing the” inm athe nerve-fibre.

l b w hiM psn ed om vithm tm me hxpothesisat ouatimssun - hand sfill snrviving in somo mindq that the nervous lom laeitherM am e lwm ei lorceallied to it. In addition tc the manyb eep ing m loradopfing m other hypothu h it may he well to set

W ham m ior reiecting this. The highest rate ot the nervouaM b m n yuds peraeeond. The electric dianharge travelsatfi s tub d M OOO mileaperaecond. The me veloei

‘

ty iathnanss tlyW W t-he other. Thatalaueallied to the sleetrieahould haveavd sd ty ss snstmualy diduaetaeems vsry unfih ly . Again.an slectrio

M m m n lh aource is unsshaustsd snd tham’

reuit unhn hsn.

h aeq m w rent ; hut ths nsrve-eurrent ianot eoutinuous. Hence

“the m el wee iaotakicdallied to the eh ctriq its mods otallianee ia

c dd u yamap etie sotion The hot iathat bnt tor theaoetdsntalW e d GahanL the m pieion that thansrva-ioree is eleoM o or

w m m m m m m m The oouception has,“ Su boptahve hy the diaeovery that sleetrioity iam ted by

“ s labas. But thsanppoaed snpport is wholly imaginary. l i beeansem m m why ths help ot m mmiiying through itaM m h h h tsru d that the nm eh m is eleotrioity s it may inW m heh tsn d that the m c lom h u nsihls m tiabeeam it

M asaiblamotion in muaclsaM it may haaabuh do not tbe

m am m neyw w w w m w r A

had-ni beamay vell

w w w w w Tho truth that hoth molar and

m m m wasnfi cient gsmral juatifleatien tor

M d . “ (hr-c haspeoid ju fifim Direct procl u iatl tw5

don of m which rs not, however, m kficallyas m y be pu ceived when the matterM W J M M m M s-ppasd m h h pm g

ne w 3b . Gon tm d m t flam whg'w m

” pi e- M y termed psrtat m electric M a

m ad M M M W relat im lt tollow thntm m hagm u n g - «m ewM d M m h the”I'M u g

wt ofweM M t.

0' W M W fir w m m 4 rm .andM M ; M l find thatat tho olou cl M W h m ah ‘mW W W-w . W he n”“fi v

esld‘h mh fi

m m m M ham We m d .w

m .‘aM M h. "

‘f -f m M d

f’

r-ff? ‘ M N M M W W M aW

fiischarge along (mt-going nerves, it My ?“ M

less capable of emitting such discharges in 3

stimuli. The qm tity of moleenln mm locimd op in g

non e-cen tre, is measured by the 3 i Quantimy of

“ stable nerve matter ; and decompoattwn w that part. of

m m m m s m 87

u terine m i te : losing their nom s l contrwtfliby fiheyhamm i hm ded wiQ t nd the pn taas we ssy,

moved ; {br if the nerve- tm nk con taining the vase-motor

m inatanfly m tm fi How s nerve-centre may beW hy u n pid m ocssion of modm te sfimnfi m d

, instead of by oneviolent stimulnsand disohnrge,h ehon hy fiiefimihu efiaot of fricfion on the hnmm skim

A eingls modemte m b m seaonly s siight mflu wtion on

in t t snd lenves ths vaso-mobor sppm tns m dy to

not-M with no spjmtent dim innfion of power. Bat swries of mbs is followed by tempomry congestion of tho

M z ifi is some litfis time before the m mowr centre

regmm iu fnll oontvol over them. And if the skin be

relation. W ham mwhioh thoabilitn enm mmotion has been greatly diminished by longm timmed

M af mofion ; m d m ry fired hm e shom by the

u n response he mckes waen t of the whimthsSamoreW impnlso mm he propsgemd to hhe nervm m w

W h ih mm fimh fion d tfi s hflh m dnew

the close of the iast chepwr. It freqnenfly happeng for

s have-centre m ponds io .the demsnds on it hotter than st

W WW ntly nt m ianoe with the foregoing con

M mmcined the same; end in ench csses they hsve not

m ined the esme. There hu heen sn exeltation of theW M or s hml incrm e in the qm tity of hb od, “

88 m nm or m m m .

n moie n pid nfinfion d hhoi or d l offlim When ever]

m u m d n pnh-

gn on fnswr ; und there m nlt giflw

§ 87. Were bife nniform in its m he—wm tm h inl oon

ditions snch thst notions of nn kinds eot e performod u

rendfly st one time u nt cnofi u , nepnir und wm of tn

tion of dny tnd night snails m d bem fion of glm eerm m

The odsptation is m nifisfly dme bo snrfim l of the m

would, other &hings eqnal. he ovm ome hy sn enm y w

competiwc thnb m nid evolve grater energy dnring flwhonrs when light fnd fitates notion , st &he m se of being

Bence thm hm nm arflyesh hlished itaelffimt rhythmidm ietion in nervons wtivity , which we see in sleep nnd

one u s stste of tho noflous m m s in whioh wu to has gotconsiderably in exoeas of repain m d the other u am te in

which wpnir hu made np fior ptevions m ees of m w.

Confining om elves to pm onuwhoee fnnotiom l rhythmi;

M someaixtnen or eight onn of m h ined impressihilivy nnd energy , thm is n diminishedm dinm to napondbo sfimuli ths t fsll on the oyesmarsmnd m fwo oflhehodgat large ;and pm fly this become no pronounced that

90 m nm oc m cnown .

herm l stinmlifi he sppmnch toawnking W h om »

wedhy sn inaensing m dineas to ru pond fio extam lflimnlfiThm ghont the pet iod of qnieeeenoe the nfi tent nervesm in mhjecwo incidm fowes. Them e d tht hodyan tho bedafieots wme of them m d othm m nW byth em eh of the hed-clothes ; degm of hentalitfie nhove

abdowmbw -ct on othen ;and yak othm reeein

lu s and less sems itive to these stimnli, wnk ing mannam o sensifive to them . The stn ins of mm clm nnd l igu

m u whioh dnring the first pu taf the nighb fnflto m

n M Em in the nhm m ol u ternd sfim li (which,hom m ,an never he shsent) thm m tho uimnli fivm the

M M m g w M M m u m(som e time whu the W imm ions will pmdm

M Then -infiegn ud m m do notm mq

W m d thfir mdm lu . Evichenoe of cthiahW b most m m ning. On uwnkening froln

mu ohh g d tho mnwiu d dio whoh h dy ;ahowu¢ mimm undhm d m din

'

dn rgo. But this is nov tho

initinl fnw. Hom e m wfind himseif then m d thm

bo the m bm sasoan se some sfight dismn

hanon hns led to the slighb movements that w eompsny

atm ol the hmd . M m fiflmv -vivid impm sions

M dmheg nnd thm gh the mm les hhsfi set np the

On pursuing the nrgument we msy mndemtend whr the

bem wfl-g and fimN heflagging of the hM Ieeds toagreater inatneu of the w ines, which new as

nnfim mhichhm theopposijzeefl'

eot. Thefpnlsetions onwak.

fi s m oenm-es wifih mere biood in qniolmr gmhes. A

M u tual nid goes emz hhe gws test nervons vigom

m m hy s meshand fithe blood hss heen m ohed

hy bhanbaorbbd ms termls.6& M imfliod by mnot u gm hM u flu

08 m mu or esweom

especially implied by the last session , nervous stirhnisfionand nervous disohsrge hsve s lwsye both specid m d genaelresults . Beynnd the primu

-

y snd definite efieeswronghtnn

s particular part by s particular impreM theré m in

everyease seeondu '

y snd indefin ibeefieohs difl’nsed thm ghmwhole nervons systsm , snd by ‘

ifi throngh ihe bodyat hrgs.

puts in teis tion not efferen t and M s fibres s ions ; but

nections sm msde between it snd other nem oenhes of ths

snms gmde l nd of s higher grade. Fmther, we ssw ehst

when such s nerve-eentre is exeihed throngh sn sflhrem

wholly slong one or more efferen t nerves ; but thst psf h i l

m y chsnges. Ths difl’nsion does noi smp hem—m om

psrts sne m ehed ; snd thns ths distnrbmcs of s singb

m fibre, il st sn m sidm bh neverbersfiss thronghonl

the entire newons system, snd sfi'

eots ell the fu etions eon o

trolled by it. Digging o pin inbo the foot mny esnss s m

vnlsive oontrw tion not of ths leg-mneclee only , bnt of

m y other mnseles thm ghont ths body . At ths ssms

thne it m y d ter ths u w of pnln tiom m d send ww es of

of ths sk in msy be so sfl'eoted fimt s bnrst of pen pin tion

results ; m d thewtions going ou ilmoughont thed imsml ry“ may bs dersnged. Such m erbm fions , which boson s

sho when they m slight. A more vivid iight, esns ingu ibdoes sn-ongu pnhes of chsngs thmngh ths opeis w vs ,

m imptession, bsyond s dimet m pom s in the shspof inaes sed sction fi'om ons or

'

mm oc'gsng eslls fofi h sn

indhect m ponss in tbs ahsps ofi naessed sofis n d ths

organism ss s whole.

94 flat w or m .

of ths nnivu ssl ncrvons dischn gs. Bas ses s fcw ol

nnfim d the gmm l dbch p m th mw b mm s dem ef the taonic contmction. It is so shown .

Fi lling sshsep is smompsnied by mnscnlsr rehn fion :

ssemsd reqnisite to ms infisin it ; yst thst thsro ws s

less. is proved by the sliding down of s limb, ”ths hesd. to s more stsble position.

extensors which, when duly ow n-acted, serve by theirbshnced m h gonism to hoid s limb seesdy, oem to do this

when the genas l nervons disnhu ge is not grest enongh to

hap them snd sll ether mnsciss bn ced np z in defsnltd

snfi eient stimnlns for both, now one set snd now the othw

thils to pnt ths dns chsck on its oppom t. M u ch

by ovm timnlsfion ; fi>r in thsm thiasym tnm msy bs

m mm m m m m gm m m mcontenm is sbis to do this s iter his bu in hl s been exeihsd

by ths mn i dosss ot’

d cohol.

Of oonrss it is not the m scles clone on which this oon

thm csnfi fngl l gnsh is expended. Throngh the inmmsdisfion ot

‘

nerves eom cting ths cerebroapins l system

ul'

it. Reneeths ovcflowof nsrvom energy which, wimhont

W m m m m m 95

Q M . Bfiefly mviswed fmm s somevhst difl’erent sts ndnpoint, tho fi llowmg ure the lesding fiwts which it ooncem s

molem hr chmm ths t chase one another rapidly throughnave-fibres. fle etimulus or dischsrge formed ol such

hu been disturbed ; snd is the ssme no ms tterwhs t sgent

set of wsvcs , whils itself cs need by the deoon ipos ition of

um ts bls m mM is s mesns ot‘

deoompesing other

stronger sets of waves, whim simils rly chase one snother

into mnny snd distsut purts of the nsrvons system.

Thm is s trilile rhythm in these ncrvous stimulstions

u d disclmrgcs—esch form ofrhythm being dueto tbegm ter

or lcn inmpscity inf ection which en action produces. We

dm g n nerve-fibre, en tails on it s momen tsry unfitness to

conveyanother wsve ; snd thst it recovers its fitness on lywhem its lnst molecnlsr motion hss been replseed snd its

portion oi’

gmy ms ttcr in s nerve-centre, which hsving been

disturbed sud partially decomposed has emitted a shock of

it recovers its original ability only as fast as it te-integratesitself t

'

vom the materials brought by the blood. And thenthere comes the further rhythm constituted by the alterna

u the last,and being supplementary to it.

by in do m twgether form the whole of every nervous sct ;

96 m s mu m rstemiwer.

but ths t thm is slwsys snacoompsny ing genm l stimuls

system is every insts nt trsversed by wsves of mole

unw in thst ; snd ench nervons sct thns helps to excite the

vitsl pnocess . The recognition of this fsot discloses s mueh

clom kinship between the functions of the ncrvous systsm

snd the organic functions st lm-ge, thsn sppesrs on ths m

t'

sce. Thongh unlike the pulses of the blood in mm yrespects, these pulses of moleculsr motion sre like them

body ; snd they srs s lso like

wavesare comparatively strong. To which analogics mnstbe eddcd the no lcss stxiking one, tln t the performsncs

its oflce by evu y ps rt of the body, down evm to

smallest, just se much depends on the local gushesnervons energy ss it dcpsnds on the locsl gushes ot

'

blood.

s

h.

93 m am m m cnom .

been due to lsck of fitwords— words fi'ee fiom nnfitassocis

tious. Asalready said, the nervous system can be lmown

only as s etructure that undergoes and initiates eithc

visible changes, or changes that are representable in termsfurnished by the visible world. And thus far we hsvelimited ourselves to generalizing the phenomena which it

N ow, however, we turn to a totally-distinct aspect of oursubject. There lies before ns acM s ot

'

thots sbsolntelywithoutany perceptible or conceivable commun ity of naturewith the fac ts thsthsve occupied us. The trhths hero to bsset down are truths ofwhich the very elements are unknownto physical science. Objective observationand analysis failus ; and subjec tive observation and n ew must supple.men t them.

In other words, we have to treat of nervous phenomenaas phenomena of consciousness . The changes which, re

garded as modes of the N onoE'

go, have been expressed interms ofmofiomhave nom mgarded as modes of ths Ego,to be expressed in terms of feeling. Having coutemph ted

these changes on their outsides, we have to 0011t tthem from their insides. To speak with exactn ess, indeed.it cannot be said thst ws hsve so to contemplate d!”changes ; for this expression implies thst these chm ges ct n

be simultaneously seen by more than one, which is nottrue. Rigorously lim iting the proposition to that which isslone poss ible, it smounts to thin — I have to describs thslaws ot' rels tion between the states of fecling occnrring in

my own consciousness, and the physical affections of thatnervous system which I conclude I possess ;and the readerbu to observe whether in himself there sxist pamllel rclstions between such known states of consciousnessand suchsupposed nervousafi’ections .

not s sceptical, statemen t ; but it is in fsct not roundsboutenough. It does uot bring suficicn tly into view the ro

m . 99

nervous action are correlated. Before proceeding cn thishelicf, let us ohserve how indirect is the psth which lesds to

it.— l . M individual is absolutely incapable of knowing

conclusion ths t thers exist h ings like himselfiand ‘

thst

in dill'aent M W m nfidembly), by no means

ho hn bimself s nervous system nand he hss no direct

aidence in tbe one csw any mom thm in the othen thatnervons excitstions are the csuses d feelings. Experi

m thcir proofs sre mostly indirect. The eq mriments

which y ield them sre usually msde on bsings o f snotherandmuch inferior od or. The contractions of muscles and

convulsive movemen ts,and sometimes the sounds, made by

fun ds—thesem thephenomenat’rom whieh it is int‘csm d thst

lea m om er m m m .

tbe u pem o ef unbenlthy elooeneas ; otberwisoflw h genof tbe compositon eense to hy bold ofi nnd m ipuhta,

defect of blood in n pnrt eanses defective oensibility of th t

pu t ; but nflpersonahevo immedhts experim d m

s purt of the skin eupplied witb the ordinc y m ount d

blood. Speoinl orgnns of'

toncb sbow us well tho inm d

tnining tbe bulbs of the smnflbairsaattemd oy er tbe ekb ,

the otber senses,afamilinr one is the intolemnoe of ligbt

thot goes nlong witb infinmmntion of tbe eyeu. m m

it exhibits tbo efiect dne to increu ed qm fity of w

bo un dewben tnkingahot botb. Let tbe wnter be l bumo

bloodi es t Aflor remnining quiet for n timeuntil equnlly beoted oll om , stond up nud rub one porfimof tbn body witb p flesh-brusb until it is red. Pom

o fiwmomenad lin downagoin in tbe wnm . It willM bo puodved thnt to tbe mddened pu t tbewuter neem

M degroo of feeling is nflm ted by qud ity of blood u

wollaaby quantityfin n trutb not u nily disoorned vithin tbo

‘ M M m M flfi m nod o -m th t fio m vhbh

M W t w vu d m h. V'

M biefinn mW o m w v d M W d M ; M thi- b

M M H M h Q M W J M M M

u nto-un m et . 103

experienom cl enclxindir ideelfifattention is limited to tboso

bo idtmtified’

withprecis ion ; md they arise soalowly tbet tbe01m .

lignity , so ns to bting unt tl1eir coutmste cbu ly . Bot by

geto pmof of tbe oonoeetioo between ies qunlity nnd tbe

genesic d fiefling. The efl’eets of stimnlents on eonsei

nem m mootly traeed in fixe intemdfiention of tboee in

lemonybmm w ings with whicb we aball deel premolly ; bot tbey mny eleo sometimee be trnoed in tbe

inlens ifiu tioo of the externally - initialed feelings . In

m der tbo fiflnenoo of opium , mueic tbet m pmvionalyanaxjoyed m y be grestly enjoyed ; md it ieawelLknownm olt of lmsbish to give nn exoessive vividness to tbo

ndded to tbe blood, render oenfionoy less vivid, is shown

M ines tbnt dimin ish tbe nmoontaof painfblconsciousness mused by irritntions at tbe pm

'iphery of

W er tbe geneoiaof feelings by tbe ncfions tbet usm

ully gmeroto tbem. Tbm efieete eo oaneed, belp ns to

m dorstm d tbo stupor pmdooed by tbem tumlam tbetiee,

‘

m degree of k elmg’

m determined by m intionn in the

of l‘

§ 43 . N ow lbnt we bzve ooted bow feel'

mgs nnd newous

u y go on tooollnte tbem in deteil. Lot us begin by distlun

104 m om m m esom

M mgs’

from tboee wbioll m not. Fog ns we noled in

m m pm m h ner fiom to bonwiom w i m d odm

Clflei‘ u noug tbe nervom ebnnges tbst hsve no idmfifi

q mpd befie h tbe mng go on witbon t oenu tiom ; nnd em

ings. Simflnrly wiflxlbe locd w glio endfibru of tbe bag .

Od inozily there is no oonsoionsness of tln hw t’s notion ;

md m wbm tbe mlmfiom m vm me modxfimof m oiom m do not

‘

u'

u e fim lbo m d tlw bw flo

nerm mussd by tbo bounds of lbe lwwt ngnim tadjm t

Under md inwy ooodifiom lbeoe m ulm tho dinm d

tbm gb wbumu in u blu h, gm t dflnm ion of lhewh o bm pmdm i fie m m do om of lboir nefiou,”w m nn do nm ofi l iudboollyflhmugb lbs loal cbm pin fi s qm fity of blood nnd lbe oom eqoent eflsol ou lbe

when the essential nervous ch op take ph oo ; no i

mved by lbo fnot tbnt wbenaom leu’

oo of the spian!oord whicb h e nu il jomd ils bwu m hu cul ofi oom

m m m m w m m m ww

106 m nl u or m cs om .

pied witb otber feelings . Still better is tbo illnstu tion

furnished by spoocb. Escb mnsculn edjnslment of tbo

vocal orgnns nnd cecb nrticnleto m nd m dm h m in

of tbe otber : witnm tbe not nnfrequont verbal mim kuunconsciously mnde in tbe heot of discnssion . N ow fnctn of

this k ind , countlese h nomber and of mnuy m

snob nervous cbnngu only, ns nre brougbt to tbo genn nl

M y in fife mob inwior gm gliom or clnsm aoo

opemnng'

mfen et’

p ng lh is imperfectly orgsmoed,’

nud lln

if tbm wmm m it n disturbmm tbe gmb ol‘

molecohc

oommissom l and M t fibres, sdeqnete channels 0!

em pe will pu t ol'

it escnpe nlong n cenn'ipetd fibro to

n higber centrmso nwub uing n feoling . And it will mnnl

fondy hopm tbst tbeappmwb to m tomntic wtion of tbo

lower oentro, will be an nppronoh to n ttt te in wbich

the fibeu ted molwnhr mofiombn ing in tlm efierent fibm

it bc forosd h to om h ipet end will so nwflmn litflocr no feeling. It is . oorolhry from this interp o lation.

bo oll gn dafiom in tbo reh live nmonnts of tbe dbm b

ancec whicb tnke tbeir ooum nloog centtipolnl fibm . Ii

obk l‘

y follom toO, thot in odult liflo n nervoun nctm'

nomad“ an il in M g or wmk j am' if thm oomu

b t finisbed gunglion oonstm oted u described, n feeble

dhtnrbuncei tbefwbole of tbe m ll

when -re contemplate feeling as occupying time. A nub

jecfive stote bwom m gnicvnble m m cmonly when it bes

m’

of M otberm it is not known es pnesent. This

pomed ont rmpwfinn ons w fiem ns wellas witb the

W M tbnt tims is taken in tbe tx-snsit of n

m m is not to the pc in t ; for this trnnsit hns no

tbe ch nge set np in s nerve-centre must teke time, m

olfiecfively n cbonge in s u periornerve-ceo tre is subjectively

o d the duration of it under the one u pect

” m athe dm-stion of it under the other.

18

M m ed by tbe lmxgthened sensation produced by am defi te bbw on tlie skin,

°

or by tbs t which follom dip

M y opflied f tor tbough in snob cnses the external

ncfion of tbe m ifing ngmcy is h iefi tbe locsl ohm ges it

C h m lmfiug some time, oontinne for some time to dis.

lnrb ll ie locol nerve-fibm gBut good evidence is supplied

To quote the words of

of ligbtning is, practically,n of light produced by tbnt

of n sm nd ; wbenoe it followmfi et if m y two luminou

MW from one nnother. For tbiu renson u

u pidly by tbe bnni sppeers ns acircle of fim ; ood lhe

spokes of n conch-wheel nt speedam not sepnn lely visibh ,

bul only nppear es s nort of opocity , or film, witl1in tb lim

w ob tw d wm fing M ebon M ibod, “will be obvious tlmt n sts te in w

'

tbe locnl or

vei d eg m d throngb lhem witb efiereol M bo

o m te in wbich the molecnh r mofion liberetod by un in

lbere wm tbaetm'e bean nppmcisble time dm-ing which

tbe gnsb of moleculnr motion, following lbe completelyo

w m m m n fifly ; u d eo pefiod dm ing

win k -bridged. Tbo concmnitt nt n bjectivs m le will

thewfiuo bo m duod m by lbo mme cbw go lbd

llO m m or ssrm wa

bility ; bot s long intervnl mnst eh poo befm the odoor

h ajoyed ss heenly ns at first. This qoiek exhou tb n,

Very soon tbese become mncb less perceptible ; snd to

moee living in it s stenoh givee scu-d y nny m noy

tions rm'ely sbow ns tbis m is tion in s ms rleed degm ;

being, ns tbey commonly u e , too sbort to lenve mneb

ofmusculu tensiom is due to nn nction on lbe ncrm thot

is mainteined fiir s considereble time ; bot tl ie nctioos to

ure to be expected only in epecinl cases ; and in these we

find them . The beng ol’

s csnnon is deccribed ns deoferfingby thooe wboare clcee to the cannon when it is fieed, be~csuse they sre rendered for s time pu tinlly denf to ordio

nary oonnds. on m w m u mm m m

for houm ; ond this dulness of hw ing beoomm pam nent in thom who sre permsnenlly oocopied in euch

sec sopplied by the feelings we mceive from light. W ee

m two clnssee of them z those sbo' ing us s m risble eem i

bifity to ligbt in gm nl, us coutlu led witl1dsrknem ; nod

Q iooc ohowing us n n risbleaenm'

bility to eech kind of lighl-ench colonr. Under the one hesd the render msy first bo

reminded of the experience thst cn going out of bm d sun

ohine into n dimlyfi gbted place, “ is impocsible to discernthe m ding objoclu z only d ter s time do lhey bocomo

M ohainstend of ucting on the retiw u wboles , we

w hom . 111

objoot prem ting soong contm sts of light snd dsrk psrts,

of dw obn in which the light end dsrk psrts sre re

versed. fle intu pretetion cf this fect is thst tbose por

fiom of mch mfim on whieh sm ng hght hsd fellem to

gsfi er with the m swering portions of the optic cen tres,

feeling ths n the portions cn which focble light hsd fallen ;m d hw m wben they nre together expm d to the ssme

fecblo light, the unexhsnsted pnrts eppreoiete it more then

the exhausted parts, and a negative image results. The

u s m fnoe of bright rei s n ndjscen t surfnce of white

n emato hs ve s g 'eenisb tint. The expls nation is obvious .

M om elements chs nged by the reys which prodnce

M tbe red n ys ocntnined in the white light csuse

md yellow reys ceusing their nsnsl eil'

ects, end therefore

This deereaee in the msceptibility to e feeling of eny

kind. which immedistely follows s feeling of ths t kind,

landl o constent dea-eess . It is s decreme ths t vnries

grenlly in degree ; and from its vsrisfion we mey derive

or grcat wccnding to the grent or smnll constitutions l

l ppl'ecisble time when the vital activities are highaod h slafor s time thst becomes lomger and lcnger

n tl ie vilnl nctivitiee fleg. Abundnut proof ol'

this is

"8 m m or m ceewsr.

fm-nished by the negstin imagi deeuibd . In

yonlb thcse m scu oely if st nll to be obm ved z only

dnoed, ns by looking st the 81m, is the negofivo imsge

in debflitewd pem m negnfivo imsgu d wdhm y oiflm

chapter. We thm snw tbot the excitm t ol'

n nm

centm to s stnte ol’

equsl snsceptibility cm be eflectsdonly by repeir. Hencs the retmn of fitnm lor wln t is

in qnich iem nccording lo the rnte ol'

n pnir. t o llle

will be but momentu -

y ; nnd, nnlees tbe senn tioo bos been

ficn of the fimneg the disnbilily v ill bm e m bed nnd

‘ M a w m n m m M it ; -ndfi e

M M ha iflm m m bm m d nflq - m d

h oll y-n one. I m oblg bom . to givo pm nl tu tb o¢ h tbc oon

fi l ly .

.

Wh M M ym d m n d w-n b aya m h whhb l m hwm bl-lwmWo ng -fin iu n nd in 'hhb h pud n d il m To m li n

lovinbh ; u d l woll m ber his n n nh lbs l l nbould bq in to mo

n i b -p al m “ . Ro m an . l u v s-o h m ;

u m xm m m m u w u eu d m

Il l m nm or rsmnomer.

§ 46 . Another clses of correleticns dems ods s pnseing

M it wm snfi cs to trsce briefly the concoufitnnce oi

Certain inferior dirigo-motor ncts m nnconscionn but

there goes n senss tion moreor lees definite. This is not n sen

by ench bodily motion ; bnl it is s sensation direetly proM eithm-by the dischs rge itself or by the stoto of tbe

muscle or muscles excitsd. It is most clec ly dislingnisbsd

leg or orxnis held out nt right nngles to tbe body .

lees nnmemns nsare lbe m rieties of qnnlity smong thm ,

M to n m tnin extent mcognine the sepsm ieeling be

which finger hu been bw t by the dischn -

ge sent to its

dexor mnsolee ; nnd, by the pnrtioulu combinntion of feel

h p m mpm yh g m m mflsd ng d s hmb ms gim

W is p -ment h com cionsness withont eid fiom tho

eyes or hsnds. I n y we cun to n certnmextent mcognim

M otown. Il is s ourions fiot ths t vhm n limb hn been

b ld for sm e fim in m y podfiommpec'

n lly if tho pod tlon

h one involving bnt little slrnin , lbe robjectln M om

m e tro n om e. 115

d otsd fi thn m mm diechu ge to its mmcleg becomes so

indefiniu filn the ottitnde of the hmb is m knom if there

does not hsppen to be s recollecfion of it.

Beddcs the connection between whs twe know objeotivelym n paficuhrmowrw g end snbjectivelyas s pnrticulsr feeling ol

'

mnecnh tension , them is s connection between the

musculsr sys tem, nnd e eerts in difl’used feeling oi’

which it

thele goes n generel nem ns discherge, we sew in the lnet

chapter ; m d here ws iecnr to the rels tion only to observe

by pnttiog the foot into ecnlding wm , does not leed onlyto lhe tnneonlsr oontmctions end xnnscnlsr fieclings which

nccompnny the mdden withdmwnl of the leg, but nlso to

conM ctions of countless other muscles throughout the

body , m d s fieeling called s shock or stsrt.

sooompony epsciul s nd geneml dischm'

ges to the muscles ,

einble when it is intsnse, snd probsbly in no cese m uting ;

tw en,’

i ndeed,’

the fhehngs ths t go nlong with dischnrges

into the m motor snd symps thetic nerves, ere the pre

domim t ones ; ss instnnoe the th1i ll difl'

nsed through the

body by corto in acute crcaking sounds ss id to “set the

M ou ndgo f or the nsnsee prodnoed by perticnlnr kinds

116 m ome nt u m .

u p d tb m u u eqfirnlent d ibe otbm in fiw

m u m regu d so mneh hent m tbe equin lm t d’

eo

fivo w ; bot if m nfi rn nfivo m m i to be gim°

o

M an ne d -o m bm u m i om objeefiu

jeefivo m tu u dy h hfi cenes lo hn e lhem lnter in lfle;M am m u am m m d

lifi s oh ngo mt up in m fi u oo l nm m y m se n

nttonlion is fi'eo or oocopied ; we nholl eee ths t mo cono

are quantitatively related it can be onb within the

m limits implied by lhe complu conditiom . If be

tween s paely volnntu -

y nol u d s purely m tom tio w l

“O

m gn dnfioos—iifi nt lhe one m fecl

'

mg is n

on

dfi tbe ether extrm n,

m o ve m e lhst whfl io

W M M W ol'

cold or bott om so

thmughont fi e body , tbongh im ; ctns l tempu ntm hu

remained unaltaed. As in nny cnse of this kind tho toh l

nervons chsnge cnnnot hsve been lhe sm eas if tbe rkin

hud fillen or risen in temperotum to tho degm mdinn ilymqnhod w p oduw th k ehnfi we m ot my thnt lbm

h s qnmth five eqnitflm betwm lbe m omaum u

(18 m nm or m ell ow .

nfise h difierent enlm d wmem is sm ly wwitboot compsring the m ounts of the incideot forces ;

to one u ther th n to the other zthe

thnt it is not uivnleot to either.

To underrtnnd the n nl rels tiono

recall certain of the conclusions

ticn we hsve seen to be lhfi lho

m oo-surmount . 119

nervo ; it is mnch more mnltiplied in tbe first gsnglion

m m mm further in travers ing the centripets l

und it is once more multiplied, probobly in n fur grcuter

dogm in the con trsctile subM M Of the excited muscles .

aspect of this distnrbs nce st one of its intermediste stsges ,

am bo o qum titntive equivnlent neithsr of the initinl nervous

the mnlliplics tion vnries in degree, being much greeter in

lbs orgsns of the higher senses thsn in those of the lower,

il follows ths t the mtio between the smount of feeling nnd

tbe umount of in itiul cbnnge is fm' fi'om constent ; snd the

between the nmount of feeling nnd the smount of terminul

ch ugg oocording s s one or other muscle or set of mnscles

is omde to sct.

Hov then cen there be nny quantitative relstion , it will

be nched. U there is no equivs len ce between u disturbs nce

mt up nt lhe pa'iphery nnd the prodnced feeling ,and no

equivalence between the produced feeling and the motorm an t lollows— if the feeling does not even bm

tbo m ne rstio to either the in itiul or the terminel nervous

fi es-e be ? The reply is simple. There is s quantitativereh l ioo between nervons chnnge nnd fieling when nll other

thing-W in the ssme 3 und there isaqus ntitstivc rels tion

W een feelingand resulting contraction when all otherthings m us iu the eeme. Supposing every condition to

l given nerve to u given centre, will evoke s £eeling thatincreases end dm eses in something like the ssme pro

potl iou ss tbe stimulus increeses nnd decreaseo; nnd, eoppoeing n gim muscle to be conm cted, then the nmount

of fi eontrnction will bm s tolerably constm t rstio to

[20 m m w rsvm owor .

tbs feeling of efl'ort that uccompen ies the conmction ol

by numbers . IL coming throoghagivenaEemnt ncr-vo,

n disturbm ce repreeented by l generaleoafeeling repee

sented by 5, then disturbance 2 will generate feeling lo.

and disturbance S feeling 2 5 ; nnd if, ucting through s

60, feeling 10will result in musculu tension 120. But te

nerves nnd every set of eiferent nen es. If we soy thut

l to fi represents the mtio of disturbamce to fbeling in tho

sense oi'

lonch, then t0 1epreeent it in the sense of hm ing

l to l ,000; and similarly with the ratios thmughoot tbemotor appamtus, sccording as the muscles are lsrge or

In brief, then , the quantitative correlation of feeling

terious way ,an objective change or nervousactiomcauseo ssulnectuvs chnnge or feeling, there eatists aqusntitdtivoeqmvnlence between the two : the cmonnt ol

'

sensntion i

proportionate to the amount of mo lecular m m

thsre is no fixed, or evenappron ms te'

, quant1tnhve°

relohoo'

between this umouut of moleculsr trm sfermation in tho

causing it, or the disturbance oi‘

the motorapparatus wbich

§ 48. T’he leelings called sen ss tions havealoue been con

ridered thus fnr ; leaving out cl view the feelings dis

tingnishedas ernotions. Mueh lees definiteas they u o.

und uot copable of bemg madeat wfll we objech of ob

l22 m nun or Perenosoor.

Thatan emotion , likeasenm tion, lem es behind itatem

by amomentary cause ls sto longer than n sensation pro

foralike emotion lnst longer ths n the pnrtial inoapacityforalike sensation . Passions ofall kinds come in gushso

is true ; but they sre never un iform thmughout houn

and days. Be it in gfiefi cr joy , or tenderneas, thero isalways asuccessiom of rises and falls of intemsity—cparoxynm of violcmt feeling withan interval of fseling lcmviolent, followed by another paroxysm. And then , shor e

comes acahn—aperiod during whioh the wam of

ceries of stronger waves . As in the case of the senmtions soin the case of the emotions , this follows from the fact tbnt

feeling, involves waste of the nervous structures concerned.

The cen tres whicham the seats of emotious undergo dis

integration in the gem eis of emotions ; and, other things

remaining cqual, thereupon become less cspablo of genera

things remaining equsl, beoause the rise of an emotion

brings blood to the'

parts implicated, and so long as the

aflux is increns ing the intensity of the emotion may iscrease, notw ithstanding the waste that hus tnken plnoe ;

but the several conditions on which activity depends bm g

ably follows each gush of emotion .

Tbat daily rises and falls of stmogth, oonsequm t

on ds ily periodicitieo of wasts and repair, occur in tho

sm ugmt em itements towards the close of the day, aresubject toan sbnorms l periodicity . But those whoee lives

ds y ageneral joycusness and emotional vivacity greaterthan they do towards its close, when spproaching sleepi

nem is shown by s flagging interest in the things and

also like the simple feelings thatare peripherally initiated,

inds sd their general discbarges are the more conspicuous

locnl movemw l z unless vsry strong its efi ot on the oegnn.

the more obvious obaages it works in the museles of the

throughout the bodyat large. The mepim the m’

roulaficn, lbe digeotion , s s wellas theattitudes snd movements,are inflnenced by it even when moders te ; and everyone

foundly disturb the wbols system .

§ 49 . N otbing hs s yet been said about the most com

lhs feelings . Evmy feeling, besides its minor variations of

M ushy, exists under two eno ugh-contrasted degrees of

intensity. There is avivid form of it which we callanactns l fseling,and there isafain t form 0f it which we callun idenl feeling . t t is the natnre of this difl'erenoeasinterpreted fiom 0ur preeent stand-poin t l

w ds ofafienentaud efierent nerves, these have connec

124 m m os ssmsow s r.

enoe set up by an alfemnt nerve in its gsnglion , “

of it, conveyed through centri petal and commission!

noses. And every centre, liableas it is to be stronglydisturbcd through its eflbrent or mntripetal m is linble

also to be feebly disturbed by these reverberaticns arriving

of the libsro-motor elements comm ing those higber csntn s

in which nervous ohanges become chsngss of consciom ?

and is ths sest of what we callamal feeling ; but whm i t

(or with itself unda- the psevious ccndition)agenerstor ofbut httle moleouhr m fiomw d

'

m the seat of that thint

vivid states of consciousness which we knowas eensatious,

Th t the conn-ast of intensity between the efl'ecte ol

dhect m d mdiwct u d lafim thm gh it bolds genaony,with this mlerpretenou.

’

For, ou the one hnnd, adxreot’

m e v tbcble ; while, on we otber haud,thm gb s conmnrenm of diflused distnrbnnm nn hd

‘

noot

126 m nm or rsreuower.

further mw tbnt the restoration of s nerve-mt o lls M

of integrity, is not only the filling up of its quanh1m ol d0~

compassbls mstler, but is she the replacing of moleoulm

tion of'acompamtivelyv unstnble state. And we saw how,

afterapedod d pmfom d wpm tbem thus srises acondition of thenerve—centres such thstvay slight stimnli cam

nerve-cen treand esoh of its componsnt pnrts . In propor

tionas s ny part ofanerve-centre hs s been foralong timeuunsed—én proportion , that is,as repair of it has gone on

cisble wsste it must be brought to astats of more thn

wi th un othu parm it is exposed to these reverbemfions

whicb fiom inetant to instant fill the nm ons system . Its

m yield up moh cuhr motiom snd to becorne tbe mnt of

the I l'

l'

l'

l

te the ideal feeling this same condifion mnu enteilagm t

strength of it ; and so while tbe instability oonfinnss, s

up, is somewhat m ted by them, it follows thnt d ter theyhave gone on foraconddm ble period the instability of tbe

centre will be dimin ished zit will no longsr bo so su ily de

be producsd.

resl fielings to n hich they cou espond hnve not beon ox

perimood forsoms time. Theyare then liable to be excited

m on omer.

by m ious of the indh-ect dicturbancss refieoted trom partto part of the nervous eys tem . Theyvare usnally vividandpers ieturt in proportion to the previous pm

'iod of rest

in lhe m ks of Profecsor Bain ou The Sm es and the

M M W W M the Wi ll ; in which heban gin n an elaborateaccount of the connection between

“ W haling s ixnple or compleg and its m ious

mood dhs rsader wbo wishes to trsce out theec minor cor

mil lions . As date far the present treatiee, the only factsnesdt

’

ul to be m -iod with us are those set forth in the

person in no other plnce than his own consciousness . Thatfusib gs soist in the world bsyond consciousness , isabeliet'

by ouy individoal m pmducts of theaction of lds own

128 m em os sem inar.

nervous systm whioh he hu never sem and on which becan try no experiments, is abelief only to be errivod ut

throughafurther chs in of ressoning. N evertheless , the

not permanen tly— its validity is shown by lsading us to

We hsve seen thatas nervous acnon'

occupies° apprm hb

’

time, so feeling ocotmiesappreciable time. We have sem

ing ,as eaoh nervous action leavesapartis l incapaeity foralike nervous ectm We h m t M W’

equal, the intensih’es of feelings vary as the intensifies olthe com lative nervons actions . We havs seen that tbs

correspofi s to the difl'erence between tbe vivid feelings

we call realand the faint feelingawe call idsal. And we

phenomenain the forms of fesling we distinguisbas desirm .

Thus, impossiblc as it is to get immediete proof tbatfeelingand nervous acfionam the inner m d outer fiwes ol

the same chauge, yet tbe hypothesis thst they m ro

harmonises withall the observed facts ;and,as elsewbsre

shownW Pr

af oomplste oongruityamong onr experiem

130 m ow er rsrcsowor.

of nntriment or the ciroulation of tbe blood. W

they hsve left out that which is tacitly oravowedly containsdin every proposition of Psychology .

truths belonging to Psychology properare to be found

in the lsst chapter. Dealingas the h st chnptsr doos witb

nm sssrfly becomemby moludingapsychical elemenmapaflof psychical science. T

‘o this the rejoinder is that, though

it can scarcely be excludedabsolutely fmm the body of lhis

sdm eq et it does uot strictly fallwithin ths tbody . E sthe

neither to the objective world nor the snbjecfive world ; bmtekingaterm fxom each, occupiss imelfwith the cormlationof the two. It may withas much propdety be iuclndsdin the domain of physical ecienceas in the domain ot

'

pag.

chical science ; and must be left whe1o it1t ,sh nds as the

the snrpn se'

pmduced by theasscrfion that was to be jusnp

'

lied. T'o clesr up the confusion, we must examino moce

relation of phenomsuaocmn-rmg within the limits of tbs

organism. The mbject-matter hss besn the character of

astructure ; or the e£ ectwhichadistm'bance set up in one

place has in causing motion inanother ; or the conneauonbetw tbc physim l stats of the whole orapart of tha

m scors or "1030106 2 . 131

M and some general or local nervous proceu ; or

the varhble intsnsity of an action in anerve-centre ss

determinsd byapreoeding likeaction ; or the interdepen~

direotsd exclnsively to co-existencesandaequences ofwhichtho body alone is the sphera. Distinct or tac it

the organim has been rd em d to in general terms, or, forillnshalion’emh this or fi e otherkmd of distnrbmg agent

am ething by whichan orgauio ohange was set up ; not

bem se this something hsd to be ineluded in the propos i

tiouafldom which in every caee fm'muletedan internaln h lion cnly . The cntsnflement of phenomenn is sochfihat

thme other phenomema, it does not follow thatthe seience to which they psrtain forms part of the science

wilh whioh weans spscis lly occupied. For instauoe, it isimpossible to dusm

'ibe, or think of, achemical experiment

m d mixtme of liqnids, theascsnt of bubbles of disengagedM anama-meme ; but it is not thsmfore held

has hem n'

mply incidsntal to the study ci'

internal co

N ov m lM gas we s tate tacts of whiohall the m -ms lie

wilhin tbe orgm im , onr factsare morphological or pby

du relstion with whicb vears dealing is mat betweena7

188 m om m rsrcnmm r.

nervom ohsngeandafecling, it is still notapsychologieslrelation ao longas the feeling is regudod merely as cono

the mnn who demonstrates by dissection the erticnlations dthebom s m the m whmbyalphysmom h dofinmthe vm-

ying motions of the hsu hare respectively studyingmorphologyand physiology ; so certainly is the msn who

function ,astudent of these same sn'

ences, if he considen

on which it rests, is, that esch of its propositions taloesaocount both of the connected internal phenomensand of ths

connected externalphenomenatowhich they refsr. Inapby

jeot of thought ; but inapsychological propositionan outsr

portsncewitharelafion in the orgsnism. The thing con

templated is nowatotally difl’erent thing. It is not the

connection between the intsrnal phenomena, nor is it fi econnection between the external phenomens ; but il m mconnection bstwm thsse hoo eonnections . A psyohologicalof which one con cerns thc subjectand the other conom s

the objeot ; and mnnot be expreased withoot the four term

be bost explnined by l ymbols. Suppose that A nnd B m

colourand taste ofafruit ; then , so longas we contm platetheir

“

relatwn'

by itself, orasassociated'

with other extm l

we are occupisd witb aportion of phyaialadones. N ow supposs thatam d bm the ecnsations pwducsd in ths orgauism by this p culisr ligbt which the fruit

13 3 mu 07 M Y.

m d eabellim

chm gee whioh tho word Geolog ,as now nsed, recognim

bnt moitlyflsaapecinlized part of this spedd AM my ;

Earth’s molar mofiom the efl’eots of ooncinuous dem in

its intemal molecnlm'motion ,and the cfiects of the molecnlumobiommdiazed fiom the Sun . Biology isaspech lised pu tof Geogeny, dealing with p oolin g

-m ates of pecnlin

chemical compounds {011110d M ’s mperficfil do»

cholog isaepedafin d porbof Bidm , .HM in ifi applk

in their conveme with tho epecial objcohs, en im te cnd ins

ed enoe inclnding iq fails in every m e to diflerenfiafie itabsolutely ; becansc tho inm dncfion of tho addifionflfiotors is gmdtml. It iaeo not with the Comneee Scieneos

n fimb fight eeem ahuply dm m md g m fin im h nco,

thadish'ibufion of m bter m d motim oonsidm d cpnfl

in cludc in itainqnirice d l fim molecnlu intcgn fiou m d

didntcgu fim s mm d by dw ons of wmpm m —fi o

m m rsm owor. 189

flao m deg m caflohemicd g u is shm by their chm ged

M icr tEB md eoulee of omor subM Oes, “ by their

h m h m o the moieouies ooncem ed m d l of one kind ?

U n wh t m we to my of isomefic trm zformafions, whichd l clm istan cognise ns of essenfially the same mmre fh thcsq molecnhee of diflerent kinds m oonm ed. And

molecules instead of bomogeneons onos , we put them in tho

W W Iy to the rc-dim ibnfion thoy m dergo

compara‘

ifioelf wwu ds thc m tas fiwagh it wereasimplcmolecule ; tlmt nofiling more tnkes plaoe thm are-groupingol thcce nnchs nged molcoulee ; m d thob there is thns m

W W W : tx-nly cflzemioal change—unicn

oc dhunioflof nnliko moleefiles. The mpiy is plaus ible, butit is eu ilr dizyooed oil For there m h-ansformotiom cf

M o m m ? Then we must relegate to tbc

doun in of Phyaics tlmt isomefx-ism which is not nccompaniedby los or gl i

’

n of wm , m d mclndo in the dcmnin ob e

it denls. And the conm st hence m nlth g is too d rongly

In this wny it is, then, thst the conspicr.onam oo

preper ; nlthough in Biology proper these fwtm-s mnhs nn

occas ional nppeu -m ce. fi e oontmst belrween ths tW in no

more dostmyed by snch oommnnity ns exim , than is thocontmst betwoen nightand dny dsshoyed by the oocnm

of n dswn which belongs ns mnch to one u to the ofller.

§ 56 .

While, nnder its objecfive nspeot, Pnycholcgy is to be ob n d

ss one of the conm te sciences which snowsdvely dsm

in soopeas they inm nse in speciality ; under its m bjccfin

M Psychology is n tots lly nniqns scéenco,'

m d u e nbsolnhely inw m sibls to m y but the pom d

M oonsciom m ibrm nn existence chnt hu no phcc

ham ledns byavery indirect seriee of inferencee 41) to ths

of seeing, nnd even oi itnngining , how tho wo m reh fied.

mother things ; nnd from thc soienoe which discom by in

nospection ths hws of this wmething , thm is no passngoby tn nmtionnl soeps to ths sd enoes which discom tho lnws

of these other things.

Following M Comse, therc nre n few who M tM n

142 m m s or m csowor.

§ 57. So m dsn tm dh g i b swpmwe m now pmpu cd b

enber on the stndy d'

l’syohology pwpet . Tho forcgoing

eions into which the entire snbjecc fitlls .

whob'

difi rene fi'

om the nsus l one. And tho trnths inn

m d fi tho-phys iology set down in tho fomgoing ohnmWo will next pass to ObjectivePsyohology ; ofwhioh bhrco

kingdom , the pmgress in thcse perpecnnl ndjnstmenes o!

W innet wfiom to specid mm m g which wm

so fnras msy be, thc element of conscionsness. In tho

formuhfing it in terms thnt imply conseionm ess. And inthe third, or Phyuicnl Synthesis ,an endeovonr will be mnde

mahow how, hy nn nlfimatc pfinciplo of nervons ncfim ,

this prom s is u pfimble ss pnn of flvclntion in genm l.

Tu ning then bo t jeofic eychology , the nntm'es cf

M onk modes of oonscionsnees , “ m orh ined hy in

And ysis. Anathem under ths hcd of Genanl Annlyt is;wo will enher npon fihe nlfim xc qncsfion of the mhfion

Two rm d fi ng divfi m wm h dm me ono to n

ol Hnmnachology on which SOciology m st bc hn-ed.

146 m m cncs s or rsrcsmoet .

tion . It will be most ccnvenient to deal fitst with the lu tof them .

§ 59. To meetall imaginable possibilities, let ns setm

the only things known m efi snand that Mind is mex-ely oname forthe snm of them. In this case, the expression “

snbo

stanoe of Mind ” can hawe no mean ing, nn less nsapplicdto esch orany impression or idcaindividnally . t nce it

amonn ts to the oonclnm’

on thatthene is no snbstsnce efmnd

in the sense implied ; or,at sny rcte, thstwehm no evidenco

be known .

Conn-ariwise, let ns yield to the necessity of regardingimpmssions and ideas as foflns m modes ofacontinu llybexisting something. Failiflg in every efl’ort to brcak the

series of impressions and ideas in two, we m pm nted

fi-cm thinking of them as separate er istences. While each

holds impressions nnd ideas together is nevew nbsent ;and its nnoeasing pm ence necessitstes , or indeed ccn~

sh'

tt he notion of oontinnons existence or reclity .

Existence means nothing more than pen istence zandhcnoe in Mind thst which persists in spite of nll

nnd maintains the nnity of tho aggrcgs te in

defiance of all attempts to divide it, is that of whichexistence in the fnll sense oi the word mnst bc

that which we mnst postnh teas the snbstnnce of flind inm mdistinfi on to the vu '

ying iorms itassnmea. Em iloo, the impossih ility of knowing the snhstsnce of Mind ismanifest. By the definition , it is that which nnders

goes the modification prodnoing astate of l l ind. 00nsequenfly, ii ev stsw of Mind fi wme modificafion d

m m eu s cx or xmn. 147

this n hsh nce of l fhxi thers ean be no stnte of mind in

ncfing npon it. To see that this is nndeniable we hnve bntto glnnco ot the three intelligible propositions which onn

alone be fi'amod reswctiug the nltimate character of cogui

unchanged ; then ,as in theahsence ot'

change there is no

M om m thm mn he no knowledge Snppocetherefol

to its onteccdont ; then , the change heing wholly indem mi ‘o

blislunsnt in thought of determinate relations. Supposelastly, that the sncceeding something hasadeterminaterelation to ths twhich mscedes in then the implicaticn isthatthe twoare linked fif theyare not,any other thing maycqnnlly well follow) ;and tc think ofaspecial thing (existM u finbed with o special othing (abont to exist) is to

think ol the secondas havingaspeciality msnlting fi-

om the

cc-cpantion of the first snd something else. 80 that be the

ach‘vity existing heyond the Mind, or be it n psst state of

Hind itselfi thst which contemplatos it is disfinct fiom it.

Hence were it possihle for the substanoe ofMind to be prem t h my mw d hfind thme wonld stfll have to be

it nnd knows it?Thatwhich in theact of knowing isafl'ectedhy the thing known, must itself be the snbstsnoe of Mind.N W M escapes into some newform in recog

conid flxo nmnodified suhstance of MInd he presented in

M om ents, “ would s tili he‘

nnknowable ; since, un tilthors hmdarisen oomsthixfg diflhrent fiem it, the slainen ts ct’n copfiticn w nld not exist ; snd u this something diflferentM yhe some sfi tec we shonld hove the

whetm co cfmnd kncwn inastate of lfi nd, which isaccn

[48 m m sm m oo m cnomor.

tradiction . In hs iefiathing oannotat the sm e inatm t hoboth subjectand object of m smi sud yet the snhatam e

of Mind must be this befcre it can be known.

Again , to knowanything is to distinguish it as snch

cr anch— to clam itas of thiaor that ordor. An objcctis said w be but fittle knowm whsn it isalien to ob

to be well knm when thm iagm t community ot'attri

t ienes . Hence, hy implication ,an objeot is completely known

unknown when there is no recogniasd commnnity atall.Manifestly, then, the smallest couceivahle degree of kno'm

munity is recognised. Bnt if so, how can we know thsanhstance ofMind l To lmow the substance of Mind iato bs

substance. I fi with the lded ht we say that there exiats noother suhatance

, then , necessarily,as there is nothing with

which the substanoc ofMind can he even compared,m ch lcaaassimilatecLit remains unknown . While, if we hold with

whidxis present to usas d,’ and thfi whxoh,’

lyn g'

ontn da'

of it, is not Mind ; then,as the proposition itselfasses-ts adiderenceand notalikeness , it is equally clear that hfind

§ 60. From thisahaolute ignon ncs of the suhstanco ofMind, considered as the somothing of whiehall particnlaratatm ofMindammodifimtiong let ns now tnm to thatpal-tial

thc individnd senu fiom m d emofiong real or ideal, of

which conacionsness iahuilt np, appear to be m nlly

yet theyare notao. There is at least one kind of tseling

150 m mneenons or ssresososr.

sre due to difieremces of integwtion smong the recnrm

gration . And thnaan enormous nnmber of qualitativvly‘contrasted kinds of conscionsness thst seem m lly eic

knownas sounds are built cnt ot'acommon un it, is it not

to be rationally infierred that so h wiseare the diflhrsntsensations known as tastea, and the difisrent sensatiom

colours? Nay, shall we not regard itas prohahle that thmis aunit common toall these strougly-contrasted oh sscs ofsensations ? If ths unlikenwsesamcng the sensations ol

M olass may he due to nnlikenesseaamong ths modcs of

aggregation of aun it of conscionsness com on to thmn

all ; so, too, msy the mnch greatsr unlikenesaoabetween thescuaations of csoh classand those ‘

of other classes . Theremay heasingle primordial elcment cf conseionm ess, m d

the countloss kinds of conscionanm may he pmduoed hyths compounding of thiaolsmsnt with itselfand the re

and higher degm z so moducing inaeased mnltiplieity.Hm weany olne to thiaprimosdial element ? I think

to hc the nnit ot'

oomposition of tho sensation cf musialM is allisd to certain otheraimpls msn tal impsuaionaaaw k cr mho that hn m apmmahlo dmt fim iahttlem m am ohock. Though we distingniah suohanerm u shock u helcnging wwhatm mn wundg yet fi

m sum m on or m . 15!

kinds. An eléctric disohatge sent through the body,canses afeelingakin to that whichasudden loud rsport

syn , afiash of lightniug,aimilarly gives rise toastart er shock ; and thongh the feeling so named seems ,

fib the electrio shoék, to have the bodyat largo for its

sat and may therefore he regarded aathe correlativew haof the efisrent than d theafiu ent diamrhm cayeton n memhoring the mentsl change that resnlts from the

ths efierent fi stnrbance is itself mdnced very nemly to the

in M oompc nhle in quality to the initial statc of con

statc of consciousness cansed hyablow,may be taken m

the primitive m d typical ibrm of the neflous shock . The

W hle dnratiom;and that whm the dnration is greatlych nge has occnrredand ceased. To haveasensation ol

'

m w kncwatoneasacute os gravefi o be conscionsofatasteas sweet, imp1ies in eaoh caseaoonsides'ahle cen

tinnitr of state. If the smte does not last long snough to

admit of its hs ing cooh mplntei it cannot he claasedas ofthiaor that k ind ;and beoomes amomentary modification

m ethh g of the same orderas that whiohwe call n nervous

ihcck is the nltimate unit of conscionsness ;and thatall the

cf d ultimate un it. I say of the same

way in which, by the arrival throughrecurring at other rates, compoundmotion may be formed,and give rise

structures, organised little by little.

Q 61. M nntnrs of l l ind as thm

elucidated by ccmparing it with tho

m m su scaor m . 165

chemi tah vc estahlished respeoting hfattcrand thstwhich

pound ; and m y thatappear wholly nnrelatedare sliovm

oom

plaitiea. And this supposition the phenomena of allo

m un go far to jnstify, by showmg ns that theaame mass

mode ofaggregstion is changed.

E than we see that by un like m gementaof like wiits ,all tho form ef Mattmv

,apparently so diverse in natnre,

fi thae thc c mayarise bg ttm sformationand by comhinap

156 m mnoonnns or rsronowot .

shall the better conceive the possibility that the mnltio

tudinous forms of hfind knowuas difielent feehngg may howmpmcd of simpler un its of feeling, and even ol wfundamentally of one kind. We shall peroeive thatauch

ings ; by combination ofwhich with oneanomcr more mplexand mone unlike feelings msyarise ;and so ou con~

the extreme complexity of the molecules of nervous mam ,

become possibls ; we shall dimly seeafitness of moleonlar

We shall suspeot that there may be hereafurthm'corre

m d the suppeaed cause of psychioal hctcrogensity.

§ 62 . While mading tho hn t two sections , some will

psrhsps havc thonght that they stsnd in dhect coutn

diction to the seotiou preceding thcm. Aftsralleglug thatthe subd m oe of hfind m nm t be knowman attemmi.

casesand probably inamm cln ble into nm ous shooh ;

and that thcoo nervous ahoch answer to the m ol

158 m W W W .

Let it be granted thstall m tcnoe distingnished as o l»jective, may be resoived into the existencs of nnits cf ons

find. Let it be grsmtsd that ey ery spoeies oi objcotivs

of such ultimate nnits ;and thatamong the objeofiveac

pmpagated M gh w m and nervc—centrss. And lst it

further be granted thatall existence distingnishedas suh

nam 'e to those whiohwe knowas nen ons ahoch ; cach etwhwh

’

is the correlatxve'

ofarhythxmcal'

motwn’

ofamatsrn l'

nuit or gronp of such units . Csn ws then think oi’

theanbjeotiveand objective sotivitiesas the same ? Ou tbo und}

lation ofamolecule be represented in conscicnm eas sids hyone ? N o eflbrt em bles ns toassimilats them . That s uaitof feeling has nothing in common with s unit ofmotim , bb

plscc for the needfnl analysis . For it might be shown thatths oonception ofan oscillating molecule is built out ofmanyunits of fealing ;and that to identify itwithanervonaahookwould be to idenfifyawholc congeries of mxits wi thasinglounit

$ 63. “ indeed, “ arriveat thebarrierwhich needs to

olass pmve by tbeir fear,almostas mnchas the first provc bythan“ hope, that thoy behsve°

Mmd'

may posaibly bamtms'

pmted in terms os ttsr ; whereas many whom they vim

is not the remotest possihility of so intsrpreting them.

m m m sex os m n. 159

that ths concopt we torm to ourselves of Matter, is bnt thesymbol c i some t

’

orm ot'

Powerahsolntelyand tor over us .

known to us ;andasymbol which we cannot suppose to be

Theyalso see that the representali on efall obj‘ective sctivities in terms ofMotion , is butareW ef them snd notaknowledge of them ; nnd

if we s ssume the Power manifested to usas Mction , to be

cipb , § l7). When with thcso oonclusicns thatMatterandHoticnas we think them are but symbolio of nnlmowableforms of cxistenoe, we join the conclusion lately reached that

whioh we can think of itasnbstamce is butasymbol of some

thc wholo qucstion isat last nothing more tlmn the questionwhether these symbols shonld be expreswd in terms of those

or those in terms of these—aquestion scarcely worth deciding ; since eitheranswer leaves nsas completely outside

ol tho rmlityas we wereat first.N evertheless, “may beas well to ssy here, once feral},

that were we oompelled to choose between thealternatives oftranslating mental phenomena into physical phenomcna, orothnnalating physical phenomena into mental phenomena,thalatteralternative would seem the moreacceptabls of thetwo. Mind, ” known to the possessor of it isacircumswibod sggregs te ofactivities ;and the cohesion of theseaco

pals ths postulation efasomething of which they are the

aware of this coheren t aggregate of mental activities,simultaneously make him aware of activities that are not

inch ded in it—outlying activities which become known by.

160 m m rm s os rsmm .

pray ed to be not eohemntwith it, snd to be oohem t widn

one snother (First Ag by ths dsfi

the nnknown correlatives of their efl'scts on this sggregs te ;snd om be fixoughtof enly in tenns funfished by this sggre

gate. Hm fi he mgu ds his oenoeptiom of tbese wfivifialymg

'

beyond d'

,as const1tnting'

knowledge of them , ho is

terms om d oan never do otherwim Eventually heis obliged toadmit thst his ideas os tterand Motion,

admitting this, he persists inasking whether units of feslingm of tbe same namreas the nn its of foroe distinguishsd

ss W rnaLor whether the units of foroe dis tinguished ss

externs lare of the same nstureas nnits of feeling ; thm

the reply, still snbstm fially the ssme, is thst we msy go

farther towards oonoeiving units of externsl foroe to be

oeiving nnits of feeling to be identicalwith un its of exterm l

force. Clearly , if un its of extemal force sre regurdsdasahsolutely unknownand unknowable, then to trm slste units of

feeling into thm is to translate the known into tho unknown,

which is sbsurd. And if theyare what theyare supposed to

be by those who identify them with their symbols, then thedifi culty of trsnslating nnits of feeling into them is insm»

mountable : if Force as it objectively exists is absolutely

Feeling, then the transforms tion of Foroe into Feeling

interpret inner existenoe in terms of outeu existonos. But

ifi on the other hsnd, units of Fox-oeas they exist ob

fested subjectively as units of Feeling ; files a conceivable

162 m m vw ons or m onomer.

inany other way than as the s of our equation ,inevitably

betrays us into errors ; for we cannot thmk cf sabsts nce

only and torest conten t with that duality of

in the shapeThe Unknom bleof Feeling, being no less inscmmme

~w

sham , we approach no nearer to understanding lastby rendering it into the first. The H . s under

than the conditioned form under which Being is pm ntsd

m u wthe two.

11.

m s conrosm os or man.Q M In the last chapter we incidentally encroached on

the topic to which this chspter is to be devoted. Certainappu enflys imple feelings were shown to be compounded ofunits of feeling ; whenoe it was inferred that possibly, if not

And m thus treating of the composition of feelings, we, byimplication , treated of the composition of Mind, of which

compos ition of Mind,_

we pass to observati ons on its prozinmte composition. Accepting as really simple those con

sti tuenmofMind which are not decomposable by introspection , we hsve to consideu- what are their fundamentaldistinctive characters,and what are the essen tial principlesof arrangement among them.

§ 65 . The proximate componen ts of Mind are of two

broadly-contrasted kinds— Feelings and the Relationsbetweem feelings . Among the members of each group thereexist mnltitudinous un likenesses, many of which are extremely strong ; but such unlikenesses are small compared

bom m mbers of the othm'.

.

Let us , in the first place, considw whatare the characters whichall Feelings have in

164 m mnecrross or m onomer.

Esch feeling,as we here define it, isany portion of con

nnder introspection ,astate of conscionsness is decomposable

it is indistinguishable from an adjacent portion of con

vidus l feeling but part of one. An d obviously if it does

with them ; having no independent place—no indivi

duality of its own . It is true that, under an ultimateanalysis , what we call a relation proves to be itselfakind

sition from one conspicuous feeling toan adjscent con

spicuous feeling. An d it is true that, notwithstanding its

one another only by the unlikenesses of the feelings which

feeling may, in fact, be regarded as one of those nervous

shooks which we suspect to be the units of compoaition of

feelings ;and, thongh instantaneous , it is h iownas of greataor less strengthand as tak ing plsce with greater or lecs

facility. But tho contrast between these relational feelingsm d whst m ordmarfly cd l feefingg is so m g that wo

168 m m crm s or rsrcsowar.them, involves some forestalling ofafutm'

e chapter. mbreach of order, however, is unavoidable ; for until certain

as prnnaril'

y expen enced'

, they msy be dm ded"

into fi e

have widely unlike characters. Towards the cloas of this

relatively simple, the emotions, though seeming to be sim

pleare extremely compound ; and thatamarked contn st

of character between them hence msults. But without

mferring toany essential unliksness of compositicn, we shall

may be esmblished by introspective comparison.

A snbdivision has to be made. The peripherallydnitiated

cansed by distnrbaucesat the ends of nerves distributed on

the outer surface, are taken to imply comr agencies,andthose which, caused by disturbancesat the ends of nerves

agencies ; which last, though not peripherally initiated inthe ordinary sense, sre sd in the physiologiml sense. Bat ubetwwn the exterior of the body aud its interior, thereareall gradatious of dcpth, it results that this distinction is a

the sensations accompany this did‘erence of d'

n tribution of

the nerves in which theyarise ; and that theyare decidedin proportion to the relative superficiality or centrality of

these nerves .

In contmst with this class of primary or real feelings,thm difided m d subdifi dsd hn to be set the compleman.

m om om or m 167

sgenh then and theneacting on the pexiphery of the

imply objective excitingagents whioh thus M edatapast

Wears thus obdged to earrywith usaclaseificatiombased

silhdivin’

on of these lsst into senafions thatarise on theu terior of the bodyand samations thwm'ise in its interior ;

respectively refer to diflbrencesamong the pam in action .

or idealmelings , cuttingacross the other divisionsat right

ungh sas we msy say, refers to difierence ofamount in the

unlikenesses of kind mnong the feelings ;and the second,am ked unlibsness of dsgree, common toall the kinds.

Q W. From the rlasses oi’ simple feelings we paes to thsdamaof dmplemlatiom betvveemfed ingg reepecting which

M esmetixing must be eaid before we cen pmeeed . In

M ult ofat eanalysis , whieh cannot be madeat

Asahu dy said, the requisite te the existence ofarelatim is

‘

the existence of two feehngs’

between which'

it isthafink . The requis ite to the existence of two feelings is

m adiflerence. And therefore the requisite to the exist

ence oi’arelation is the occnrrence ofachangv - thepssssge

hom onsflaparm tly-uniform state toanotherapparentlyW encmnmxt ofanew state.

£68 m m scn os s or rswsewur.

It follows that the degree of the chm ge orahookmon.

stituting in other words the consciousness of the degrcoo f

difi’

erence between theadjacent states, is the ultimate basis

equal, or those of lilreness, (which however mnst be diridedby some pou

'tion of consciousness that is unlike them), und

likeness. These last fall into what we may distmguish'

as

intensity ,accordingas the transition is toagreater or to a

able into relations of quantitative unlikencss , or those commring between feelings of the ssme nature bnt dih '

ent

groupedaccording to the degree of change or the kind of

change, ssverally belong to one or other of two gm t

categories which take no account of the termsas like or

unlike in natnre oramount, bnt which takeaccount only of

their order cf oocurrence,as either simu1t.aneous or succeaexistenceand thoas of sequence, is, however, itself dependent

relations theniselves have to be classed ns of like or unlike

kinds by comparing the momentary feelingathatattend thecr unlike ,and,aawe shall hereafier see, the relationaofcc-existenceand sequenceare distinguished from oueanothm'

only byaprocesaof this kind .

Q GQ - Hoving defined aimple feolings and simple rela

of m ew char re how Mind is mads

l70 m m enos s or rm omer .

by visim areaboveall othem shm'

p in their mutnd limi

tations : the difiererwes that oconr between adjacsnt ones

are exnemely definite. It is further to be noted that ths

fsehngs cause'

d hy actions on the gsneral surface ot the

form parts oi'

consciom ess thatare sspamte thoughadg‘a

in d ose prcximity, butalsoas distinct fiom kindrsd sensa

ticms of tonch pcoceeding fi-

om parts of theanrface which

like the tips of the fingsrs and the tip of the tongue,

have the most frequent and vmied couverse with outarobjects} l

imperfect clearnesa. Received through uneulfin ted m ,

on ly afew simultaneons aounds sre vaguely s eparable inconsciousness g though received throngh the eu s of a

identified. But among successive sounds tho relan'onalcomponents of mind m conspicnous. Dificrenfocs betm

‘ Tho tnup s iaamach moccactivah ctnal organ thn d fiq -auThe nwhanieal imp- inu it m cim m not llmitsd to thcn fim hy

tho food vhieh it m agadurin‘ mu ticatioagbutat othc fimait hpsrpch d ly cxpla'hg thc h nauflacn d the tfl whichm b itw

m wurosmou or m m. 171

W ed. Bnb the dm rcafions m leu fiecided tbm

M ng w M W /ofim d m , “

the tip of the tongne, bnt over itahinder part m d the bwkof the pnh tq thnt the gmtetory nefleanne distfibnted), m

fionane may be pavaived between tm s that co-exist nre

W m fir leu ahu p thm khe beg’mnings m d endz of the

“ W W W -15m m ; nor m ene

M am mals.

m fi'om che snrm wor fbe nose is notflm seet ofamellz

h eed ed hig‘h np between the eyes). Of simnlmneons

more then thnee can be separate ly identified. Of

M b w fiollow one m oflner, ib ie manifiest thnt they

np hy mwm el distnrboncee. Amm g ew e the most snper

em ps when m hng figm naefim mm m but feeble ;though meh as m pm enk bogether mumelly fimit one

m bhet inavery vngne wey ; m d thongh theu beginn ingu

M ends m so blnrred that s eeriee of them is but inaisM b wpm ble inwm ; yetr they are jnxtwoeed and

124 m mnsm m os rsm om .

dooed s t tbe same instent by s bsnd ; snd tsstee do not hold

together in sequenoe ss do the tonee ofosdenoe. Of

smells the like is trne.‘

Along with vsgnenese in the bonnd

ing of one by m other thm goes bntafeeble linking togetber.

sions thnt sre hidden in mnob tbe same m ne sre thei '

tions of mnsonlsr feelings, is dne to tbe fnot tbat eschmnsole,m u t ofmm lg pesees fwm s stete of reet to s etste ol

sction or from s stste of sotion to s m te of nesg thmngh

gradations ths t oocnpyan sppreoisblo time ; anatheg oon

and ending strongly, shsdes ofl‘ et both extremes. Beingthns wesk st the phom whm they m w nfignm these feel»

ings m incspeble of etmng ooheeione. Indeedfi fwe m s’t

those whioh eooompsny gm t efl'M vre may ssy thst tbe’sre eltogs tber so fs int oompu

'ed with most othm tbet thd r

of sutomstio new ons sote ; andare by so mneh the lm tbe

feelings wbicb bm their ees ts in the vism meyms bm

snddenly follow some othsr into oonsoiou neu g nor is ii

simultsneons fedmg to whinh it d ings . Tbe rdd ianslolemmt of fi ind is dmast ebsent ; bolding only in s feeble

degas witb some tsstos snd smolh .

tbe esme oonneotion of obsm s ooonrs. Whm emotions

m esm er m 175

maxing they esn smmely be said to hold togethen the

linh hsm noappreeisfle strength z no one is sttsohed to

u other h snch way s s to prodnce eonm ncy d snccession.

of fielings pmdnofi h extem sl distnrbsneemm mosfly

cohesion smong the oomponent feelings ; nud we have seen

tionste deteot of mn tnal limits tionand oohesion . We hmm to observe thst the tmcts of oonsoionsness thus bmedly

M m by coneeqeenoe, bmsdly oontm ted in the

m peet thu , in the one case, the oomponent feelings

The state of consciousness produced by an object seen, iscomposed of shm-

ply-ontdined lights, shades, and oolonrs,

and the co-existent'

feelingsand relations entering into one

W W . As moet of them ere cm sed by moving

olq'

oats mom or less oomplexfit is diflienlt to trwe this oins

tering of them in seqnénoe spM fi-om their clnstering in

N 6 m m son oxs or m omnces .

M am Bnt if we tskc the mse‘

of s bird th t

enddenly fiies psst olose to s window ont of which wc m

scionsness of its line of movemm t so defincd snd oohasnt '

exact course.

is compu stively strong smong those ooonrring snoosafvfly .

Henee the oonsolidsted gronps of sonnds whieh we know in

means so deoided s s the clnstering of co-existentvimslmings, either in the .extent or complu ity of the olnsters or tho

thelees considersble. When thc hnnd is lnid on sotne sm ll

object, es s key, s nnmber of impressions msy be dis

tingeished ss sepu ete thcngh nm one m ctben bnt whflctheir mntns l rsh tions m so fsr fixed thst sppmxim

constitute anything like such a fixedand defined groupathose given by vis ion of thc key . This unpafiot olnstu ingsequence . The mccessive feelings prodnced by s ny

movement ss being towu 'ds the wrist or fi'om the wrist.

scross fiom right to left or m m w fighz; but they do

not form s oonscionsneu of its em t conrse.

unite only inw very l iln‘

plasnd inoohcm t clnstm in

cc -existence ; while in sequence tbey ecsrcely nnite st sll.

And the like is tme of smells.

Such cnpsbflity of clnstering es is disphyed by thc peri.

178 m m um-toss or mi snomer.

in definite relations ;and even gmups of gwupg simflsrly

other groups of groups . Conversely ,'

m tructs of conscicns

ness where the relationsare fewand vsgue, nothing fif ths

It is m m g the visud feehnggabove sll others mnltifi

Along with theability to form that complex eonscionsness

which wmfitnteamanas pressnt to dghg there goes theabflity to formaconscionsness of two men inadefinite sndcoherent rclation of position

—mere goes theability to fomaconsciousness ofacrowd of such m ; mflwo or more

definitely o related visud feelings known as ahom itssli

aggregates with others such to fcrm the consciousness of s

street, and the streets to form the consciousness of s

town. Though thc compound clustering of visnal feelingin sequence is not so distinct or so stxong , it

'

m still vu y

Them is little, ifany, cluster~ing of clnstersamong the simul

'

tm eons suditory feelings.

The fused set cf sonnds we call s word, unites with m yothers such intoasentence. In some minds these clustcrt

of olnsters of sncoessive sounds sgs iu cluster m y definitelyand coherently : many successive sentences sm ss we

say, neonatal; remembered. And similarly, musicsi

melody. Among the h ctusl feelings this com»

pound dm taing is sw oelv bw esbh citM - in spm or

m com m m or m 179

fime g m dM is not the remotestappi -osch to it iu theolfictm-

y snd gm tory fecliugs .

sommpsny mnscnh r motion is there sny approach to it ;

Q 72 . One more kindrcd trsit cf composition mnst be set

tud hn itatim of cohesimand of ccmpl‘exc ombinhg power,

ss clnsrly as fielings cf the same order do. The elus

bnt littte interfcred with by s sound z the sound does not

pnt m y sppreciable boundaq tofliem in conscic usneas, butserves mcrcly to diminish their dominance in consciousness.

ut table, nor the impressions received through the eyee&omthe dkhes on fiie table, are excluded fi-

om the mind hy the

mwh ss coiom m emch ded bywom sounds by eonnds,

emofionmit may be said that,-nn1ess intense, they disturbbut clightly fiie sensaticns othcrwise srising . It wouldslmost seem ss thoughasensution of colour, a sensation of

180 m u nccrm s or rsrenci eor.

feelings, or two clustered feelings of difi rent m'derg put

bounds to one another- in time if not in spsce : there is sn

extremely rapid extrusion of each by the other rathor thsns coutinuous presence of either. But it is inanik t that

of difl'erent ordeu , are less distinct than the extrusion s!

It isacorrelative truth that feelings of dim ord ers

the group of them does with the group of sounds nn king p pthe name of the object . The notes composingamole”neu thanan'

y onc, or all of them, have to drsg into ctm

lsstmay or may not cohere with them ; bnt the follov ing ol

one note hy the next is oflen dimcult to prevent. Simi

visual sensations pnoduced byan orsngeand the tam or

smeflof the om gq yet it is quite usual to have s visualconsciousnees ofan orange withont its taste or its sw l

srising in consciousnem ; while it is scsrcely possible to hsve

panied by otherappu ent characters.

dominance of the relational elements ; and therc is sn

especial facility of combination betweem thoes feclings c!

difi’erent orders whichare respectivcly held togothsr by m

gm p of fights m d shsdes m objeot yiclds tc the em thm

182 m u cocnoiis w rsrcsomor.

feelingis joined to, but distinguished fl~om, othcrvivid fwl

fied with, faint feelings thst have rcsulted from fonegomg

sound, each sensation of toneh, tastc , or smell, is st oncs

knownas unlilre ether eensations that limit it in q uasartime,and knownas like the faint forms of ceflain senn tions

On this lsw of composition depends the ordcrly etruo

ture of Mind. In its abscnce there could hc nothing ln t

aperpetual h id doewpic change of feelings—eu eventrm sforming piesent without past or futuro. It is becsn.

cohere with the faint forms ofall preceding foclings lihethemselves , that thereariee what we call idcoa. A vifid

tbeling does not by itself constitute aunit of that sggm

gate of ideas entitlcd lmowledge. N or doosasingle fa’mtfeeling constitute such aunit. Butan idea, or unit of

knowledgmresults whenavivid feeling isass imilated to, orwhem witmone m more of the faint feehngs lcaby n ch

moment the feelings that constitute consciousness segregate—each becoming fused with the whole serieaof othess likoitself that have gone before it ; and what we call knowingeach ficlingas such cr ouch, is cur nsme for this oct of

The proces s so carried cn does uot stop withthe union of

esch fceling, as it occurs, with thc faint fmms of sll pn o

joined with the fi int fom s cf prcocding like ciusters . An

ides ofan objcct oract is composed c f groups of similarmd similarly ‘ related feelings that havearisen in commenness from time to u

‘

mefi nd have formcdaconaolidated ssrh

m m m m . 183

am m m pum y m m m ym m

tm'ed feehngs is w rmd wam chw ster degree of com.

gsfion Of s diferent sc ies. Each relation d oc-existence

we lmow ss Space, and that consclidatedabstract of relsn

tiens of seqnence which we knowas 'l'

ime. This proceu ,

here briefiy indimted merely to show its congm ity with the

184 m mus eum s or narrow er.

omitted details and passed ovcr mincr ; letme go on to indicate the essential truth which it is u

chief purpose cf this chapter to bring into vievv— the truththat themethod of composition remains the same throughoutthe entire fabric of Mind, fi-om the formatiou of its simplest

feelings up to the formation of those immenseand complen

aggregates of feelings which eharacterise its highest dcve

In the last chapter we m thst what is objectivelya

centre, is subjectively a unit of feeling, akin in naturs towhat we callanervous shock . In one case we found cou

clusive proof that when a rapid succession of such w asyield ‘a rapid succession of such units of feeling, thu s

results the continuous feeling known as a sensation ;and

and corresponding units of feeling recur withadifl'crsntrapidity. M en it m showu that by unions among

conclusionamountmxpreesed inauother way ? Itamountsto the conclusion that one of these feelings which, asintrospectively contemplated, appears unifhrm, is really

genu uted by the perpetual sssimilstion ofanew pnlse of

feeling to pulses of feeling immcdiately preceding it z thesensation is constituted by the linking of esch vivid pulse

u itwcum with the series of psst pulses thatwere seveu lly

pulses ? It is that while the coniponent pulses of eachseriesare, ss they occur, severallyassimilated to , or liuked

£86 m m cncss or rsrcam .

The same thing ob’

viously hclds cf the relntious thsm

thus it becomes manifest that the mcthod by which simplc

into states of definite consciousness, is essentially analogous

pounded intc sensaticns .

sensafious produced m us by aepend objecahn to he

united with the faint fcrms of olusters like it thst huve beenbefore produced by such objects. What ve call knowingthe object, is theassimilation of this combined group of

real feel ings it excites, with one or mero preceding idesl

the knowicdgc is clsar only when the serics of idss l

gmnps is long.

apecial clus ter snd the special clusters generated by otherobjects. Knowledge of the powersand habits cf things,

dcadand living, is constituted by sssimflating thc mors or

and time with other such complex relations. If we cannotsoassimilate thcm, cr psrts of them, we have nc knowledge

of theiractions .

finite limit through trscts of higher ccnsciousness, formed of

clusters of d ustcrs of feelings held together by relaticns of

§ 75. How clcsrly the evclutiou of Miud,as thus trucedthroughascending stageu of composition, conform s to thehm ov olutiou in genm hwill be seen as soon as it '

m

said. We will glanooat thc correcpcndence undcr esch of

its leading aspects .

m coxroem ou or i inm. 187

tsgu tiou has thim t iteelf upon us as the fundamental factiu mentsl evd ution . We came upon it quite unexpectedlyin the oonclnsion that w sensution isan integrated series ofnervou shocks or units cf feeling ; and in the further condufionfliat by M gn fion of two ormm suchm com

knowledge of u sensation as such or such ; and that eachsenssh

'

on ss it occurs, while thns integrated with its like,limit it in spuce or time. And we have similarly seen thatthe integrated clusters resulting, enter into higher integration- cf both these kinds ; and so on to the

The significance of these facts will beappim iated when it is remembered that the trwts of con

sciousnm in whieh mtegratiou i s undecided,are tracts ofran d om ness hardly included in what we commonly thinkof s s hfind zand that the tracts cf ccnsciousness prcsentingthe uttributes of h‘liud in the highest degree, m those in

uuoflicrand with other feelings, aud thus integrate but

but rsubordim te psrts in theactions we chiefly class asmath l. Mental sctions, crdinari1y so called,are nearlyall

fisusare iudeed mostly confined to the auditory feelings (asintegn ted intewords )and the visual feelings (as integrs ted

M motiom) . Ailm'

closing the eyes and observing howmh fivd ym e is the part of intellectual consciousnm

thc h n dden ly shorn owayfi t will be mauifest that the

188 m mnum ss or m cs omor.

grate into such lsrge and numemus sggrega d whieh

degree of eompositiou all aggregates formed by other teel

ings. And then , on rising to whnt we for conm ience dis

tinguishas m tionsl Mind, we find the iutegt-stiou tskinga

Theasoending phases of Mind show us no less conspicu

sensations ths tare all composed of mm of one kind,arerendered heterogeneous by the combination and re-combination of such units in multitndinous ways. We have latelyseeu ths t the portions of consciousness occupied by the ino

terusl bodily feelings and hy the emotions, axe , ” judgedby introspection, relatively very simple or homogeneous :thirst is not msde up of eontrasted parts, nor sun ' s

sepm-ste a gust of passion into many distinguishable eon»

ponents . But on passing upwards to intellectual consciousnm thm m fls u m h crm h g vsriety of kinds of feeLings present together. When we come to the snditmy feelings, which play eo important a par-t in prooesses of thought,we find ths t the groups of them m tormed of msny oem

integrationmo here with heterogeneity, s fnrhigherdegrse isresched in thst oonsmo

’

usness formed ofm nal'

faclmgs’

, whieh

is themostdevelopedpsrtofpereeptiveMind. Andmuchmore

heterogeneous still sre those trscts of oonsciousuess dio

tinguished as mtiocins tive M in which the multifimu

organs, nose,and pnlnte, sre formed into ooncsptions tlmt

unswer to the objects in sll their sttributes, “ all their

With eqnnl olw ness does Mind displsy the further tn it

190 m m m os s or rsrcs ewex.

parallel to that redish-ihutim of matterand motion whid

structureand nervous fnnctions set forth iu the lsst part.must be briefiy indicsted.

connect nerve-oorpuscles ; or rsther, to themolecuhr ehm ges

of which nerve- corpnscles sre the seots,and the molecuhr

between two feelings , answers to the physical relstion

pnt in such direet or indirect communieation that soms

ings they unite, has thus its physiologicsl equin lent in thefact that the m nsmissiou ofawave ot

'

chm ge tlmough s

tinn it sets up inanerve-centm . If we cousidsr cs ch such

considerannit of feeling, then , remembering its npprscil blcduration , we msy nndcrstm d how it hsppens thst when the

m es of moleculnr cchange brought hyan in-coming nerve

fibm m wd s cermin mte of rw urmnatho m fiorm ficn

set up by esch lnsts till the next commences ; snd henco the

tinuens feeling or semation.

M and the faets of nervous structure, there is m obvious

sm ut. N e the m s of the eye. The retins beh g su

close to . bnt sepau to from. one another,and having m ch

m eow -m or n”. 191

m indepsndn t centripctal fibreg it results thst the relatious that msy heestabliahed hetween eseh oneand sll thc

clusters. The sharpness of mntual limitation of the feelings

und elustm-s of feelings here initiated, is slso clearly due to

theee same strnctural peculisrities ; asarealso their rigid

mm diats m fi win suifics if we psss to the other

exheme snd observe how, in the visceral nervous system.

so ineoherent, there is au absence of the sppliauceswhich secure independen t exoitcments of adjacent nerve

A further harmony of the same order may be noted. The

relubionul elcm9utofMin.d, ss showu in mutnal limitation, iuohm gth of eohd m and in degme of clusteringfis gneaterbetween feelings of the same order than between feelings ofone omdam d thoee ofanother. This answers to the factthst thc bundles of nm e-fibres and clusters of nerve

ves iclcs belenging to feelings cf one order, are combined

fibres and vesicles belonging to feelings of other orders.Similndy, it holds among feelings of difl’emnt od ms , thstfi e rendiness to enter into relations is

.

mnch greater betweemthmo u m ng m the highm scnm gw n which hsvenervous

that commnnicate but indireotly with the higher cen tres.Em m anom ly nppem thus explicable. That sueh

mflmg wm m m cu d w t m h m h wy dm m

Wo hsve seen thst the development of Mind is fiuids

mentallyan incres sing integration offeelings on successively

192 m monomer s or m onomer

higher stages ,along with which there go increu ing heterogeneityand defin iteness ;and these traitsanswer to traits inFor we found that along with growing distinctnessandmultiformity of structure, there is

‘

throughont an advancingintegration of structureas wellas of mass . (See §

and Intelligence as equivalents. As hinted in Q 7, even

been led into M oulties of interpretation by inadverten tlysetting outwith this beliefas their postnlate. But Mind is

only do Feelinge constitute the inferior trscts of conecious

ness, but Feelingsare inall cases the materials out of which,in the superior tracts of consciousness, Intellect is evolvedby structural combination. Everywhere Feeling is thesubstance of which, where it is present, Intellect is theform . And where Intellect is not precent, or but little

present, Mind consists of feelings that are unformed or butlittle formed. Intellect comprehends only the relational

this truth ssves ns fmm the error of looking foraregularcorrespondence between the development of thesystemand the degree of lntelligenoe. As in § 7we saw ths ttheaise ot’ the nervous system varies partly ss the quantityef motion evolved,and partlyas thc compleuity of thatmotion ; so hm we see ths t the size of the nervons system

vs ries psrtlyas the quanti ty of Feeling (which hssagencn lrelation to thc qnantity of mofion)and pm'tlyas tho dcgmof Intellect (which hssageneral relation to the complexityof the motion). And thut mtapreting the fneh cupposed

194 rue tenet-flos s or ”m ower.

nal origius ; or rather, with thoso prhnary or vivid torms o!

themwhichwe call realfin contradistinction to the secondaryor faint forms we call ideal.

§ 7c. The general truth, familiar toall students of Pay.

chology, which it is the object of this chapter to preseutunder its many aspects , is that though interual feelinghabitually depends on external agent, yet there is no likenessbetween them either in kind or degree. The connexion

between objective causeand subjective chest is conditionedin ways extremely complex and variable—ways which wewill proceed to consider seriatim.

We shall find that each sot of conditions so modifies the

to determine the qualitative character of the eds-ct. Inother words, the same agent produces feelings of quiteunlike natures according to the circumstances under whichit note.

We shall further see that, besides this qualitative unlike

forceand the inner feeliug it excites, there is no such cor

the two do not eveu maintain an unvaryiugEqualamounts of the same force arouse diderent amountsof the same feeling, if the circumstances difl'er. Only whilo

all the conditions remaiu con stant is there something lilreacoustant ratio betweeu the phymical antecedent and thc

psychical consequent.

§ 79 . Were l not bound to enumeratoallaspects of this

relativity , it would be needless to say tlmt the conucxiou

betwecu the outeragcntand the inuer feeling gencratcd byit, depends on the structure of the species .

Obviously the forms of eeusatiou that cau be roused in

tho cousciousness olameature, ue primufly determinod hy

m m m er m smos. 195

de pefiphen l organs with which its type is endowed. Thisis so m with the most gemeral of the nem tions—shat of

M u d fi'cm the cnds of its limbs and claws when they

Still more m ifestly

the m sence of spem'al ssnse-organs. Take theauditory

thcy feel is ajar somewhat resembling the jar received by

mou ths quality of the feeling exc ited in these lomeranimalsby sonorous m es, is wholly unlike the quality ol' the feel

cycs that fit it fornoctumalhabits, the sensationaroused byafaint lighQ is much gm ter than isaroused by it inadiumalhird or mammal ;aud the light which gives to adinrnalcreature amoderateamount of sensation snifices to daszleute nocturncl cmature by its cxcess.

with dxc olfi ctory feclh gs . An odour which has noapmedable efieot on the consci

ousness ofamamhasavery

tan ked efl'ect on the conscionm of a dog . Evenm tiee ol dogs ,as the gmyhoundand the beagle, yield ua

mah l changes caused by the same odour.

[96 m innocu ous or rsrcuowor.

two species does a given amount ofagim outeragentexcite m ctly the same kindand quantity of fceling.

§ 80. This apparently hasty generalisation is justified

individual structure.

and sometimes named afier him, yields an instance of

qualitative difi'erence. To those organimdas he m thc

visible world does not presen tall the various feelings of

colour that it does to mank ind in general . Sensations whichto others seem stmngly oontrasted,as redand green, seemto them the same. W'

heuce we must conclude that certain

those they produce in other persons. Fromsentient states excited throngh the ears, may be drawnanother- illustration. Aérid pulses recurringat the rate of

sixteen per seoond are pcroeived by some as eepu-ate

pulses ; but by some they are perosivedas atone of vayhow pitch. Similarly at the

'

other extreme. Vibrations

of somewhat nnlike structures, these rapid vibrations areknownasan exoessively acute sound .

and thereare persons by whom minnte unlihsnessss of sur

judgc of commodities , snch as raw silk , hy handling

198 m mnocrms s or rsrcuowar.

one ot’

the premon itory symptoms ofan epileptic fit, may bcnamedasan instanoe. And if feelings of purely subjectiveorigin , sO strongas to be mistaken for feelings ot' objectiveorigin, mayarise from extreme nervous derangementa, it is

The quantitative variations which variations of constim

sequent on derangemen ts of health and some on advancingyears. In certain conditions of nervous irritabi.lity, sounds of ordinary strength seem intolerably loud 3daylight becomes unbearable from the excess of visual feeling it causes ; and even the sk in becomes unduly sensitive :

are deviations from health characterized by ananmsthesiaallied to that artificially caused—astate of comparativeindifference to amounts of external stimuli which commonly

How along with decline ofvigour in oldage there goes an increasing aniesthesiaofone or more kinds, we have daily proof. There is dimnosaof sight ; there is dulness ofhearing ; there is often obtuseness of taste .

Thus , besides seeing that the subjective efl'ect producedby each objective cause varies with the stru cture of the

cpecies , and varies with the structure of the individual ofthe species, we see that it varies with the constitutioastate of the individual— often in a marked degree. Verypossibly the ratio is never twice the m e ; but always difizrs

§ 82 . The kind and degree ot‘

efi’

ect whiohan cxternalphysical stimulus produces on the psychical state, depcufialso on the pu

't of the orgnnism subject to it. l'lqual quan

m snm vm or rm m os.

The qualitative differences we recognize so much as

however, they must not be passed over. Manykinds ot

’

matter which, whenapplied to the sk inat large,

tongm senss tions of touch m d mste ; or, if they m kinds

Similarlywith volstile substances. A whifl'ofammoniacoming incontact with the eyes , prodncesasmart ; getting into thenmuflaemcites the oon sciousnesswe describeasan intoleraan smi d taste ; whileammoniaapplied iu solution toatenderpart of the skin, makes it burn,as we say . The

as varying witi i the sti 'us tme of the species , must be namedher-eahoas vary ing with the stm cture of the partafl'ected.

themascnse of jar ; held between the weth, it gives this

by ccmmunioation through the bones of the skull, its vibrafions soaflect theauditory spparatus as to awaken a oou~

sciousnm ol'

sound—o cousciousness which alone results iftho tuning-fork does not touch the body. The

m odified integumentand on those modified portious of it

which constitute eyes wriacip los of Biology, § 295) yisldfm'tba- illustrations. The Sun’s rays fslling on the handcause a aenmtion of heat but no sensation of light , andfining on the retinacauseasensation of light but no sensaficn of heat. As Professor Tyndall has proved by experi

200 res m otions or rsrcs ower.

firiing itarousee varies quantitativelyaccording to the pu tcf the body w ted upomtherearemany pmofs, of which ono

The 'm hed m dem rthoe d

the foot experiencesan intense sensation of tiokling fi-om a

gentle touch whioh generates amuch fieebler sensation of

this kind olsewhere. Conm ly, the thick skin of the haolbears with comparatively little pain the long-continued

ofahard prominence which would be intolerableto the baok of the hand.

most cases conspicuonsly unlike in degree ; but there is onecase in which theyam. When drinking s liquid the heat olwhich is quite bearable by that psrt oi' the upper lip usuallydipped deeper, soas to immerse s little of the octer skin,a

We find, then, that the same enternalagontacting ou

which have in many cases no likenesses of kind whatem ,

and have in other cases hnmense unliheneu es of degree.

§ 83 . The stateof thepartad’ected,as well ss its stiucture,hasashare in determining the rclation betwcen outeragentand inner feeling . Almsdy in the chspter on EathoPhysiology, it has been shown that the ratio borne by ths

external fowe which initiates the nervous change, sud tho

amount of feeling that eventually results. It will sumcc tomu ll the several causes of the variation.

Tho teSmPerature of the pai-t is one oi’

them. Bd ween

the M of local insensibility produced by excossivs cold,

202 m mono-moss or rsrcuonoor.

served, is that produced in the pitch of asound by thomovement of the sounding body towards , orm y from, tho

auditor.’

I fiasan express train passes thm gharailwvy.

station the whistle happens to begoing, the tone heard byeach pemon in the station, changes fromahigher toalowerst the nioment the engine goes by him. A still more

marked chm ge is perceivable if theauditor, aeatcd in atrain travelling with considerable speed in one directicm iapmsed by awhistling engine travelling rapidly in lhs

opposite direction. Under such circumstances I havo c!»

served,at the moment of passing,afall in the pitch of thsnoteamounting to amajor third or evenafourth. How

this is due toanalteration in the nnmber of ierial pulasareaching the ear inagiven time, need not here be explainsdat length. It concerns us only to note th t the quality of

the feeling produced by a sounding.

body is not the same

tiouary gand that the quality ot'

the feehng changanwith every ohange in the rate of approach or mcassion. A remarkable illustration of analogousnature, has been disclosed by inquiries respecting the

qualities of the lights radiated by diilhrent stars. Someyears since it was suggested that possibly the apparentcolours ot

’the stars are determined by their motiona

towards, oraway from, the Earthat various velocities zandthough this supposition has not turned out to be true, yetatruthak in to it has becn discovered. Though to the nakedeye the quahty of the light emanating fmm each star ianotappreciablyafl‘ected by ths stu ’

s velooity otapproaoh to, orrecession from , ns ; yet,as examined through theapccu'o

scope, its quality proves to be thus affected . Mr. Hugginshas reoently shown that the spcctrum of Sirius difl'ci -s tromthe spectrum he would yield were he stafionary relatively tons ; and difl?ers in such way as to show that he is movingaway from usatarate of more than two milliouaol’ miha

m n u n vm or m tmos. 208

ditions , the nature of the feeling excited by luminiferousundulations, varies according to the relative motion of the

Ofquantitative variations aris ing from relative motion, wehave a familiar instance in the difi

'

erent feelings of heator of cold produced in us by surrounding media, whenweamat restandmhen we move. In a bath abovethewater seems hotter toalimb that stirs than to tis s tationary ; and every bather knows how much colderrunning water oi

' agiven temperature feels than still

water of the same temperature—acontrast that becomesvery great when the velocity of the water is much

raised, as in a douche. Similarly with the air. A greaterchill is felt by those who, instead of standing etill

, are exposed in acarriage to “ the wind of their own speed

”

Though the explanation of these difierences is, that themedium in contact with the skin is continually changedin the one set of casesand not in the other, yet it remainstrue that the sensation varies in intensity as the relative

§ 85. Thns i’ar we have limitod our sttention to the feel

mgs emoited by external thingsaoting on the organism . Wemust not, however, pass over' the feelings which accompanyactions of the organism on external thinge. Though

E in muscularectiomthere took placeam nsformation of

the iseling oi’muscular eflort into an equivalent of mechanical

cd’ect ; then a given amount of such feeling would always

generate the sameamoun t of such effect, through whatsm mnacles u '

pended. Bnt the fsct is quite otherwise.

The conscious exercise of force required whenastoneweight ie tified by the httle finga, far exceeds that re

10 a

204 m innocuous or rsrcnowor.

quired when the stone weight is grasped in the hand,and lifted by the arm. Orags in, the gymnastio feat ol

rais ing the body upaladder hand over hand, impliaaa

than is implied by climbing up the ladder in theusnal way.tO

‘anamount of molar motion which is large or small wcording to ths muscles used.

dependent on age. The sense of efl'ort whichachild expe

riences in rais ingaweight, greatly exoeeds in intensity theaense of efi'

ort it will experience in raising the same weight

by the same muscles twenty years afterwards. Ata like amount of sensation i s the correlate oi'an moreaaedamount of produced motion.

varies quantitatively as the constitutional state varies.Afteraprostrsting illness, the feeling of strain thataccompanies the rsising oi

’

a limb, is as great as that which in

§ 86 .Were it not thatalresdyas much spaceas can heafforded has been occupied, it would be well here to illnetrate the ways in which both the peripherally - initiatedFeelings thatarise in internal organs and the cen trally.initiated feelings or emotions, have also their several formsof relativity. But it mustaudios just to indicate these ex.

tensions oi'

the genecral truth ths t has been set ibrth.

For present purposes we may fitly limit ourselves to the

traceable to environing agencies. Their relativities we findto be of manifold k inds . The qualityand the qnantity of

the sensation produced by agiven amoun t ofagimexternal force, vary not only with theatructure of theorganism, specific and individual, as well as the atmo.

stituticnal state, the state of the partas modified hy m .

pers turc, circulation,and previousam end even with the

206 m mnoen ons or rsrcnower.

sensible motion and may be re- tranaformed into it, weare

by these names 5and that hence these feelinge cannot belike them. There follows irresistibly the conclusion thatthe same holds '

of taatesand smella— thatabitter flavour

but that. in theae casesas in the others, the objectiveactionwhich sets up the subjective state, no more resembles itthan the preesme which moves the trigger ofagun resem

bles the explosion which fiollows .

Finally , the induction extends itself to the sensationaoftenaiouand pressure which weascribe to mechanical force,ordinarilyao-called. The same weight produces one kindof teeling when

.

it rests on apassive portion of the body ,audanother kind of feeling when supported at the end of

the outstretchedarm . Or, to takeabetter case -if, one

hand being opened out on the table,aknuckle of the otherhaud is thrust dcwn with some force on the back of it,

there resultsasenaation of pain in the bsck of the hand,asenaation of preasure in the knuckle,andasensation of mus

deaths mechanical force in action resemble, qualitativelyor quantitatively ? Clearly, it cannot beassimilatcd to one

more than another of them ; and hence muat in itaelf besomething alien from , or nnrepresentahle by, any fedh g .

Thus weare brought to the conclusion that what wearsconscious

'

of as propertteaof matter, even down to its

knowable. All the sensetions produced in us by envh'on

natures ofwhidxwe cannet even ccncei'

ve.

m m m vrrr or rm mes. W

§ 87. This conclusion fully harmon izes '

with,andaia

how the stm ctum land fnnctional fi cts set down in the preé

A nerve is athread cf unstable nitiogenous substance

phery , along which, when one of im ends is disturbed,there runsawave of molecular change to the other. The

wave of change set up byaperipheral distnrbance is not

lihe theaction which causes it ; and the waves ef change set

have no such unlikenesses ss hsve the disturbances themz

selves. Hence being obliged to conclude that the kind offeeliug depends either on the character '

of the nerve-oentre,

or cn the way in which the molecular disturhance is

bmught to the nerve-oentre, or on both ; it becomes incon

efiectand that objective canse whicharouses it through theintermediation of changes resembling neither.

did, M every nervous disturbance propagated from peri

pha-y to mntre undergoes a multiplication, the degree of

structures passed through, and secondarily on thechangeablephysiological conditions which favour or hinder the multiplication ; it is clear that, if what on its physical side is acentral nervous disturbance

,is on ite psychical side s tealing,

tively as well as qualitatively, feeling must he relative to them tureand state cf fixo subject.

§ 88. But now let us not oves'look anall-importan t “

208 rs s mutati ons or m onomer.

which leads to elaborate systemsi

of erroneous inference. of

All the foregoingargumente,andallarguments of k indrednatums , set out by assuming objective existence. N otastepcan be taken towards tbe tru th that our states of consciousnessare the only things we can know, without tacitly or

existence which is relative to ourselves only, cannot beproved, nay cannot even be intelligibly expressed, without

which is not relative to ourselves. When it is argued thatwhat we are conscious of as sound has no objective realityas suoh, since itsantecedent isalso the antecedent to whatweare conscious ofas jar,and that the two con sequenta,being unlike one another, cannot be respectively like theircommon antecedent ; the validity of theargument depends

has been changing. Ifiatter finding that the ssme tcpid

water may feel warm to one handand cold to the other,

it is inferred that warmth is relative to our own natureandour own state ; the inference is valid only supposing theactivity to which these different sensations are referred, is

an activity out of ourselves which has not been modifiedby our ownactivities .

One of two things must beasserted z— Either theante09d of each feeling, or state of consciousness, exist only“ previous feelings or states of consciousness ; or else they,or some of them , existapart from, or independently of

, eon.

sciousness . 1f the first isaaeerted, then the proof thatwhatever

i

we feel exis tarelatively to ourselves only , beccmes

doubly meaningless. To say thatasensatiou of soundandasensation of jar cannot be respectively like their commonantecedent because they are not like oneanother, is auempty p oposition ; since the two fcelings of soundand jar

IV.

wasasu n vm or sensu ous nsrwsss resumes.

Q 89. The mildest critioism on this title will probabdy bothat it is an awkward combination of words ; and an out

meaning not properly expressible byany other title .Mind we formd to be composed of feelings and the rels

ticns between feelings. In the last chapter, it was shown

that the kinds andamounts of ibelingsare determined bythe nature of the subject—exist,as we know them, only in

beyond consciousness which cause them . And it is mepurpose of this chapter to ahow that in like manner the

minod by the netureof the subjecH xizs we know them.

cnly in consciousness,and no more resemble the connexions

there onteragents .

ness not simplyas oo—existing butas co—enisting in certainrelative positions— cc-existing, that is , along with

.many

of those intervening and surrounding positions whichare the units of our conception of Space . The relativity ofthess compound relations “ Co-existence, as we may callthem . must be dealt with first. Afiathem we will nass to

m m m vm or m m ss. 811

the ccrnpom d relsttons of Sequence, or those in which

of ststes of comcionsnem between which there sre inter

weignable quantity, is an element. We will next consider

beyond the mere conSciousness’

of Diflference, thei -e is aconsciousness of ' the degree of Difl'erence—relations of

M m , thst is , in which tbe related feelingsare con

ceived as differing in strength by assignable amountsfi erelations ofOo

tatiy e inrplications, may then occupy us.

§ 90. N o great efl'ort of imagination is required to sée

that the consciousness of space of three dimens ions, constitoted of trebly-compounded relations of Co-existence, is aconsciousness that varies qualitatively according to thestructure of the species. I t needs but to call to mind howgreatly our conception of space is modified when we are inadm'k place of which we know not the bounds, to perceive

that those inferior creatures which have no eyes,and cannot,save do in the dark, supplement present tactual experiencesby remembered visual experiences, must have conceptions of space quite unlike in quality to our own

,

whichare abstracted in so ls rge adegree fi'

om visualexperiences. Not only must the consciousnessof trebly—compcunded relations of Coe xistence be quali‘

tatively different in such inferior creatures, but also those

Cc-existenoe. A creature with eyes is capable of havingan the relative positions constituting an area, impressedon consciousness with apparent simultaneity but a creaturewithout eyes can become conscious of these multitudinous

212 m meann es s or rsrcs owcr.

relative positious only through continued tactual explou

tions, presenting most of them in distinct successi¢m. And

whereas space of one dimeusiou is knowable by the seeingcreature as aseem ingly - instantsueous consciousness of therelative positions of two things impressingmthe consciouu

ness of these relative positions inamaturo without eyes

(unisss the thingsare so closeas to be touchedat the sameinstsmt by two parts of the creature’s W ) m um be

seemingly instantaneous, but must last during theappreci oabb period required for muscular movement ofalimb, or ot‘the body , from one to the other. Of course such qualitative

sight. It may be added that there is evena

creature using the same senses . Take two objects suf

ficiently fisr spsrt to give standing room betwcon them.

distance, contemplate it afresh after having so placed thebody that one of them is in frontand one of them is behind.

I twill be fonnd that what is conceived as asingle rdatiouin the one case cannct be so conceived in the other. Whilestanding between the two objects, it is possible to think of

two relations of position with self.pound relations of Co existence as conceived by difl‘m ut

species, vary quantitatively with the structures of the species,great locomotive powers are not likely to have the some

ccnceptions ot'

given spaces as animals whose locomotivepowersarevery sms ll. Te a m-es turo so ccnstructed that its

by longand quick bounds, distances can scu cely present

the aspects they do toacreaturewhich traverses them by

214 m m ncrxons or rsres ower.

to it. Or, to takeabetter case—when the Snn is seen in themidst of the sky, with none but great angular spacesbetween it and the horizon, it looks very much los s than itdoes when close to the horizon, where the angular spaos itspaces.Yetagain , oompound relatinns of Co-existence vary with

a certain sense, qualitatively ; for so only can we expressthe truths thatapparent size depends on distance from thc

eye,and thatapparent form changes with overy ohange inthe poiht of view. The impressicnx made ou us

by tw objects to both ofwhich weare close, are connder

ably removed fi'om one snother in consciousness . Betas

we wcede fiom w ch two objects, that comm d relation ol

altogether : the twoimpresaions they give us merge into

acircle become to perception an ellipse when viewed

illustrate the truth that componnd relations of COrexistencs

undergo n specics of qunlitativavariationas the place of the

to difl’erencesamong the rates of quantitative variation ofthe many component relations ; but it is none the loss to beregarded as a qualitative variation, since M of

ratios of the cosoperative factors .

qu otitntin ly with the stroctnrq the sisq the ststo, snd

m sn m m r or m srxos s. 315

things, m y,asaspace-relation in consciousness, be singla

neu or far omit may be too large to be simultm eously

perceived or too small to be perceivedatall ; it becomesimpossible to suppose any identity between this objectiveconnexion and some one of the multitudinous subjective

§ 91. Thewmpound mlafiom of Sequeucq or those in

which we conceive phenomena as having occurred, nots imply oneafteranother, butas occupying places in con

scicusness between which there sre intervals measm-od by

derive our conceptiou of'l‘ime, do notat first sight wppear

to vary qualitatively. Reasons ‘

may , however, beassignedfi rmspeoting qualitative vm'iations in them.

arined by diflerences of specific structure. A stationarycreature wifiiout eyes, receiving distinct sensations from

irregular intervals, cannot have in its consciousness any

shrw rhythm of its funcfiona. Even in onrselves the mspi~

ratm'

y intervals , joined sometimeswith the intervals betweenthe heart’s pulses, furnish part of the materials from whichour cm sciousness of duration is derived , and had we no

continuous perceptions of external changes,and conse

quently no ideas of them, these rhythmicsl organic acfions

of Time : indeed, in the absence of locomotive rhythms, our

which our conception of ’l‘ime is chiefly abstracted, are not

216 m m ccrnons or m mosocr.

diEerence between that undeveloped sense of dum tion

that developed conceptioaof'l‘ime derived main ly fnom

outer changes, but conceived to be a£orm of both

variations in compound relations of Sequence as existing

tural did’erences which constitute difl‘erences of species.

into tolerably regular intervals ; thus yielding mmbetween states of consciousness otherwise caused—M dardsof duration. c e asmall creature, in whioh thoaerhythms are very rapid, must have aconsciousness of a

of it posseased byalargeanimal, whoae rhythmsare relatively veryalow. Agnat‘s wings make ten or fifteen thousandstrokes per second. Each stroke implies a separate

inanervous oentre, is probablyasappreciable hy the gnatas isaquick movemcnt of hisarm byaman. And “this ,

oranythiug like this, is the M theu the fime oceupied

by a given external ohange, measured by many movementain the one cu q must seem much longer than it seems in

theothu m when measured byaaingle movement.

relationact' SQ quence, isamatter of common remark. Pro

bably theaeare in part dne to difl'erw ces ofaiae,and con

oomitant difiereuoes in the rhythmaof the fnnctiona, vitaland looomotive x it rcquires agreater numhc ofachild’smovements thsm ct

’aman’s movementato measureaday .

Bnt that the change in the estimation of intcrvalaianotwholly thus caused, is manifest fmm the faot thataftermaturity is reached, they, oratauy rate tho longer ones,continne to nndergoaseemingahbreviation. Months to theold nwnappear no longu than weeh to the young man.

218 m m om-m s or rsrcs ower.

distance bm twc objects on me horison , csn bs msds

in actual perception like tho great interval which appearedbetween them when we saw tbem closeat hand. In other

words, there is a foreoshortening of protensive quantityanalogous to the fiue -shortening of extensive quantity ;whence it results that the intervals between passing ere

periences begin to seem less ss econas they sre M audcon tinually dwindleas we get further from them , untilat

mental peu pective is due the fact that, in rem spect, lifie

seems no longer at forty thnn it did at twenty.

concerning compound relations of (Io -existence, we must my

to which they answer, and certs inly theyare not quantitatively like them,

objectively originates our subjective conception of Time, isnot identical in nature with it, we have thereason that Time,consideredas an abstract from relations of Sequencc, mustpresent s difl’erentaspectaccording tc the degree of its dissociation from particular sequences. To a lowly-endowed

cannot appear what it does to a creature chiefly occupied

it is partially d issociated fi'om both orders of chsnges .

Whence it seems inferable that, only partially dissociatedas it ie,

which we must suppose it to have objectively. Andthat compound relations of Sequenceas we conceive them

,

cannot be quantitatively like the connexions beyondccnsd ousness tc which they refierfis pmved by the fact thatthey vsry in ths ir apparent lengths with the structure ot

’

the

organism, with its size, with its age, with its constitutionalstate, with the number and vividness o f the impressions

m m m vtn cr nm rxoss. 219

impom'

ble tc suppose equality between un interval ot‘ time

§ 9& Desper than the compound relations of Cc

existence and Sequence, is the compound relation of

Difi’erence ; since, beeides being invc lved in the commriscns

of spaces snd of timee, this is involved in compariscus clthe Forces mauifested in Spaccand Time. We may fitly

As mto aconception of twc tln'

ngs co-existing st anot

'

msny or few co-existing pcsiticns betW Gu them ; and asinto the concepticn of two chs nges sepsrated by sn sssign

ablemtm'vd of timq there enters the coneciousness of mm yor tsw intervening sequent positions ; so in to the conception

and the conceivedamoun t of difl’erence is deteamined by thenumber of theee degrees . What we hsve here to observe

stituted,have relativities analogous to those which exist iu

our conceptions ciamonnts ot‘ spw esandamounts of times .

That the componnd relstion ofDifi'

erence varies qualitativelyaccording to the struoture ot the species, we hsve no

fsxence has to be conceived in terms of impressions thatdiffer ; and since the conception of Difl'erence cannot bedissociated t

’

rem the ordcr of impressious in which it is

presented, if there is but oue snch order ; it may be inferl~edthat, in proportion as the impressions become more nmlti

tudinous in their kinds, the conception of Difference

220 m museum s or m onomer.

the sameas in lower creatmes .

is remembered that a difl'erence in forces does or does notgive rise to a difference in feelings, according as the or

ganisation is or is not highly recipient. Incident forces

ously unlike toacreature endowed with the senw m'

gansrequired for appreciating them . Where eyes are so littledeveloped that approaching objects are recognised only asintercepting the sunshine, it is obvious that contrasts oflight and shade which seem marked to animals with developed eyes, are quite imperceptible. Similarly amonghighly-endowed animals of diverse kinds. Between odour:bothof whichproduoe inaman no impression whatever, s*dog

results. A good esr detects several gradmlcns betweentones which toabad ear seemalike.

The bulk of the organism is alsoafiotor in modifying

likenesses ,are limitedat the one extrems by its sbility to

hear them snd s t the other extreme by its cat y for

being sem ibly sfl’eoted by thom ;and its size partly detsr

distingui shable'

by their pressures on the finger ; bnt if suc

cessiveiy borne byan animal not mcre tban s grain in

weight, a difl'erencs divisible into many degrees would

halfina-tom for he fails to pnt forth s force sufi ciemt to lift

either ; but it csn scsrcely be questioned that in the consciousnees ofan elephnnt, now losded with oneand now

22 2 m moucrmss or rsrcsmoer.

ness , rather thanany other,as hke the 1eality beyond cohscionsness, we must infir that there is no lilteness betweenany one of themand the reality beyond consc iousness.

§ 93. But now what are we to say abont the purs

relations of Co

considm-edapart fiom mnounts of Spsce, of Time, and ot

conceived simply as implying two terms that existat thesame time, but are not specified in their relative positions

,

has anything answering to it beyond consciousness ? Canwe say that out of ourselves there is suchathingas Snc

thing coming after another, without reference to the timebetw0en them ? And can we say that what we knowasDifierence, apart fi~om any particular degree of it

, hasobjective unlikenessas its cause ?The reply is that we cannot frame ideas of Co-existencs,

of Sequence,and of Difference, without there entering intothem idsae of quantity . Though we have examined apartthe compound relations of these orders, into which con

scionsness of quantity avowedly enters ; and though, inabove defining the simple relations of these orderatheavowed contemplation of quanh'

ty is excluded ; yet, on

looking closely into the matter, we find thatatacit recog

thought of without some amonnt of spaoe. Sequence

Did'

mence cannot be thonght of withoot some degree of

relations in their definitely -compound terms, applies tothem nndm' those forms which, byafiction ,

we regardassimple. All the proofs oi

’

relativity that held where theconceived quantities were large, hold howevor small thoconceived quantities become . And as tho conceived quan

m amm an u n ous. 223

ultimate elemsnts. We are thus forced to the conclumon

that the relations of Oo-existence, of Sequence, and of

scious ness .

Let us simplify the matter by reducing derivative relations to the fundamen tal relation , and we shall then see

tionof some difl'erence in thepcsitions of the things cc-exist

be known only through did'

erencesbetween the states of comsciousnessaccompanying the disclosure of the positions. But

them, are known through relations of B illet-once betweenthe feelings accompanying disclosure cf them ; they areknown through relations of Likeness, in respect of theirorder of presentation. The relation of Cc—existence, whichis that out of which all Space- conceptions are built, is onein which neither term is first or last : the terms exhibit

equality in their orderb nc difi'

erence in their order.Phenomena occurring in succession, like those occurring

consciousness. Intervals between themaredistinguished bydifierences in the feelings thatarise in paesing over the intervals;andwhere the intervalsarealilne, theyareso classed fromthe absence of such did

’

erences . But while the relationsamong phouomenain Time are known as such or such

oy comparisons of them, they are known as alike in this,that their terms are unequal in order of presentation— did“

224 m moccn oss or zsrcnowor.

of Cc-existeme and Sequen ce,are known through reh tions

of Difi’

erence and No-difl’eren ce. Sequence is Difference oforder ; Cc-existence is N o-difi

'

erence of order. Hence we

have at last to deal with the relations of Difi'erenceandhie-difference. And our entire consciousness being builtup of feelings which present these relations, both in them

ness of their order, thewhole question of the relativity of

relativity of the relation of Difference. This is readily

The sole elements, and the indissoluble elements, of the

relation are these s—A. feeling of some kind ; afeelingcoming next to it, which , being distinguishable as

the first ; a feeling of shock , more or less decided, necomo

panying the transition . This shock, which arises from thedifference of the two feelings, becomes the measure of that

of a relation of difl’erence, and by its degree thc consciousness of the amount of diEeren ce. That is, the relation ofDifference as present in consciousness is nothing morethan a change in consciousness . How, then, can itresemble, or be in any way akin to, its source beyondconsciousness ? Here are two colours which we callunlike. As they exist objectively, the two colours arequite independen t— there is nothing between them answering to the change which results in us from contemplatingfirst one and then the other. Apart from our consciousness theyare not linkedas are the two feelings they produce in us. Their relation as we think it, being nothingelse thanachange of our state, cannot possibly be paralleltoanything between them, when they have both remained

Q M It is prcpsr to point out thatall these conclusions,

226 m s moucn oss cs rsrcnowcr.

order which are symbolized by fundamental difierences ofsubjecfive order.For te say that what we know s s arelation betweenpositions in Space, cannot be like any objective nexus, sincethis relation of positions as conceived by ns vsries inde

finitely, is to say that there exists an objective nexus whichhu not varied. Two verdicts cf cousciousness respectingagiven magnitndc sre found to be nnlike under unlike

conditions of perception ; whence it is infsrred that neitherofthem is like themagnitude. But tho inference is nousenscif by this magnitude is meant something in consciousneu

,

instead cf scmething beyond consciousness . As itwas beforeshown in the csse of feelings, so it might hers bc shown in

the case of relations between melinga, the reasoning used

becomes both false in its premises and mean ingless in itsOf course, changing the terms, the

like holds with periods of Time Every argument provingthst our ccuceptions of Time sre relative, falls tc pieces cnwithdrawing the assumption that there exists some form of

Things from which Time, as a form ofThought, is derived.The assumption of an objective source for the subjective

relation of Difference, is implied in the last two assumptions.If, as shown above, all special cognitions of spaces andtimes involve cognitions of diderences and if, as shown

of CBc -existence, and Time in general, which is resolvable intorelations of Sequence, are separable from one another asbeing respectively constituted, the last by difference of

order, and the first by uo-difl’erence of order; it is clear thatthepostulstion of objective sources of these subjective forms,implies postulation of an objective source of Difl’ereuccAnd this postulation of an objective source of DiEerence,equally implied in all the arguments which prove therelativity of the conception of Difi’crence, has for its ulti

cl'

Fcrcc. Though tho rclation ofDifl'ercnce. constituted,as

m RELATIVITY Ol ' RELATION S.

we have seen , by achange in consciousness, cannot beidentified with anything beyond consciousness ; yet thatthere is something beyond consciousness to which it is due,is an inevitable conclusion ; since to think otherwise is tothink of change taking place withoutanantecedent.More certain , then, than the Relativity of Relations as

we conceive them , is the existence of N on -relative Formsto which they refer ; since proof of the first involves per

petual as sumption of the last. There is some ontologicalorder whence arises the phenomenal order we know asSpace ; there is some ontological order whence arises thephenomenal order we know as Time ;and there is some

ontological nexus whencearises the phenomenal relationknowas Difference.

Q W. As was pointod out in the second chapter of

this part, Feelings admit of a double classification. On

grounds of structure they are divisible into the centrallyinitiated and the peripherally- initiated ; which last are

by internal actions. And on grounds of function they aredivisible by a line crossing these transversely, into thoseprimary or vivid feelings produced by direct excitations,and those secondary or faint feelings produced by indircctexcitations. The one class, known as sensations, are sometimes called presentative melinga; and the other class,known as ideas (though this word is more commonly

Thus far littls regard has been paid to this grouping offeelings which has in view not difl’ereuce of kind bnt difference of degree. Though throughout the last two chapters,wchave tacitly recogn ined the distinction— though, in dealingwith the relativities of feelings and of relations, we have

between the vivid feelings or sensations directly presentedand the faint fsalings or idcas in which thcyare represcntcdyet no definite statemw ts have been made rmpccting the

230 m m cm os s or rm .

bhst of ak m pehagm mw ahim may bo imsghedand pressure, if less representsble,are repressntsble resdily

the smoothness and roughness, of M t surf-ea,

initiated—thoss of tasteand m ell—areneither so easily uor

bered inan instant ; bntaspecified flavonr or odour is not

so qnickly recalled,and the ideal feeling does uot sppros ch

havividnem so neafly to the wd feeling.

We ps ss to the peripherally-initiated feelings of internalorigin . A particular mnscular efi'ort cannot be representedas quickly or as clmrlyasapw onlar sound or oolour ;

snd thoughan intense pain sud'

ered inalimb may be re

the ideal ps in does notapprosoh so nesrly to the realps inas does s remembered scresm to the consciousness ofanactual scream, or ss does the thought ofafissh of lightningto the perception of sflash of lightning.

ordinsry ststes of tbe visceragive rise, we find the degres

of revivsbility very small. It is dificult to oall into ccn

sciousness the feeling of hunger. To think of the circus»stancesalong with which hunger occurs is easy ; butafler shearty meal it is next to impossiblc to representany degrseof that craving for food which existed before the med .

Of the centrally-initiated feelings or emotions,the like is

true in a qualified sense. As before pointed out, there

divisionas between cctualand ideal feelings of other kinds .

Emctiom are excited, not by physical agencies themselvesbut by certain complex reh tions among them . Hence

,only

by representations of such complex relations are ideal

ras srvwssmm os rsstmos. 231

emotions aroused. When so aroused, however, they mayrise to any degree of vividness , until thsy becomeactualemotions. But the fact which we have here to noteas comforming to the principle enunciated, is that an emotioncannot be at once revived in the same way thatafeeling of

fight or sound can. It is impossible to bring instantly intoconsciousness the passion of anger, or that of joy, in however

calculated to produce it 5 and this takes an appreciabletime.

98 . The revivability of past feelings varies inversely asthe vividness of present feelings . This antagonism holds toacertain degreebetween pastand pmsent feelings in general ;but it holds to a much greater degree between past andpresent feelings belonging to the same order.Take first the general antagonism . Every one knows

that when a tremendous sound oran astounding spectacle

anything else— next to imposs ible to en tertain irrelevan t

filled with the present overpowering impressions as to extrude our habitual ideas : producing what we call absenceof mind. Less extremc illustrations are furnished by theinterruptions to currents of voluntary thought that resultfrom violentpains or loud noises. And that theabuttingout of primary feelings facilitates the revival of secondaryfielings , is also implied by the common habit of closing the

The more special antagonisms are of considerable interes t.

any order, while they have much power of excluding fromconsciousness primary feelings of the same o

rder, have less

power of excluding from consciousness primary feelingsof othu orders . Herewe have to note, what may be re

233 m m cn os s os rsw r.

gudedasacomllary, that pl imm1 &d ings of sny order m

greataobstscles to secondsry fselhigs of thnt order thanthey are to secondary k elings of other orda. Vi sual

M d m disfincmsss oflfsrasw oely -applm bb

amelody. The revivsl in thought of s pcrson recognised

yo tsrdsy,’m but little hxterfesed with by thew om of the

objects held in the hm dmhinder us much from thinking of

the sounds weare hearing tsnd very decidedly to keep out

of oonsciousness other sounds of which we wish to think .

Visual sensatsons'

stand oom der-abl'

y in the way of visual’

of lower orders.

worthy of notice ; since thsy sdm it of being generalis sd,

ordsr resist ths secondary of the same order to the leastextent 5and that the resistance becomes more decided in

Begmnmg with the moct

mlstional feelings, it is observahls that only hy avsry intense visual sensation are the idsas of other

sible whils staringat the Sun to think of green ; but it is

coloured red. to think ofapatch of gmen covering part ofitsarea;aud we can, with considerable distinctness, ixnaginethe clustsred oolours founing the rememhmnce ofany object,

sctual objects quite diffsrent from it.impressions thalihe may bs said. Loud sounds prsvent us

finm briogiag ths ideu of othsr sounds mto consciousuess ;

234 m m ncn os s or rmaowor.

eXperienoes with less common experiences. The colour ol

the paper in a frequented room, subdued though it ismanbe very distinctly recalled. The tone ofavoice which is

than the tone of a voice, not more marked in character, thathas been heard but once or twice.But the other things which we have snpposed to be equal,which, as we have seen, influences the revivability, than is

ways. These we must now consider.

§ 100. The degree of revivability ofafeeling depends inpart on the extent to which the nervons centre concernadwas capable of undergoing much molecular change, andevolving much of the concomitant feeling, when the original

mine its capability . A complete state of repair is one o!

them. An active circulation is another. A blood rich inthe materials required for both disintegration and integmtion is athird. The raspective ahares of these fsctors

But the influences of two, at least, may be pretty clsarlyidentified.

class of impm sions—swhsn , that is to say, the nervous

the hnpressions m eived cannot ban called u clearly as

circnh tion hsabesn pmduced (cases to be dsalt with nndertho nu t head), it is afsmiliar fact thntafter many hoursspent iu listening to music, or in look ing at pictures, theclustered sensations, auditory or visual, are either not

whiohame first in the oonoert or the pictum gallery . If

m W M W W W GB.

we take longer periods of continuedactivity , brolteu thoughflieyare by short periods of rest,alike fact meets us . Theu pw ence of every tonrist suppliesan instance. H is firet

grumd mountain -views he can call to mind more clearly thanthe cqually-grand views he had after being among the

Thst feelings excited when the general simulation is veryvigorous are more revivable than usual, is a truth that maybe vnriously exemplified. Evidence is furnished by both

Impressions of trivial things in which noparticular interest was taken, often survive in memory when

trequently be found that such impressions were received

or both, had greatly raised theaction of the heart. Thatat

exceptional degree, the clustered sensations yielded bym ounding objeotsare revivable with great clearness , oftenthroughont lifmisafact nofioed by writers of fictionasa

As with these quicker

The receptivity of impreesions is high during those portionsof life in which the blood is propelled in fulland rapid

ytufi , are long remembered ; and while the vigour ofmanhood continues, the sensations and emotions leave

revivability of feelings excited duri ng a state of feeblenessh oumparafively small. Ths efiects of depressed circulaM whether prodnced by disorder or byage,alike show

The lowered action of the heart whichaccompames'

great nervous prostration, hss for one of its

236 m m m oms or rsrcnowor.

saidand heard are forgotten very quick ly—ofien iaafirwdays. Even the lowered vitalactivity which we lmowasgreat fatigue, is characterised byadimin ished n tsutivensss

abundant evidence meets us . Gradually as the vigourdecreases there comes an increasing failure of memory.The cxperiences of amonthagm or of lu t weeh or q

yesterday, are not revivable ; and in ths olosing stages of

decay things thatwere lookedatand sounds thatwere Mar-dbutafew minutesago,are found to have left no traces.Them is masou w think that independently of ths gsnsralcirculation, exaltatious and depressions of the cerebral circulation, whether normally orabnormally prodw ed,alsoafiect

experienced.the degree of revivability of the feelings

§ 101. All the circumstances under whichan excitationoriginally occurxed being supposed the same, the degres ofrevivability of the feeling that was produced, varies with thephysiological conditions that exist when the revival takes

place or is attempted. Other things squahagiven pu t

or uotat dh sccordingas the nervous centre concerned is oris not well repaired aud well supplied with blood at the

assignable in pmof of this proposition is mostly entangledwith that sssigned in proof of the h st ; butasufi ciency ofit may be disentangled.

In that state of high spirits which results from goodnutri tion snd raised circulation, it is observable that thamemoriesare more distinct than usual. Ideas rise up iu

abundance without sfl'ort. Similarly, the vascular excitomeut cacsed by emotion, providing it does not reach thatexhaus pitchat whioh it pm fiates thn heu h m uses arash of unusually vivid ideas— ideas so vivid that fi ey m

gay .ascribed h tundue vivida- s of

dah of Psycholog , must bs notiusd.

m M M M gaofm y urdc tmd to

d tb m m m Matb y do idm cf othsr

m yw om pact of it b hs ocm o

M u m m wmlam m m d h is occupmd m

m BBVWABILITY O) m u s es.

is obvious that they must produce in high degrees thosestructural changes, whatever they may he, to which therevivability of the feelings is due.

Sim ilarly, it follows that those exaltations of vitalactivitywhich facilitate such structural changes,and aid the rapidnutrition which perpetually prepares the parts for them,

must conduce to the revivability of the feelings experiencedwhile depression of the energies must do the reverse.

UHAP'I'KR VI.

m e urvn’w nm or n u n oxsam ass names.104. Much ths t was ss id in the last chspter in illustrs

tion of the pmpositions it sets forth, serves to mush -s te ms

pan llel propositions to be set forth in this ehapter. Mind

and every mental not involving both kinds ofoomponents , ithmppm s that, in exemplifying the revivnbility of feelings asmodified by various condition s, there has been exemplified

Nevertheless, there remain to be enunciated truths whichin the last chapter were but tacitly implied, and other truths

of a feeling involves revival of the relations in which it wasoriginally experienced ; and though revival of a cluster of

another ; there is not involved in the recognition of thesefacts , the further faot that relations msy be in great messureparted fiom the rels ted feelings oud revived by themselves.Since quite different pairs of impressions may sand toous m other in the same relstion of oo-existenoe ; snd since

s sequence msy hold wgether impressions now of this order

m d now of that 3aud sinoe difl’erences the same in degmo

here by impressions ofanother; it results that relstions of

242 m mouerros s or rsi cmowor.

ehape, recurs more resdily iu thought than does the pcrticular intensity of sny one of the pressures, or than does

tory fi elingg this contrast is more decided. To beginanair in the right key, most persons fiud very diflicult : without the help ofau instrument, the first uote is often wrongbyathird or evenafifth. But tho duration of the first

note is more nearly remembered. Though the timeatwhich

It is further observable, as showing the same thing, thatwhile the rhythm ofamelody may be repested in theught

ing with the same en ctness the rich timbre of the tones in

which we heard the melody rendered.

When we descend to the least relational feelings, thegreater revivability of relati ons than of their terms becomesvsry manifest. We remember foralong time withaccmm y the spot in whichanacute pain was felt, thongh the

nal scuteness 3and if the pain wasathrobbing ome, we caurecall its intervals withapproximate com ctness. Bo,

too, is it with the central fielings. Ths mocession ot

certainatrong emotious passed through yesterday, is easierto recall than the emotions themselves . It is the same with

oumsh uces tmder which we m angry m y be reproduced

in consciousness instantly ; hut theangsr itself m not be

It is worth oonsideriug whether ths p ow’

bility of em

m n mam m or m m oss. 248

We habitus lly pass in thought fi-om concept to concept,

relations of its elements to oneanotherand to other things .

If the feelings betweeu which all these relstions emstarose in consciousness with as much promptness and vivid

that iuvolved proceases of reseon ing would be greatly im.

pedei if not prevented.

§ 106 . As dilferent orders of fieeling sare mere or loss

relationaLso, too, inasense, drfierent ordm of relationsaromore or less relational. For justas some kinds of feolingssre more capable of entering into relatious with onem ther

M other kinds are, so some k inds of relatiousare more

poundedumd are, indeed, trebly compounded in most actsof thought : impressions are presentedand represemted in

those triple relations of position involved in the conoeptionof place. Sequeneesare mueh less relational ; for they can

st ones, but only iu oue directiou. Successive intervals of

eqm -l ;and in the beatsand bars ofmusie, these relatiom of

theprimary omes—thoso ofDifl'cr-ence ; for though these en terinto relations with one another whenever we contemplate

yet (unless itbe in the higherdivisions ofMathematics) theyde not enter into relations more compound than these.This desen

'

ption of the several classes of relations asmore or lee-relationaLis intz-oductory to the fact hsre to

244 m anom m s or m caower.

be sst dowm that justas the mm t rehtional of feelings

am the most revin hh , so, too, are the most relational ofrelations the most revivable. Belations of Co—existsnee,

Mfing ths pampfion d afom or whether we take the

havsarevivability far exceeding that ofall other relatiom .

to be oocupied by other objects , or to be unoccupied.

extreme that they caunot be wholly suppressed—anassem

hhge of thsm gm ter or las in u tent, partly oocq risd

of mnsciousness.

existence,are less reviveble. Though it is true that, as

organised into theahstraot oonception of’l‘

ime, relations of

uess thm thoss of Co—existem yegas thuaabstn ctsdmheydo not form so dominantan element of consciormnem : the

thoughg h m ch luger m d much clearer than the integratedaggregsts of time-relations. It is observable, too,

out with greateraocmncy the length ofan inch or ofafoot,than we can ass ign the leugth ofan interval u being one

minuts oras being ten minutes.Birnpls relations of Difi

'

erence (those between feelings)are ueithm'

so readily nor so sccm tely rsvivsbleas relationsof Difl’erence between co-existeuces or between sequsnces,

nor u the relatious of Co-cxistence md Sequence thm

N 6 m m am reer.

himtion ol intsrn ls vholly difiaent from m other to which

meut ofamelody in l-tin s while listsning toamalody in

possible to

but cnly fin dhdplinod mns iciau canawmdat once to ides l

another.

R is obfiou th t pren uted mk fim of Difi renw be

m um b led inn m dm muoh more in the wny ot

w wd reh tions of Difierence between simple fieelirQ s

w m m w m m m fi

§ 108. A kindred u-uth to behere notiosd (tho om tsr

pu t to which should hm s besn noficad when dealing withthe revivnbility of fw liags) is that the sspraatation et

m y relatious is hindsred by tho prssenos dn consciousness

oitha- great or iusuperable if ths two sets of relationsare of ths snmo orderfis comparstively smaflif thq are ot

difl’erent ordm .

it e most rolational of relatious may bo superpossd iu

thoughs one set upouanother zwe csu imagine the out

is may imeg '

neageometrical figure dssaibsd om the

unlike sets of sequsness. The rhythm of some tune which

bat talion possession d umm d of which we vain ly u'

y to

rid ourselves hy thinking of other things, may be sflhotuallym w m m mButahm the reiations m of difl’eu ut ordm their re

pie-M s have but little power of mutual es clusiou.

We see this in them o jmt referrsd to ; fer the tunem t

m m m m or sm rres s . 247

we sre thinking ofplaces , oracticm , ormattsrs ot‘ busmmHence. too, results the frequent failure cf the receipt fer

obtaining sleep when eurcited—that of counting ; forafier

the exciting thoughts.

§ 109 . From the mentd conditions that afiect the re

vivability of relations, we pass now to the physical conditions thatafl’ect their revivability. As might be expected,those which hold with feelings hold also with the relationsbetween feelings. It is needless to trsce out their in

finances as fullyas before. A singls illustration of eachwill sufi ce.

time when the nervous centres are worn by long-continued

by the familiar experience that knowledge acqu ired by“cramming” is soon lost.

pressed when the circulation is vigorous are more re

feeble, we see in the decaying receptivity of ego. During youthand early manhood, it is easy to recall thevarious events on each of the successive days recently

of the month ; hut as life advances and the heart’s

the circulation was strong and that were once easily recall»

with nervous subjects to make mistakes in spelling quitesimple words ; and m states of extreme prostration such

persons, as wellas those greatly reduced by illness, forget

Q uality , as wellas quantity , of blood has an influenoe.

348 m nmucrm or m cmowsr.

A fact before refened to as illustrating the relativityof relatious, may here be again named as illnstu hngthe variations of their revivability thus caused— the fact,namely , that opium produces intensified and en ggm tsd

§ l lO. On oomparing these subjective truths with the ob

jective tmths presented by the nervons system , wemay traes,as in other cases,ageneral congruity .

That relations of any order, pres ented or represented,greatly hinder, or wholly prevent, the representation of relations of the same order, but hinder much less, or scareelyatall, the representation of relations of other orders , might be

aplexus of nerve-fibres, there is propagated the particularset of nervous disch rges whichanswers physically to whatis psychicallyaacertain set of perceived or conceived relaotions, sn obstacle is thereby put to the simultaneous propagation through them ofadifl'erent set of nervous discharges

whichanswer to relatious ofanother order, may be simnlo

and may yield to consciousness its partially- independent

theactions of ths two plexuses having to be co-ordinatedatsome oommon centre (for otherwisathe corresponding ideuwould not belong to one conscioususes) there mustalwayaresult some interfcreuce.

That the revivability d relatious vu -ies with the state of

repair of the nervous centres and the supply of hlcod to

For he it high repair, or much blood, or special quality of

blood, it is clear that whatsver conduces to apom ful

nervous diwharge fineugh m y plexus of nm e-fibm the

physical ohanges in whichanswer to the psyohical chm ges

CHAPTER VII.

7 8 ] ASSOCIABILITY 0? PM

§ l l l . In precediug chaptsrs ,agood deal has been sl id

the head oasociation . When tracing out ths compoeh

ticn of Mind, we saw that feslings cohere in unlike degreesiu diflerent tracts of oonsciousness ;and what wers there

ciations. More recently, too, in the chapter on the Revivability of Feelingg much was tacitlyasserted rapeoting theAssociahility of Feelings ; since, other things equal, reviva.hility variesasassociability .

Ths truths thus observed from poiuts of viewalreadypassed, we must neverthelem here briefly glanoeat afreshfromamore advanced point of view, before we go on toconsider csrtain further truths covered hy the title of this

chapter.

§ 112 . We divided feelings into ths central, commonlytrons'

g which last we re-dxvrded"

into those internallyand thoee externally initiated, or epi-peripheral. Of these

lational ; the seoondare somewhatmore relstionah and wcthirdare relational inacomparativelg high degree. Be

m assocuasmm or m es. 251

have no limitations in space and are but vaguely boundedin time, we found that, passing through the onto-peri

pheral to the epi-peripheral, we come to feelings more andmore definitely limited by one another in space, or time, orboth : the sharpest limitations being among the feelings

with this increasing definiteness ofmutual limitation we sawthat there goesan increasiug tendenoy to mutual cohesion .

feelings. The relational are the mutually-limited, whicharethe mutually-coherent, which are the associable. Feelingsof the central or of the ente-

peripheral k inds which have

been experiencsd together or in suwession, either do not

recall oneanother into consciousnes s atall or do it but

feebly after many repetitious ; while feelings of the epi -peripharal kind which occur together or in succession but a fewtimes, become linked in such a way that the vivid or the faintform

'

of one arouses the faint forms of the rest.* Indeed

in serial or simultaneous groups cause such connexions, thatone member ofagroup being afterwards presented or represented

, represenh tions of the other members follow it, oftenwith few or no omissions.Manifestly, associability and revivability go together ;

since, on the one hand, we know feelings to be associable onlyby the provedability of one to revive another, and since, onthe other hand, the revival of any feeling is efl'ected onlythrough the interrirediation of some feeling or feelings

‘ Thoughavivid or faint antsoedeut fealiag m ally hriugl into cou

W aih wm sqm t cnlyafaint feefing yet it is not tm q u oom

n only suppossd that ths oonseqnent is ueveravivid feeling. Idm dq in

m m m m u tionaSeveral instsucss oceur in my own experi

n ee. I eannot think of sseingaslats rubbed withadry sponge without

cum m wd in the hst chapter, may be pesued over.

§ l l8. There m inato be herc oonsidemd the ulfim to

m M 4 4 13 . M i

w For, to m a symbolicabthat in the whm t dates

WMchhold them m pectively to the coupled elemenmh t us state the m m more specifically.

Of m fad ing. M Mom justafiel m other, immies, first, thew h fu hug u suoh or mch— implm reoogmtwn of tt m

m, ineome o

rullw'

ih charucm g mafeeling

b efill m xmnhted to mme geuus of m

M or bitm or sour. The oousciou um fum m

o r“

.f

‘

f.m

h

’c nv

r/

(a,

Pi W J J

5 ‘ a I.J

.“

I y "

v

Q a; jL" “

x

0v 0 m

"i-

Vq n.

s

" "I

1, all 0 ail.e E a h

'”(r

Of

, 4 We ,0_J .

.L' i’ ,

I. "7‘

lI

254 m m crms s or m csom .

disturbedaction of the heart is often metsphoricully idcno

tified with the emoticn causing the disturbancc, yet evcryone really distinguishes between the consequenceand the

cause, and classes the cause apart.pass to the ento -pcripheral feelings it isat once obvicns

that each, in tlse instant of presentation , is kncwn asini tiated within the body . Be it one of the leuct lccalisableof these feelingsmuchas hungen or be itamore lwalimhtcone, suchasapain in the bowels , or be it one localisahlewith comparative definiteness, ssanache in the finger, it ic,as having aphce more or leu bounded within the bodilyfiemework, at once sepurated in consciousness frosn thc

central feelings on the onehandand froun the epi-periphcn lfeelings on the other. The only owes where this association is indefinite,are cases where the feeling is initiatedings ;as when an itching just below the surface is con

founded vfitb afickhng upm the sm-fiice cras where thcsensaticn of heat due to sub-cutaneous congesticu is undis '

tinguished from the sensation of heat due tcadjacent hotmatter. The opt-peripheral feelings show us thisinstant integration of each with its class, even more conspicuously . The sensation produced by a blow, by something graspcd, by su odour, by afiash, or byasonorous

at the surface and ascribed to objective actions. The associs ticais notamatter into which thought orwill enters :it is instantaneous and absolute .

A further fact of kindred meaning may now be noted.

its clam only , butalso with its sub-class. The centralfeelingsare but indefinitely divis ible intc sub-classes ; andhenceamong them there is but littlc manifcstation of this

truth. We may pu s over thcm.

m aswou murr or m tmos. 255

quite clearly. On thrusting itself into consciousness , one

of these, while known as originating within the body, is atthe same time knownasacraving, orasapain , crasamus'cular strain : it falls into its secondary group while fallinginto its primary group. Similarly with the epi

peripberal feelings. A colour the moment it is perceived,not only irresistibly aggregates with the class of feelings

butalso with the sub-class of visual sensations,and cmnot

be forced intoany cther sub-olass. While being recog~

nized, a sound falls simultanecusly into the genersl sssem.

converse with the external world, and also into the mone

specialassemblage of feelings dis tinguishedasauditory ;and no efi

'

ort will separate it from this special assemblage.And to say thatasmell cannot be thought of ss acclourorasound, ’

is to say that itassociates itself indissolublywith previously-experienced smells.

A sub-sub-clsssification of like nature is no less in»

stantaneous. This is traceable to a considerable extentamong the feelings excited within the body z hunger isatoncc known as hunger and notas thirst ; an acute paincoheres in thought with acute pains, and not with what wedistinguishasaches . But it is among the feelings yieldedby the special-sense organs that the sub-sub-classing ismost conspicuous . When we lockat the sky, we think of

its colouras afeehng of extemal origim ss belonging to

the sub-division of externally-originated . feelings calledvisual,andalsoas belonging to the group of these calledblues : it does not suggest reds or yellows, and refuscs tc

unite with them in consciousness. A mouse’s squeak as.

similates itself in thought with sounds of high pitch, andnot with sounds like the bellowing ofabull. The tasts ct

honeyaggregates with sweet tastes m gencrsl, cf wh1ch it is

one—notwith such taste-as thoseofquinine, cr ofcastcro il.

i m m crsoss or rsrcnowot .

with dnll onee cr ss whm loud sounds ct'any pitcheug

cther lond sounds of that pitchand not faint ones .

i

f ;

This aseociation isautomatic— is notan sct of thonght

recognition of each feeling . A feeling cannot form sn

with prcdecessors more or less the same in nature. In thc

instantly with the great group tc which it belongs ; in.

atantly, too, with its sub-g’

ronpwithin this gand,among therelational feelings, g'ocs practicallyat the same timc into

its sub-cub-group. Thoautomatic charucter cf the process

in qualifled only when we come to tbe smallest gmups,appreciable intern l. Thn s, the sensation of red passes inamoment to its class es cpi-pcriphm h in the same momentto its ordcras visuahand with cqual rapidity to the

genus of colours dists’

nguished u reds ; but it falls intothe spccies knownas scarlet or that knownas crimsou lesspromptly,and it isamatter of dcliberaticnand uncertaintywhetha' ws thiuk of itas like the scarlet ofasoldier’s coator likc that ofapoppy- h ke the crhnson ofapeony or like

258 m m cn ons ov m cnowor.

own sab-liiviaion of centn l vesicnlar stm ctnn . And ifao,

with these of its own mder, m wm payohim lly to thelooalin fion of the nem ns exd tementans ing igwithin thatmbdivision of veaicnlaratructm'ewhich is the seat of other feelingaof itaorder. That tbe likeholdaof still smallergronpa

What is the implicafion ? If the m oeiation of each feeling with its general dm answers to the localim fion of tbe

in whichall feolingo of that clam u ise— if theassociation of

thiafed hg wimimmM M amm ers to the loahn fion of

mass in which feelings of this sub-claaariae,and so on to

the end with the smallest gronps of feelingsand smalleatclustcrs Of ncrve-vesiclés ; then , towhatanswers theaasec iation of each feehng with predecessors iden tical in kind lItanswcm to the re-u citation of the particnlar vesiclo or

up in oertain vesicleathe molecnlar changes whioh thoy

atimuli ret upanch ohangea- in theae vu iclea. And the

spondato the phyaical re-exoitation cf thasame strnotnm“ M agmaaabon deaa'iboi haaadefinito phyaicalW 3 md that thm h m mom forany othc hw

ofan ociation of teslinga.

ran ASSOCIABILITY OP RELATIONS BETWEEN nau sea117. The associability of relations, like the associability

of feelings, has been to some extent implicitly dealt withunder preceding heads . When considering the compositionwi th one another in consciousness and what was there described as cohesion of relations is otherwise dcscribable asassociation of relations. Again , in the last chapter but one,

they are associable in different degrees. Moreover, we saw

cal ; whence it follows that their associability similarly

Though these truths need not be again contemplated indetail from our present point of view, thereare one or twoleading aspects of them which we mus t glance at before

passing on to the general law remaining to be set forth.

5 118. That the most relational of relationsare the mostassociable is a truism ; for the relations which enter intorelation with one another most easily are the relationsmost easily associable with one another.

'flie most relational of relations m as we befcreaaw,

260 m moocnoss or rsrm wer.

those of OO-existenceas visnally presented ; and thm aroassociable with extreme facility . We sleep inastrange hedroom,and getting up in the dark to reach the water-bottle,recall at cnce the position of the washing-stand. We reada book, and without having specially observed the fact,

bottcm ofaleft-hand page. So qnickly do these relations of

cf many things seenat the same instant can be simnlta

watchingare readily remembered, though we fail to re

member the crder of many snch moticns. After- hearingthe first bar or the first phrase ofanew melody, it is easyforthwith to repeat the rhythm in thought ; but the series

moat minds at least) recur correctly without repetitionsmore or less numerous. This smallerassociahility is, however, chiefly shown in the contrast between our ability to

ability to recall many sequences presented together. Welook inwaroomand instantly connect in consciousness the

butwe eannot in tho same way talre inataglance, and mpmdnw m thonghn the m eral combined movements ofahom in trotting : we oan clen iy think cf the alternataswings of the fore-legaby themselves or of the hind- legaby themselves ; but, unleasafter specially obaerving it, we

the near fore-leg.

Thm is eonanlerablea-ociabflity cf oo-existences with

sequences—M sequences , at M in which the eo

262 m m m s or rsrcs omai .

as likely to be due to the starting of the othertrainas to fi estarting of cur own. But the tendency slways is to thinkthat our own train is moving. Continually we find enrselves wrong 3 bnt the knowledge of the fact that underthese conditicns the sense ot

’

our own motion - is ofien illn

sive, does not enable us to exclude it. Theassociation of

these relations has '

become automatic, and the resultihg

§ 119. Before seeking the ultimate law of m och

tion of relations , let us observe how relations, like feel¢ings , aggregate with their respective classes and snb

taneously , the relation between them automatically classes

preven t it frcm cohering with that great division of relm

tions the terms of which do not difier in their order of pre.

Bo, too, when Wing the motion ofabody l’rom one place toanothern fhcnlistening to successive words , or when pemeiving lightaftsrstrikingamatch, the relation between the states of enascicusness pmduced, instantlyand in esistib lyassociates itselfwith Seqnences. To be conscious of the relation atalh isto be conscious of itas belongiag to that great divisicn of

relations the terms of which difi r in their order oi’

pre

tentation. It automatically clasws itself with time-rela

implies its sssimilaticn to Diflbrences in genersl . While inthe order of itaterms the relation can be knownatall onlyas ‘arelaticn of co-existenoe oraeqnm ce, its terms can beknownatallas t tanding in reh tim only by dmtinguishiqbetween them in ecnscionsneas ;and theact of distingahb

m assocu e rr or m m ess

At the same time each relation passes into one or otherm m A co-existence betm nw mela

onlyzbyaeomparatively deliberateact of thought, renrem

off internaland external. This classifioation of them neces

sequences between internal feelings and those between ex»

belonging to the Ego or sequences belonging to the N on

egej andn o member of either gmup is transferable to the

eocupam y— cannot thinh of itasadifi'erence between times” w as , In being conscions of two notes in mnsic

as ttanding to one another in the mfio of minim and

266 m u nccrms s or rsrcsemor.

“ m am m am m m mclass of contrasts in intensity— refnses to be thought ofaaAmong space-relations may be obsm edafurther stage

dividedas definitelyas are the sub- sub classes of oertain

assemblages which have refeience to the n 'rangements of

the limbs and scnsm . In the moment of perception a

such reh tions composing the conscicnsnm of the spacebefore ns— cannot beassociated with theaggregate of snch

In like manner the relation at onoe cohereawith the still

mm special group of relations constitufing the spacewedhfingnhh u abovaor the spwe we distingniahas below ;and it isat the same timeantcmatioally clamed with spacarelations to the rigbt or to the leit. Only when it is verynear to the ideal bcnndaries we make between theae regiem

of space, may there bean aasociation cf it witli some other

Weare now inapoaition toappreciate the significanesof the nltimate wgregations . On looking ,aayataflowerby the roadside, the relationsamong the feelings of colonr

selves with rslations Of OO-existenee in general, with the

the -ubosub-ch ss of these relations forming the space infront of ns,and with the still smaller group of theae u lationsaggregatod into our conception cf the spaoe low down

the vidon) these relations of oo-en’stent poaitions presentadby the petah of thaflower,au ociate themselves in cono

266 .m m cueu or rm ower.

Im promptly with the reh tiom os'

co-existent pssifionathat are almost identical : there is somo nm h intyin the estimation of the disttnce— anwhich is considm ble in apm on with bnt one eyo,

estimate, or to rc-class the relaticn .

lawmay be oimilarly n'aced smong timc-relationa. SupposeI rocallan event that occun ed yeaterday ;as, for instm ce,

the uncxpectedan -in l ot’afriend. It h ohm abh in the

tiens of aequence which constitutc the conoepfim of the

time befcre yestaday . do not (unless by m e l econdaq acfienm into conaciousnm atall. h is obm bh in tbe seem d

ph oq that the united rdafim of u quencowhich formacon.

aneti'

ympm bnt m repwcented only in m ch genadm u wyiddameasme of the du tance bwkat which themen t occurred. While it is oheeflablq in the third plnce,M the porfion of time to whw t e om ciom m

rcmcmbaing tho firstaight of my fi-icnd’afice yuw dayJthink not only of hh m fle of u cognmomol my qnick m ptowards him, cl out shaking hands, of the words tlmt

W m m into tho room, of my seaingtho bwk of oomo pason lookingatapictmmof hiatarninground as h -fing aq of my m dn on seeing who it

m am mm or m n os s. 267

was. I fiud, too, that the moments immediately sdjsoent toany one of these remembered actions, become more distinctin consciousness than those at some distance on either side

ol it. I I I recall my entrance into the room, the pos itionain time which made up the interval before my friend

turned round, represent themselves quite clearly— far moreclearly than those preceding his knock at the door orthose succeeding our salutation . To make these portions of

Space, that esch plsce in itassoeiaws i tself with places st

the same distsuce fi-om the place weat piesent cccupy ;andsewe tum om'

s ttention now to one part of the pastand now

onr consciousuess of that part beoome clesr, whileall othes-s

120. Every relation then,like every feeling, on being

presented to consciousness, associates itself with like predecessors . Knowingamhfiomas wenss knowingafieling,is theassimilation of it to its past kindred ; snd knowing itcompletely is the assimilation of it to past kindred exactlylike it. But since within each great class the relations paceone into another insensibly

,there is always, in consequence

of the imperfection of our perceptions,acertain range within which the classing is doubtful—acertain cluster of raintions uearly like the one perceived, which become nascentin consciousness in theact ofaes imilation. Along with the

perceived pos ition in Spsce or'h me the contiguous positions

arise in consciousness .

Hence results the so-called s of Association by Coutiguity. When we analyse it, Contiguity resolves itself intolikeness of relatiou in '

l‘ime or in Space or in both. Let

m observ'e hew in theassocis tion of like relations there is

On the oue hand, relations cs' di&renoeand the time-rela

268 m m ocm s s or rm eower.

I.

l’

i in the.

l.

of Tm m

the other hand, there can be no couscW ol'

theas rela

tanconsly yield them. We can think of space-relationa,allbut absolutely empty, but we m uot think of anythingapproaching to empty timeo relations. Time having but onedimension, and the measure of that dimens ion being the

by some feehngmrcal or ideah 'l‘ime has no dimeusion. If

the objects m m d m perfectly sutionn y m d sflent, “have still the rhythm of our functionsand the current of our

thoughts to yield us marks by which to measure dnratim .

time, we cannotaasociate it with its cluster ofalmost eqoidistant positions in time, without being conscious more orless clearly of the feslings which occupied thosealmost equidistant or contiguous posi tions. As sociation of feelings

Paasing to contiguouaco-em'

stent

I’

cclings , we may see that theassociation of them resulb

fromafurther complicatiou of the same process . Feelingsknowu in sequenoe, and serving as marks that measureden tiommay be sounds or odours which do not necem rilyconnote Spaceatall in arudimsntar-y consciousness. But

the sequent feelings are passing. These simultaneously.

which psu ist side by s idc in oonscionsuess overauappmci

associatsd with theao in their time-relalious. Hence on re

callingany relafiou of ssquence, thersarsapt to recur th¢

270 m m m s w m cuowcr.

associatiouare two nspects of the same sct. Aud the im

plicotiou is that hes ides this law of sssociafion thm is no

other ; but thatall further phenomenaof u socmtion

§ 121. The oongruity hetweon this conch sion snd tho

Eccts of nervons structureand fimction is evident.

tive correlatives of what we know subjectively as relationshetwem feelings. It follows that juat ns the m ocintion ofa

gro up, anawers to the locslimtion of the nervous chm go

d thst m within some port of thac ; so theasso

snswm to the locsliu tiou of the nervous discharge withinsome greetaggregote of nom -filwes , within some division

of that ngm fi thin some bundle of that divisiem.

Moreovcr,as we befom concluded thst the nssocintion of

ewh fieeling with xaen ct counterpnrts in pu t experiem ;

m wers w the m em iutim of the mme ves icb or vesides ;co herewe conclnde that the ssscciation of enchrelation wi thits en ct oounterpn

-ts iu pu t experience,auswers to the re.

ewcitation of the ssme oom ecting fihre or fibres. And sinco,on the recoguition of snY Obt his re-u citution of the

plexus of fibres and vesieles befom jointly excited by it,

consfituent foefing with the like relstion snd the like feelingooutsined in me prerious consciom ms of the object ; it is

d in k -dam m in cousciom ess m ided belingamm to some red tooling which this trait oncearoused ;

THE ASSOCIABIIJTY OF RELATION 9.

the cause is thatalong with the strong discharge throughthe whole plexus of fibres and vesicles directlythere is apt to go afeeble discharge to those vesicleswhichanswer to the m issing feeling, through those fibreswhich answer to its missing relations, 5 repre

scutation of the feelingand its relations.

PLEASURES AN D I’M .

§ l22 . Tun foregoing chapters contain such an outlineof the Inductions of Psychologyas the plan of this work

than can beafiorded,and would too much interrupt the

mena as inductively generalised,which cannot be omitted

without leaving this outline incomplete . Thus far we havespoken of Feelings as central or peripheral, as strong orweak, as vague or definite, as coherent or incoherent, asreal or ideal ;aud where we havs considered themas difi'ering in quality, the difl

'

erences named have been such as donot connote anything more thanastate of indifl'erence inthe subject of them—apassive receptivity. But there areoertain commou characters in virtue ofwhich Feelings other.wise quite unlike, range themselves together either underthe hsad of pleasurable or under the head of painful. Justas we saw that the divis ion of h

‘

eelings into real and ideal,which is based onafunctional difference, cuts across thedivisions into central

, entoo peripheral, and epi-peripheral,

that the division of Feelings intoagroeabloand disagreeable,

heterogeusons m bhge m u tiom fiom all pu 'tl md

274 m m sm s or rsrceowor.

silence. Only sfier being confined for days in the dark doesthere come a positive longing for light and colour. Theabsence of odours never becomesan element of discomfw t.

tastes,as those of sweetness,and still more certs inaoquimdtastes,as those ofalcoholand tobacoo, come to be mnch

desired ; yet the cravings for them are by no mesns so

which they sreapt to be oonfounded.

cmvings of the ento-

pariphoml order occur some of ths

strongest. Insotion of the alim0ntary canal is soou

into something more intenas . So, too, that allied in.

action due to deficiemcy of liquid in the ingests , brings

ou the longing we call thirst, which also may rise to

a great height. And similarly with the abnormal appetites for habitual stimulants. We must not omitthe disagreeable state of consciousness caused by muscular

oscencaoften very manifest in children, must be numbsred

tbe dissatisfactions brought on by certain iusctions of tho

in holding converse with our fellow-beings, leads byand byto gres t misery. The entire sbaenoe of marks of ap.

preval fmm thosearound us , causes s state of oonsciom

ness difiicult ' to besr ; and personsaccustomed to positivsspplanse feel unhsppy when it is not given. In liks msnner.

ths faoulties which have the closer humsn relatious for thcir

msrb d that the intenser forms of dim'ess csused by tho

m enses m o rants. 275

breaking of these closer human relations, are not to be included among emotional cravings ; but result from the

representation of a future in which such cravings will never

We now turn to pains of the opposite kind— the statesof consciousness that accompany excessive actions. Ofthese there are, of course, classes corresponding to theabove-described classes of the pains of deficient actions.They must be briefly enumerated. Among theepi-peripheral feelings, those which originate on the generalsurface are conspicuously capable of being raised to a painful strength. The sensation of heat much intensified passesinto the unbearable sensation we knowas buruing or scald

au intolerable state of consciousness. Doubtlws, too, allsmarts and aches caused by bruises, wounds, and otherinjuries of the surface, imply the undue excitement of nerveswhich when normally excited yield the normal peripheral

treme that cannot be borne with equanimity. Persons inthe cupolafi'

om whichacannon is fired, or those inabelfrywhen a pos i is being rung, have vivid experiences of this.It is not often that visual feelings reachaheight which ispainful— in men, at least, whose eyesare strong. But menwhose eyes are debilitated cannot look at the sun withoutsnflering , and even find it unpleasant to gaze at a largearea

agreeable, do not become positive pains. Inhaling ammonia does, indeed, cause ak ind of smart ; but this ,arisingnot in the olfactory chamber so much as in the nostrils , isn ther to be classedas an intense form of common sensation. Tas tes, too, though many of them are repugnant, donot become painful by increase of strength ; nor when therepuguancy exists is strength always a needful condition.On the one hand, suchatasteas that of cod- liver oil is dis.agreeable even thougb slight ; while, on the other hand,

18

276 m u occnos s or m csom r.

Among feelings of onto-peripheralofigim the counexiou betww n pain and excess ofactionis familiar. Such of them as accompany muscular strainsshow us pains reached through intensification of fi lings

consciousness of exbemc efl’ort is ahigher degreo of the

ordinm-

y consciousness of ehbrt. But pag ing ovcr the

onto-peripheral pains of this order, it is to be remarhedot the rest that theyarise fi'

om excessiveactionain organawhose norm l actions yield no feelings. The pains consequent on repletion come fi-om mrte which, when not over

taxed, add no appreciable elements to consciousness ;andit is thus with the viscerain genen l. The like may be

directly due to excesses ofaction of the limbs themselveaor parts of them. Such pains , consequent, let us ssy, on

gout or onalocel discaee, imply ext1eme demandamade ou

feelings are scarcely in any case made painful simply byexcess . N ormal emotions responding to the varions nom i l

siou to sts tes in wbich “joy is almoct pain,” showinga

pereeived approach to this etfect of excem ; but if pain so

caused is cveractually reached, it is very rarely.

Thus recognizing ,at the one extremo. the negative painsof insctions , callcda

lt iatrue that the positive or negative painattonding onew oWr of the exti-mais m issingamong wtions of certainagmeablo sm whon of medium intensity. ln somo of theascases tho explauation is that no feehng of the order due to

278 m m ucrws s cr rsrcaowor.“ theyat pmm t sfi eh we shall find no solufion 5 but wo

may findasolution if we turn to ths past conditions underwhich feelings have been evolved.

Q»124. Let us first glance at the fact, suficiently obviousandaniliciently significant, that the extreme states, pos itive

inconsrstent‘

with that due balanoe of the fimctxons'

con

situting healthgwhereas thatmedium statealong withwhichpleasure occurs, is consistsnt with, or rather is demandedby, this dus balance. This we m y see d pn

’

ori. In amutually-dependent net of organs having a consonant of

special function, impliss that ths absencs ot its functionmust cause disturbance of the comm —implies, too, that

tenauce of the com asuc goes along withamedium degres

mediumactions productive of plw ure must be beneficial,

abundantlc d d pecton'a-i whae the actione m of

all-essential kinds. Hereareafsw cases .

Intense cold snd intent both causeacuts mflhfing,and if the body is long exposed to tham both causs decthawhile s moderate warmth is pleasurahls and conduces to

ahurtful inaction of the digestiu organa,and if this cravingaud this inaction persist the result is fatal. Conversely, “aolid food, or liquid, con tinues to be swallowed under com.

pulsion, regardless of the painfixl sensations produced, thecfl'ccit iaalso detrimen tal,and may eren kill. Bat hetm

are the pleasurcs d eating , whichare ksenest whsn tho

benefit to bo derived is greatsst. Toapsus on in hsalth“UM M W M W M W W

mam m rm 879

of the muscles is unbearable ; and this inaction rs injuriousOn the other hand, extreme exertion of the muscles ingeneral is alike distressing and productive of prostration,while exertion of a particular muscle pushed to a painfulexcess, leaves a temporary paralysis, and occasionally, byrupturing some of the muscular fibres , entails prolongeduselessnw . Arrest of breathing by forcible closure of theair-passages, causesan intolerable state of consciousness ;and life soon ceases if there'

is no relief. Ths breathing of

foul air is injurious as wellas repugnant; while the breathing

abovs pointed out, we cannot be debarred from thous andtherefore havs no craving for themand little or no pleasurein thsm, yet we are liable to sxcssses of them and ths

It is even so with sxtremely strong tas tesand smells . The

intense vegetal bi tters are poisonous in any considerable

indeed, immediate ly destructive of the membranes theytouch. And gases that violen tly irritate when inhaled, “concentratedammonia, or as pure chh rine, or as hydrochloric acid, work deleterious sitcom.

These facts shonld of themsslves sufi cs tc prodnoe ths

conviction, spite ot’apparent exceptions, that pains are

the correlativss ofactions injurious to the organism, whileplea-m es m the oorrelatives of action s coudncive to its

ductiom from thess instanws y ielded by the sssential y ital

hypothesis of Evolution, that races of sendent creatures

280 m m uom s or m cnowor.

125. If we substitute for the word l’leasm'e the eqnivs

lent phrase—afeeling which we seek to bring into con»sciousness and retain there, and if we substitute fer theword Pain the equivalent phrase—afeeling which we wok

to gct out of consciousnessand to keep out ; we seeat oncethat, if the states of consciousness which a creature unduvours to maintainare the correlatives of injurious actions,and if the stews of consciousness which it endm vours

it must quickly disappear through persistence in the in.jut

-ions and avoidance of the beneficial . In other words,those races of beings only can have survived in which, on

agreeable and habitually-avoided feelings went along withactivities M ly or indirectly destructive of life; and themmust ever have Men

, other things equal, the most numerm and long—continued survivals among races in whichthese adjustments of feelings to actions were the bes t, tending ever to bring about perfect adjustm ent.If we except tho human race and some of the higheatallied races, in which foresight of distant consequences iatroduces a complicating element, it is undeniable that era-yso long as it does so, and desists fiom each act which gives

unabls to trsce involved sequences of eflects, thsrs can beno other guidancs . It is manifest that in pmportionas thisguidance sppmacbes completenem the life will bo long ;andtbat ths life will bs short in proportion as it falls short cf

equal, the longsfi lived individuals of any spec ies will moreli-equen tly produce and resr progeny than the shorter-lived,the msscsndants of the one must tend to replacs those of

the othsr—aprocsss which, squally opsrativs among j hs

‘

283 m m cnm or rsrcumoot .

ing predatory life, only incipiently social, which they had tolead. Inadequate supply of wild food compelled some of

their desceudants to beoome pastoraland agricultural ; andthese multiplied into populous tribes and eventually intosettled commun ities. They were thereby cut off fromaotivi»ties lflte those of the meu whose charactere they inherited.aud were forced into activities to which their inherited

measure to be, the source of discordances between in

clinations and requirementa. Ou the oue hund, theee

still survive those feelings, quite proper to our remote

structive activities of the chm and in warfare—feelingsas is the conduct they prompt, is

the pressure of population a necessity ; and though tocivilized men work is by no meuns so repuguant us to

haaat present gone by no means so far thatpleasure is habitually found in the amount of work hebitu»ally required. Further, it is to be observed that msuy of the

thrust on the members of modern societies, are ia-dooriugs inherited fiomaborigins l men , but in direct conflictwith those more remotely inheritedand deeply organisedfeelings which prompt a varied life in the open air.

the uormal guidauce,are indirectly caused by fiiis enforcedpersistence iu habitaof lifeat variancewith the uoeds of the

constitution. A sedeutmy oocupatiou pursued for yeau inaconfinedair, regartflees of pmtestiug eensations, briugeaboutadagenemte phyaical state iu which the inheritcd feeling

m n e m rm 288

are greatly out of harmony with the superinduced requiresments of the body. Desired foods, m'lginsllyappropriato,

Amounts of exertion and excitement naturally hmlthfulandgran'

fying , are found injurious. All which evils, due though

feelings , come eveutually to be mistaken .for proofs that the

There is yet another derivative cause of

Men whose circumstances compel them day after day to call

shut out from most of the pleasuresaccompanying the dueaction cf othcr powers,are liable to carry too far such ple~curableactionsas remain to them . After dissgreeable statee

consciousnees is receivedwith eagernees gund in theabsencoofalterm tiveagleeuble states is maintained by too grcatapersiswh ce in theaction which brings it. Hence arisevarious k inds of exceas . Feelings which would not havemisled men ifall their cther feelings had hudappmpriatesphem of wfiom beoome misleading when thcse other feelingsare repressed. And then thm is charged upon the

enforced disobedience to the rest.

cox-dances by the re-equilibratiou of constitution and condi

m ons . They are these. As pointed out in theorgamsm

to new circumstances becomes lessand leas easily efi‘ected bysurvival of the fittest in proporfiouaathe orgunism becomes

284 m m ucrm s or rswsower.

pm-ficular imfitness : especially if,as nsnally happeuo, there

Indirect equilihration can play butasecoudary part,and thechange having to be wrought by direct equilibration, or theinheritance of functionally-produced alterations

, is slowerthan it would otherwise be.

such help to re-adjustmentas would result from survival ofthe fittest if individuals in most respects ill-fitted wereallowed to disappear, is in great part prevented. Indeed,

In the case of mankind, then , there hs s arisen ,and mustlong continue, a deep and involved derangement of the

reverse connexious are supposed to obtain . And the halfavowed beliefivery commouly to be metwith, that painful

has been, and still is , upheld by creeds which preeent for

theworehip ofmenaBeing who is supposed to be displeu ed

with them if they eeek gratifications , m d to bepropifiated by

127. Here, however, we accept the inevitable corollsryfrom the generd dooui ue of flm lutiom that pleusm m

the incentives to life-supportingactaand pains thedeterreutsfrom lite-destroying acts. N ot only do we eee thatamong

far m regmd s the function s on which lifie immediately

286 m m cm os s or rsrcuowor.

consistent with parental welfare. If we cauuot infeiy ssaresult cf survival of the fittest, that the guidm ce

of the feelings is here beuefieial to the individnal, we canat

conditions, and taking account of the qualification justmade, we conclude that, up to the reproducnveage, paimure the coucomitants ofactions injurious both to the individualand to the species, while pleasuresare the conoomitantsofactions beneficial both to the individual and to the

species ; and that while,after reproduction commencea, thesame relations continue to hold, the additional relations between feelings and actions which then arise, may be of areverse kind, but that the reversal cannot obtainamong the

§ l 28. A few words must be added on ono further

question—What are the intri nsic natures of Pleasures andPains, psychologically considered 1 This question appears

out hereattempting to unswer lt, I will briefly set downthiee allied geueral t‘acts which indicate the direction in

which uuanswer is to be found, if them is one.

Pleasures toalarge extent,and Pains to scmeextent, mseparate from,andadditional to, the £eeliugs with wfi ch wehabitually identify fiiem. If I hesrasound of bmutiful

lmt if this sound is unceasing, or perpetually repeated, thostate of consciousness loses itsagreeableness withcut ctheiuwise changing. A glow of delight accompanies the sightcfafine cclour ; butafter having the colonr befm the eyes

foralong time there remains ouly the consciousness of its

quality—the delight is gone. Similarly , if I go on tastingwm thing swwt thm comesatime wheu the grafificutioumds, though the sense of sweetness coutiunu . Doubtle

m eas u r e-mm. 287

the sense ef sweetness imelf eventually beoomes desdened ;but the gratification gives place to nauseabefore this

happens. Among Pains the parallel fact is leuconspicuous ; but it is nct difi cult to perceive thatalougwith thc localised pain, say ofabm ise oraburm there

goesan elcmeut of distresathat is not localised.The second of these allied truths, illustrations of which

Paius may beacquired—may be,as it were, superposed on

familier instances cf theway in which long pers istence inasensation not criginally pheasurable, makes it plm surable

with varions foodsan d driuh , which,at first distasteful,are

sayingsabout the eflecte of habit imply reccgnifion of this

truthas holdingwith k elingaofotherordeu .

acute pain can be superinduced on feeliugs ofiginallyagreeable or indifferent, we have no proof. But we have proofthat the state of consciousness called disgust may be madeinseparable from a feeling that was once pleasurable. Theextreme repugnances shown by children to the sweet thingsgiven them along with medicines, are illustrations ;and pro

aome instance of acquiredaversion of another order.

The third of theseallied facts is that Pleasuresare morelike one another than are the feelings which yield them,

The wave of delight produced by the sight of a grand land

eu expressive musical cadence. There is close kinship be

word and the other by a highly poetical thought. Nay, itneeds but to mark the accompanying expression of face,

288 run ninucn oss or rsvcs onocr.

fume yields is to a considerable extent of the same nature.

Indeed, the frequent applicati on of the words sweet, delici»

pleasure, shows that this similarity is habitually recognised. Pains display this kinship still moreconspicuously. Though the ordinary feelings of heat, at

but little, yet when they are severally raised to high ihtensities the resulting pains are nearly allied. Indeed, thereis an obvious family likeness among all the peripheral painswhen intense, and among all the central pains whmi intense.These three general facts talren together, warrant the

suspicicn that while Pleasuresand Pains are partly con

stituted of those localand conspicuous elements of feelingdirectly aroused by - special stimuli, they are largely, ifnot mainly, composed of secondary elements of feelingsystem. In s future part of thiam k we may find furthq '

reasons for lmlieviug thiia

CHAPTER I.

turn AND m as cos nssrosnsxcs .

’

Q 129 . Having in the first part of this work contemplated those facts of nervous structure and function whichform the data of Psychology ; and having, in the part justclosed , grouped together the inductions drawn from a

general survey of mental states and processes ; weare pre.pared for a deductive interpretation. The field of inquirywhich we incidentally entered in the last chapter, whenseeking an explanation of the phenomena of pleasure andpain, we have now to explore systematically throughout its

If the doctrine of Evolution is true, the inevitable implication is that Mind can be understood only by observinghow Mind is evolved. If creatures of the most elevatedkinds have reached those highly integrated, very definite, and extremely heterogen eous organizations they possess, through modifications upon modifications accumulatedduring an m umble pas t— if the developed nervous

Tt hsph rsh ndsmphcsd fln chspha in ths originsl edition

“ Method, I hops svsntually to includs in an intruduction to M

M Emepthy the om ission of thu s inunductory chsptag ths Gm flarmed-remain in suhstmos uuchanged ; hnt it hu w umuch impron d

in n pru sion.

292 m am m rm rs.

structures and functions little by little ; then, necessarily,the involved forms of consciousness which are the correlatives of these cornplex structures and functions musthave arisen by degrees. And as it is impossible truly tocomprehend the organization of the body in general

,or of

the nervous system in particular, without tracing its successive stages of complication ; so it must be impossible tocomprehend mental organization without similarly tracingits stages.Here, then, we commence the study of Mindas objec

130. From what point are we likely to obtain thewidest view of this evolution? How shall we guide ourselves towardsaconception general enough to include theentire range of mental manifestations, up from creaturesthat yield but the faintest traces of feeling to creaturehaving intellects and emotions like our own 1In pursuance of the method of choosing hypotheses, wemust conipare mental phenomena with the phenomena mostlike them

,and observe what character, presented by no

other phenomena, they both A generalimticuuniting two different but allied classes of facts,unitesall the fscts contained in either class. Henoq if wc

find a formula which along with mental evolution includesthe evolution un rest akin to it, we shall, by implication,

evolution. It may afterwards he needful so to limit thisformula that mental evolution alone is expressed by it. But

we shall best fulfil the requirements of clear exposition hyfirst exhihiting mental evoluticnas it may be most gene

W h hm msdo b tho cmitt d m hdM namad hi th

294 m m 8mm .

correspondence. It was pointed out that, beginning withthe low life of plants and of rudimenmry animals, theprogress to life of higher and higher kinds essentially consists in a continual improvement of the adaptation betweenorganic processesand proccsses which environ the orgauism.

Weobserved howalcng with complexity cforganizaticn theregoesan inorease in the number, in the rauge, in ths specio

ality, in the ccmplexity , cf theadjustmsnts of in ter relationsto cutcr relaticna. And in tracing up the increasewe fcundourselves passing without break from the phenomena of

bodily life to the phenomena ofmental life.We have now to startafi'csh, and to dsvelcp the genaal

§ 132 . In dcing this it will be needful to hegin with th

life oi'

forms alm st too simple to be called organ isms, thstwe may note the first traccs cf diflferentiation betwsen thsvitalactions we classas physicaland the vitalacticns weclassas psychical. Though throughout we shall continuetoregsrd these two classes ot

'acticnsas falling withmmone ch ss marhed cut by cm dsfinitiom yetf as we fcllowunder each of its sevsralaspscts the progress of the ccrre

readerwill nct fail to observe howwepass from ths physicalto the psychical the mcment we riseabcveflw currespoud

CHAPTER 11.

m s cos uzsrosnss cs as mam m nouocs s sous.

133. The lowest life is found in environments of un .

existencesand sequences ; but thereare some which, forashort time, present co-existences only ;and in these, durhigthis short time, occur the least-developed organic forms . Ofthose classed with the vegetal kingdom, may be in stanoedthe Yeast-plant, and the Protococcus m

’

valis or red snowOf those held to be ofanimd natm the Grsgm

-inaand the Hydatid may be taken as samples.The life of each of these organisms consists, almostwholly, of a few contemporaneous processes adjusted to the

The yeast-plant has for its habitat a fluid consisting of

in minor proportions. That it may flourish, the water mustbe neither very hot uor vsry cold ;aud light must be ex

eluded. The conditions being fulfilled, the yeast-plant disphys what we call vital changes, in correspondence withchemical changes among the substances bathing its surface.The cell grows and multiplies ; the fluid ferments ; andwhile the fluid continues to supply the needful materials

the same phenomena. But let ths temperature be consider

296 assert sam nesiaably raised, or some of the ingredients exhaus ted, and the

actions cease. The life, limited in length to the brief period

during which the environment remains practically uniform,

exhibits no successive changes such as those by which ashrub responds to the alternations of day and night, and ofthe seasons. Excluding those modifications of form andsize which are the necessary concomitants of continuedassimilation, the only sucw saive changes exhibited by theyeast-plant in common with the higher plants, are those

probably are by the diminishing quantities of the materialsneedful for growth, these generative actions may be te

gardedas succeasive changes in tbe organism correspondingwith successive changes in the environment , and mostlikely there is no organism but what, in addition to the

orders of changes,answering in this case to the twoalloessential functions of assimilation and reproduction, exist

pleat relations in the environment ; and ending as they dowith thst new state of the envimument soonarising, ths lifieisas shortas it is incomplex .

It is needlcss tc present in detail each of the other cases

simple and constant in chemical chu -acter,and restrictcd in

plication lsrge tracts in thearctic regious iuaaingle night,during which the circumstances must remain almost uni.

form, this minute organism exhibits vital processes corre

quences. To a new state in its medium, it does not adapt

the intsstines cf oertain insscts ; which is thm bathed by

298 m m en tran ts.

heterogeneons than the watermitherof the seaoroi’apond;heterogeneous . For every portion ot

'

the wort bathing thecell-wall et the yeast-plant.and

the

every portion ot’

the nutrip

tive emulsion surrounding the Gregorian», presents thematter to beassimilated , but every portion ot

’

the water in

not present nutriment. Evenly difl’uaedas the food of the

first is,and irregularly scatteredas is that of the h st, theexternal relations must be more homogeneonato the one

than to the other. And manifeatly, an organiam whoasmedium, though unceasingly disintegrating it, is not unoeasingly supplying it with integrable matter, but m en“

contaotwith the requiaite quantity ot'

integrable matter, ormust cause themedium to move psst itwithauch velooityonle, orarelativemotion,as the sponge towardathewater itdraws in and expela. Thus then, the addition of mechanicalchanges to the changes displayed by motionless organim s, is

theaddition of new internal relations in eorrespondsneewith

It is, however, to be remarked, that theprooesses by whichmovements of this order are effected, are themselves in direct

pm ent pmperties of the environment. The fact that thecilia-yaction of t

'

reah-water creatures ceases when theyareput into sea-water. and that of sw water creatures whmtheyare put into ftesh-water ; the fact that when cm tmeadiaplaying it have been killed, the ciliaryaction on nninjuredparts, m d even on parts that have been cut off, continues fora long time and the further fact, discovered by Virchow,that ciliary motion which has oeased may be re-eacited byaaolufion of caustic potash ; unite to show that the motionof theaamiceosoopio hairais caused by the immediatacon

m cosansros nss cnas nmsc'r um noxoonmous. 299

tact of something in the environment—consists ofasuccession of m inute internal changes, in correspondence withthose m inute recurring actions of the medium which thewaving of the ciliathemselves involve. And the occasionalsuspensions of the motion may possibly result from localdeficiencies in the medium , of those materials or conditionsthat determine it ; in which case this slight heterogeneityin the mechan ical changes answers toaslight heterogeneityin the environment.

THE CORRESPONDEN CE AS DIRECT BUT HETEROGEN EOUI .

185 . The advance, of which we have just marked thefirst steps, fromacorrespondence that is nn iform to one

that is varied, begins to show itself distinctly when thereoccur either absolute or relative changes in the environment.

needful elements , bathing the organism on all sides, areever presented under fit conditions for absorption by it,pass to a habitat in which the needn elements, thoughalways around, are not always presented under fit conditionsfor absorption. And among animals, it is seen both on

passing from the Protozoato the higher aquatic creatures ,

in the condition of having their nutriment less uniformlydifi

'

used, and on passing from aquatic creatures to terrestrialones, to which the less uniform difi

’usion of nutriment is

not relative only, but absolute . The result is, that besidescorrespondence with a few ever-present (so-existence: in the

quences in it. Let us glance at each class of cases.

186 . The higher plants, requ iring not only carbonic aciddiluted with air

,but light, a certain temperature, a certain

soil, and a certain quantity of moisture. show us variations

802 m um . m m srs.

certain'

special'

changes, correspondi ng with special changesin it. Though to the chemical, therm al, and hygrometricactions affecting the whole mass of its medium, the actions

going on in the plan t slowly xespond, they do not respoud

to surrounding mechanical actions ; as those ofawire

leaves. But tho most conspicuous of a zoophytd sactimare those which follow the tonching of its expanded tem

supply matter to be integrated so uniformlyas it suppliesdisintegrating matter, the mophyts must obtain matter to

seen. Second, that theability to m pomd, not simply to

the co-existeuces and sequences presented by the wholemass of the environment, but to the co-existcnccl and

in the correspondence ; which isalso rendm d more hetero

§ 138 . 0fall these cases however, as of those in the

last ehapter, it is to be remarked, that the correspondence

hetween internaland external relations en ends only to

external relations which have one or both terms in contactwith tbe organ ism . The processes going on in the yu st

plant cease unless its cell-wall is bathed by the saccharine

sence of light and heat z until tbey are thus upplied it

m oossssrosnmcn u nm cr m m xoam roos. 308

remains inert. And so too among the lowest animals, thesubstances to be assimilated must come in collision with

the organism before any correspondence between innerandouter changes is shown . Alike in those forms of life whose

whose environments perpetually present them, but under

not full of integrablematter, yet contain it in suchabund.

ance that mere random locomotion brings them in contactwith a snfi ciency and in those whose environments con

tain it in moving masses so numerous that, thongh them.

—alike in all theee forms of life, there is an absaice of

CHAPTER IV.

m coanssrosnss cs as m m mo m su es .

Q 139. On ascending from the lowest types of life, inwhich the adjustmen t of inner relations to outer relationsis thus limited, one marked manifestation of the heightening correspondence, is the increasing distance at whichcc-existences and sequences in the environment produceadapted changes in the organism . This progressaccompanies the development of the senses of smell, sight, hearing,era,and the subsequent development of the intellect.There is reason to believe that the susceptibilities toodours, colours, and sounds, arise by degrees out of thatirritability which animal tissue, in its lowest forms , possewes . The saying of Democritus that all the sensesaremodifications of touch, modern science goes far to confirm.

Smelling obviously implies the con tact of dispersed particleswith a specially-modified part of the organism—i mplies thatthese particles are so carried by a current of air or waterasto impinge on this modified part. Hearing results when wefeel the vibrations of the air lying in contact with our bodies.As the skin at large is sensitive to a succession of mechanical impulses given by dense matter ; so certain externalauditory structures, easily moved, are sensitive to a far morerapid succession of mechanical impulses given by matter of

great tenuity . The organ of sight,again , is one through

which the pulses or undulations of a yet more delicate

806 m m

absorb natrium which is «M en-fi ned “) fins

among ths lm gl , l k il , and k idnsyn ; thst repmdnnfin

powsr which with thm is localimd. Whamas in flwM m d fl the body mni sts cf nmhing mm

thanasunctnreless subsh ncs , snd where,as in somewh t

dih entiated, dces each part loss the power ct'

subo

serving othcr prcccsses tlmn its habitnal one. (Pn uayh”Biology : 57

But this spscialiu ticn ct‘

functions does nctaltogetha“ tho physiclogical divisicn of labour” has bem carrisd

Lungsand kidneys can tc scme extent supply saoh cther’s

shortcomings. t n the liver fails, bi1iary matter is gct

glands of the mouth become supplementary excretingorgans. And the skin, while having mainly the function 0fq scting perspirable matter, yet remains, tc some exf-wt,

gencity of thncticnarises out of a primordial homogeneity,

pmpared fcr apuallelism ct'

method and resnlts in the

svolufion cf thst cther divisicn of lifs consisting of tho

csrtain oom unity ct'

t’

uncfion throughout the whols orgu o

ism—s posseu icu by the whcls osganinn ct'

thcso suscepfi

m m mau m ssnmc msrwx. 807

cars, nose, and the rest. The nucleated pm tcplnam which,by one process of difl'erentiation and integration, givesorigin to the internal and external systems— the visceral

the pcwers ct'

the lastas wellas thcse of the first. Not

functions, hut the subdivisions of each of theae, must be

every part ct’ the elemental tissue possesses in some slight

degree. In t us glanceat ths genesis ot’

the several senses

Between tcuchandass imilation there existsfin the lcwest

The Am bmaspeck of jelly having no constant form, sendsout, in this cr that directicn, prolongaticns of its subsM ce.

One of these meeting with, andattaching itself to, scme

relatively fixed object, becomesatempcrary limb by whichthe body ot

’

the creature is drawn forward ; but if this prolongaticn meets with some relatively small pcrticax cf

orgu xic matter, it slcwly expands its exwemity round this,

the mass of the body, which collapses round it and presently dissolves it.

'Dmt is tc say , the same porticn cf

the tactual and absorbent functions united in one. And ifwe assume, as we may fairly do, that the behaviour of thispro truded part when its end touches assimilable matter,

is caused by a commencing absorption of the assimilablematter, we shall seeastill clcser nslation between the pri

In the same phencmenawe may tracsanascent senss of

808 arm am en ts .

even by the simplestanimals . Bhisopods do notabsorb

organ ic bcdies . And bearing in mind that to crcatm s

living in water, the inorgamc or innutritive mattersarc,generally speaking, the insoluble, while the organic or

to the setting up ofan assimilative process when assimilablematter is brought in oontact with them,and tc theabsencsof that process when the matter presented is not assimilable

taste, is, primarily, one aspect of that integrating actionwhich mainly constitutes the life. For thus interpretingthe facts we have the warrant that, even in its highestdevelopments, tasting forms one link in the chain ofass imilativeactions . The month is pu t of thealimentsry canal,which secretes digestive fluids and takes up dissolved substances. The mouth does both these : its saliva is a digestive fluid, and in the act of tasting, some of the dissolvedsubstances are absorbed through the mucous membrane ofthe tongue and palate.Smell has the same root with taste, and remains through

out closely associated with it. In aquatic creatures the twosenses can be but degrees of the same : the one rsspondingto a more dilute solution of nutritive substance, and theother to a more concentrated solution . As the solublematters which surroundafragmeut ot'auimal tissueare notconfined to its actual surface, butare difl'used in the earrounding water with an abundance that decreases as thedistance increases, it is obvious that a greater susceptibilitywill rendcr the fi'agmsnt pcrceptible before thm isahsolntscontact ; and that so, taste must pass gradually into smell.

with touch, is displsycd evcn in man. The nerves ot’

both

310 “ new sm an .

msy expect that on passing fiom them tc vcgetalandanimal

ability tc decompcse carbonic scid by theagency cf light

more wanting. Recently disclosed facts answer to the expectation. In thc first place, the researches of Schultae goto establishan identity betveen the chlorcphyll of plsnts ,

aud the cclouring matterof suudry low typcs ofanimals , “for inm nce the Hydra. In the second ph cq the Hydf u

cf the vessel in which it is placed. May we not inm thattho seusitiveness to light which the 1731e exhibits , msultafrcm thcaction of light cn its containsd chlorcphyll ; that“in plants, thisacticn is one throughwhich the ccmponsnts ofchlorophyllareassimilated ; m d that thuathe powa' which

due toamcdification produced by light cn the geucn lvital processcs ? Any doubt that may be felt rsspecting

that even in oursclves the general sm'face of the bcdy

ing cf the skin caused by long exposure tc sunshins , implissamodifiedassimilation in ths tissue psnetn tsd by light—aIn transparent and semi-transparent creatures

,any such

photogenic efl'ect must pervads the whcls body ;and if scit is easy tc nnderstand how light may producs mn ksd

changes in such cxeatnres .

That hearing has, liks the other senscs ,aroct in the

But tor m psoting that it, tco, is difieuentiatsd from thsm,

we havs the resson that to sound, ss to light, ths wmlsanimal crganism in its simplsst fcrms possessss afecblesusceptibility. A slight tq n cm sing avibmtion to psss

through thc vcssel wutatntng thm is responded to by

m oosm m m cs s s m m nm m sn cs . 811

«eatam in whom no s ign of an auditozy organ exists.

And ilfwe call to miud the fsets that congen itally deafpersons are acutelyafi‘eoted by sonorous vibrations in the

bodies they touoh,and can perceive such vibration s eveu intheair when produced by loud ooucussions,as the firing of

em nou— if we in fer, as we must, that even in man the

the extreme sensitivenes s of one part is simply a specialization of this geneml seusitiy eness ; we shall have no difi cultyin understanding how the humblest zOOphytesand molluscoid animals feel the jar of thoae rapid undulations whieh

specific gravity with its medium, one of these creaturesmust he permeated by such undulations throughout itsentire mass,almostas though it were so much water ; andcau scaroely fail to have the subatance of its tim so dis

turbed es to produeeamarked change in their geuen l

state, snd some oonsequent change in the extemal mauiofestafions . Still it may be asked— How do these facts andinferences affiliate the faculty of hearing on the primaryvital proces ses ? I reply

— They tend to do this by suggest

permeating a zoophyte’s body, results fnom some modifiestiou of these vital processes. The life of one of thess

m m is little else than the cumulative result of the livesof its component cells or nucleated portions of protoplasm,

which severally absorb the nutrient juices percolating amongthem, are seven-ally bathed by the oxygenating medium, andm m lly carry on the integratingand disintegrating actionsby and for themselves . Now anything which causes asudden agitation of the aerating liquid diffused through

inm e of vital sctivity inall the oomponents of the tissne.

must do this . And we have but to suppose that the in

812 exam s sm nssm.

understand how a contraction of the entire creature mayresult.Thus, there is not e little reason to think thatall forms ofsensibility to external stimuli, are, in their nascent shapes,nothing but the modifications which those stimuli producein that dnplex process of integration snd dis integrstion

which consu'

tutes the primordial life, physiologically considered. A zoophyte cannot be touched without the fluidsdiffused throughout the disturbed tissues being put inmotion, and so made to supply oxygenand nutriment withgreater rapidity. Nutritive matter brought in contact wi ththe surlhce, which is everywhere absorbent, must excite thevital actions still more ; and so must cause the touch of

nutritive matter to be specially responded to. A difl’usicnof such matter in the form cfan odour, will tend in u

slight degree to produce analogous effects. The tissuehaving the requisite chemical nature, light, also, mustmodify the assimilative actions . And, as just shown,scuorous vibrations probably do the like. If we make thereasonable assumption that the protoplasm of these almostunorganized creatures is isomerically changed by changmin their vital activity, we have an adequate explanatiou of

the effects which outer agencies produce . So far as theygo, facts harmonize with the deduction from the law of

organic development— the deduction that as the primitivetissue out of which are evolved the organs of vegetative l ife,pomes ses, to some cxtent, the functional powers of those

organs ; so mus t it, to some extent, possess the functional

powexs of the orgaus ofanimal life,andamong them cf wesenses , which similarly arise out of it by s continuous difisr

Olosing here thsse speculations respecting the genssis ol'

holds communication with the extsrnal world, let ns now goon to our immediate snbjsct—thst extension cf ths oorre

814 m m m m srs.

that ss fsst ss there is developed at the entrance oi'

the

respiratory passages a definite apparatus cepable of beingexcited by fios ting particles, there must be an extension ofthe spece throngh which cooexistencesand sequences in ths

sequencm in the organism . When we trace up the evolution of the facnlty to that perfection in which it is possesssdby dogs snd by deer, we see that one of the sspects undu

intoadjustment ; and that other things eqnaLthere isa

§ 142 . Though thatability to distinguish light from darkness which characteriw s the entire body in sundry cf the

humblest types, foreshadows the visual faculty, nothing libswhat we call sight resnlts until thisability is concentratedin s psrticular spot. The rodimentsry eye consisting, asinaPlanaria, of some pigment grains, may be oons ideredas s implyapart of the surface more irritable by light thanthe reat. Some ides of the impression it is fitted to receive

may be formed by tnrning our closed eyes towards the light,snd pasaing the hand backwards and forwards before them.

Butas soonas even this slight specialisation of functiou is

reached, it becomes possible for the organism to respond tothe motions of opaque bodies ths t pass near. While onlyageneral sensitiveness to light exists, the intercepting of thesun

’s rays by somelhingwhich throws thewhole or s gres tcr

part of the creature '

mto shade, is required to produceaninternsl change ; but when thsre comes to beaspecid lysensitive spot,any'

thing which castsashadow on that spot

obscm s only asmall psrt of the organism is usnally acomparatively small object, this advance from dM sen.

to respond, not only to marked general changes in luminom

m cos s rsronm u u m m nmo m su cn. 815

ness which its mvhonmm t nnderm hntalso to ms ekedspecial changeain lnminousness cauaed by the motioms of

The contrast between light and darkness, or rather be

tween widely difl'erent degrees of light, being all that themost rudimentary vision recognizes , and distinct obscuration being producible by an adjacent small object only whenib is very close ; we may in i'er that nascent vision extendsto those objectealone whichare just about to touch the

organism, either in consequence of their moh’

on or of itemotion. We may infer that itamonnts at first to littlemore thananticipatory touch ; and that so there is estahliahed in the organismageneral relation between visualand

between Opacity and solidity in the environment. Be thisas it may , however, it is clear that an incipient faculty of

sight, though the vaguest imaginahle in the sensations itgives,and the most limited that can be conceived in range,implies not only some extension of the correspondence in

space, but a new order of correspondence.As waascend to creatures having more developed eyes,

we find an increase in the sphere of surmunding spaee

ing internal relations. A slight convexity of the epidermis

tions in the quantity of light 5and thus brings into view

the same bodiesatagreater distance, and smaller or lesaopaque bodiesat the same distance. From this point npwads, thwugh the various types ofaquatic creatures to the

forms and modifications, a complicating visual apparatusand a widening space through which the correspondenceextends. It is needless to go into details. Hypotheses

does not stir till touched, up to the telescopic-eyed vulm

816 m am m m srs.

or tho farh ghted Bnahman, oneaspect of progrecsing life

tions in the environment produceadapted relatiom in the

§ l43. Similarly with the auditory faculty. So long asthe suawptibflity to sonorous vibmtionaisahghaand possessed by the body u h rgather'e is nothing like what wocall hearing. Only when the susoeptibility comeato be intensified in one ph cq can awnnd proceeding fiomapu .

tim hr point in the envimnmeng be distinguished fi'oma

tremor ot'

the euvironmentas awhole. After there haaarisenarudimentary ear, consisting ofadermal sso con

taining otolithee, which multiply the vibrations striking theskin that covers themas the primitive cornea concentratesthe rays passing through it ; them, amodm te soundatsome distance oraslight sonnd close to it, may pmdnceon the matnreas greatan efi

'

ectas the violent shock of

its entire mediuxnproduces onacreature not thus endowed.

Andalong with this new sense there comes into existence

Successive improvements of this faculty, as of those

outwhich certain relatiom in the environment canseadaptedrelation s in the organism . It cannot be denied that thoughthe minor irregularities involved by their lpeeial habitsareconsiderable, yet, viewed in the mass, animals of highernnd higher types show us greaterand greeter m gu in

§ 144. The extension of the correspondence in spacedoes not end with the perfecting of the eensea. In creaturec of comparatively-advanced organisation, therearise

818 m m en tran ts.

even to the nebulm, when theifr compoaitimi aud fiorms ot

§ 145 . Before leaving this general proposition , that theprogress of lifeand intelligen ce is, under one of itsaspeots ,an extension of the space through whioh the correspondenco

be weflto remark that its truth is independent ofall conclusions as to the modes in which me correspondence is

developed. In the earlier part cf the chaptcr l have fillcdup some of the gaps in our knowledge by reasonings thatare partially hypothetical , aud have thus opened the door

to tellagainst the doctrineat large. Butamoment's con.

sideration will ahcw that by whatever- steps the senses of

aumtionable facts form the substance of theargument.It is afact that where the sense of toufi is the only

fact that the appeamnce of the higher senseg even in their

of the space throughout which correspondences can be

effected. It is afact that the successive stageain tho

development of each sense imply successive enhrgemcnts

of this sphere of spsce. Aud it isafuct that theadvcnt of

these enlargements still fiirthm .

Here, indeed, let me drawattention to the truth indi

catcd by some of theabove examples, that the extencion

cf the oorrespondeuce in space is exhibited not in ths

ascending pades ofanimal lifealone, but in thc successivs

ato modern geogu phers who specify'

the latitub' and

m m smrmmwcs u xm ms m srm . 819

longitude ot'

every pluce on the globe— fmm theancient

builders and meh llnrgists. knowing but sm'face-deposits,up to the geologists of our day whose datain some caees

able to say in how many daysafull moon will returm tip to

the ua'onom r who sscertains the period of revolution ofa

which theadjustment of inner

to point out theadditional evidencethe degree of life varies as the

uumber of internal changeeOn the other hand,

the more numerous theadjustmeute which canbe made, the greateu must hs the number oi

cf the same fact—how lil‘

e isacombinapthe result of whose workings is thefu

'own

m CORRESPONDEN CE AS EXTEN DIN G IN m

5 146 . It was pointed out some pages back thatwhile the lowest Protophytaand Protozoadisplay nomanfi st

adjustments of internal changes to changes in the environ

ing to the cycles of the seasous . Whether this should be

regardedas a progress townrds correspondence in 'l‘ime. is

doubtful. It may be said that since inatree the budding,blossoming, ripening the fi-uit, and dropping the lan e,

occur at t he same times with fit external conditions, theinner sequencesare conformed to the outer ones. But it

may be replied that this is an incidental result of the per

petual adaptation of the internal actions to external 00sameness (temperature, light, moisture), which, byM ug

variations in thc plant. It may beargued that the puttrngtorth ol

‘

leaves has reference simply to the theu concuxring iafinances,and has no direct referenceto the subwquent nutri~tion of the fi-uin that the true nature of theee vegetativochanges is seeu iu thc mct thatatree will fiower in the

autumn il the hes t be great enough 5and that thus plantlife exhibits no true correspondence to sequences in theenvironment, but only to co-szictsnw in it. To decide be

tween these vien is not easy ; though on the whols the

last seems tho more ratioual. Butatany mte, this spcoies

322 m m

sion of the cerrespendeuee in Time is neeou u ily coevalwith its first exteusion in Space.

ment of the aenses , these two orders et’

correspondence

progress together. In preportienaathe distancoatwhieha

the duration of the extemal setieus, or chains ofaotiona, te

equal, the mere remote any body , the leuger must be theinterval before it canaet on the ergauism or the organismou it ; that ia— the longcr must be the time between the

antecedents and consequents are put in correspondence.'l‘he innerand outer sequences showu in the pursuit ot

‘aheron byahawk,are longer than those shown iu the pm

suit ofafish byahereu ;and are so chiefly becam the

vision ofaheren is wider thsn that of afish. Withoutgiving cases, itwill be man ifest that by the development ofsmell and hearingalso, the correspondencesare simnltaneously extended in duration and distance. Not that theymaintaiuaconstaut ratio. The cenuexion betweeu them is

various ly medified by circumstances . Thacharacter ef tbenvironment, the particular powers of the organism in

respect oi locomotion,as wellas other couditiens, greatlyadect it. All that cau be said is , that the twc k inds of

phm omm m m csrmd tbey display throughoutageuen l

§ l48 . This limitation—“ in so faras mechanical phauomenaare ceneerned”—aerveato iutroduce the fact that, inrespect to othsr orderaof phenemena, the progmss of thecorrespondence iu

'l‘

ime hu littls or uothing to do with itaprogress iaace. Did all actious involve peweptible

motion— were alteration of position a neceuaryaccempani

m eons ssres nzs cs as m eme I: run . 82 3

mentet'

everyalteratien , the two would be un iformly related.But as there are hosts of changes , chemical, thermal, electric,

there are numberless changes of state which occur withoutchaugeaof place ; it results that, in the growth of internaladjustments to these, there isan exteusiou of the correspondence in Time separate from,and additional to, that whicharises frem its exteusion in Spaee.

This seccnd species of cerrespoudence iu'l‘ime is ofa

much higher order—is, in faet,afar more extended cor-re.

cpondeuce. For the ordinary mechanical sequences insurround ing bodies by which each organism iaafl‘ected,are

The motions of enemies or of prey, even when sluggish, are

to bring about manifest changes . But the decay of a deadanimaLor the ripeniug oi

’

fruit, or the drying up ofapool,or the hatchiug of an egg, occupies an immensely longerinterval. One of these latter sequences has a duration ahundred,athousaud,amillion timesas greatas one of the

former ; and the ability of the organism to adjust itself tothem, implies a proportionate extension of the correspon

dence in Time.Hence the fact that only when we come to creatures of

comparatively high intelligence, do we meet with innerchanges in adaptation to outer changes of a non-mechanicalkind. For we must not class as coming under this headsuchactiens of inferiorauimals ss areadjusted to dailyand annual modifications of the environment. These, likeparallel actions in plants, are most likely nothing but thecumulative results of successive adaptations of the organismto successive co~existences in the environment. It is anaptomically demonstrable that the pairingand n idificatiou ofbirds in the spring, is preceded by constitutional changeswhich are probably produced by more food and higher tem

perature. Aud it is aratiem l inference tbat the whole16

824 m am as.ossi es of proeesses implied in the rearing ofabrood, mm ally goue thm gh m twithany mcognition of remoto

Au early stage cf the higher kind of correspondenee in

W must be looked fer whme the pmi od betweenantecedentaud consequent is butat‘ew hours. Birds thatflynommh ud w the seasidem feed when the fide ise uaandcattle that return to the farm-yardat milhfing-timefi upplyinstances. Even here, however, there is notapurely intelnligent adjustment of inner to outer sequences ; for creatm'es

accustomed to eat or to be mflked at regular intervals.come to have adapted recurrences of constitutional states

,

of advancing correspondence in Time ; but “ recognisethem es imperfect and trsnsitioual forms of it, throughwhich only the higher forms can be reached. For if weconsider under what conditions only an inner sequence canbe adjusted to some outer sequence occupying hours or

days, it becomes plain that there must exist in the m-

gnu.

im a means of recognizing duration . Unless the organismis difPercutly affected by periods of difiereut lengths,

‘ its

cottons cannot be made to fit slow externalaotiens . WMwe paas fiem thoee mechanical aequeuees in which the

motion of the exterual body itself serves the erganismasameasure of duration, to those non-mechanicalwhich not only afi’m-d no measure but last incomparablylonger, the only measure of duration available is one

resulting from the periodic sensations of the organist:itself. Naturally, then, these first examples of the hi

gher

correspondence in '

l‘

ime arise where'au internal

eases nextabove thesH ases implying some foresight offuture eventa, suchas is shown byadog hidingabons in

826 m amthatare loug apart, and to adjust the oactions te them.

Multitudes of sequences in the environment which, in the

reapouded to by the organism, may be discernedand indirectly responded to when there arises this abifity of

numbering daysand lunations . Givenaun it efTimeanda

the most potent in their efi'

ecta.

more than fereshadowed amoug the higheranim h anddefinitely exhibited only when we arrive at the human

lowu t tribes of men who wander from place to placeas the

duration . Hardly worthy to bedefinedas creaturea“ iookingbeforeaudafter,”theiractions respond to iew ifauy sequeneeslonger than those of the conspicuous and oiten o recnn

'ingphenomena of the seasons. But among semi-civilised raceswe see, in the buflding of pemanent hutg in the breedingandaccumulation of cattle, iu the storing of commoditics,

that longer eequeucesare recoguisedand measures talcen tomeet them . And when united in higheraooial statea, menshow, by planting trees that will not bear fruit forageue.

mfiomby the elabm te educations they give their children,

by building houses that will last for centuries, by insuringtheir lives , by struggling for future wealth or fame, that inthem, internal antecedentsand consequentaare habituallyadjusted to external ones which are extremely long in their

I'hpeoially is this extension of ths eor

in Time displayed by progressing science.with the sequences of day and night, men

advanccd to the moathly changu of the moon , uext te the

sun’s annual eycle, ncxt to the cycle ot

'

the moon’s eclipeu

m eosesseosnm sas m nnmo m m 8627

will sgaiu peiut to the saxhe place in the heavens, and

When,as in these cases, the sequenees exceed in length the

astronomer who computes the elements ofacomet of briefand days, turcs his telescope te that region of the heavensin which the expected body shortly makes its appearance,shows in himself the en tire correspondence between aninternal series ot’ chaugesandau external series. Bntwhen

centuries pass between the predictiou and its fulfilmentm e

see that by the help ofwritten symbols, the proceedings of

playing the same adjustment to an external sequence asthough it had occurred in a single man surviving throughout the interval . Perhaps nothing more strongly suggeststhe conception of an embodied Humanity, than this abilityof Humanity as a whole to respond to euvironing ohaugeswhichare far too slow to bc rcspended to by its oemponent

Q 150. The extension of the correspondence in Time, likeits extension in Space, involves an increased amount of lifeand renders possible a greater continuance of life. Eachlonger sequence recognized impl ies an adjustment of a newset of internal relations to a new set of external relations

bined changes which consti tute life. At the same time,the adjustment of the organism to these successively longer

advantages ;and is consequentlyam d eaf-preserva

0m m 8m m.

tion. As we have seen , theascending grades of brute life

viding for 'more remote results than the hand- to-mouth

genciesand secure gm ter longevity ; while, in the meeting

of vitalactivity is involved.

with some plausibility, that the like is true even cf the

ad '

p stment of our conceptions to those immenseinvolved in the larger generalizations of astronomy andgeology. For littleas the recognition of these modifies

hum aofiom dm' am y obohshmg

“

omtheories of creationand humanityfit ultim tely p odnoesapowerful efl’eot on the oondnct of themoo.

330 GEN ERAL m rensrs .

degree general. But the tree which, though constantlybathed by nutritive materials, assimilates them only underparticular states of the environment, exhih its, in theadjustment of its internal changes to the recurring externalchanges, some advance towards speciality of correspon

dense.

The neat step of the same m ture —the step whioh distinguishes, so faras it can he distinguished, the animal

to the needs of the organism , the environment is hetsro

geneous both in Time and Space. To the lowest livingthings, the integrable matter is everywhere present under

ditions . To animals in general, it is neither everywherepresent nor present under uniformly available conditions

be obtained only by particular actions. And thus,

change from a general diffusion of food to a localisation of food, involves a further specialization of the correspondence . The organism now lives only on condition thatcontact with special masses of matter shall be followed bythe special acts required to utilise them . In the Am ba,which wraps iwelf round and gradually includes the smallnutri tive fragments it meets with, we see that even beansthereare either prehensilc or digestive organs the existenceof its food in a solid form, implies that the organism mustrespond difi’erently to the contacm of solid matter and ofliquid matter ; and this is a progress towards speciality of

When therearises the primary divisicn of the tissns intostomach and skin—when the established differentiation inthe environmen t is met by an established difl‘esentiation inthe organism— when to the ability to distinguish solid fi'om

liquid matter, comes to beadded theahility to distinguhh

m oonw rosnm as m sme m m m nm . 381

now to consider.

152 . Out of the primordial irritability which (excludeing the indeterminate types that underlie both divisions ofthe organ ic world) characterizes animal organisms in general,are gradually evolved those various kinds of irritabil itywhich answer to the various attributes of matter.

'lhe

Fundamental attribute of matter is resistance. The fundamental sense is a faculty of responding to resistance. And

resistance, are other attributes severally distinctive of certainclasses of bodies ; in the organism, there arise faculties ofresponding to M e other attributes— thculties which enablethe orgm ism to adjust its internal relations - to a greater

increase the speciality of the correspondence.We see this not only in the rise of the senses thatare

properties of things, butalso in the series of phases throughwhich each sense advances towards perfection. For everyhigher phase shows itself as an ability to recognise smallerand smaller difi'erences, either of kind or degree, in theattributes of surrounding bodies ; and so makes possiblestill more special adjustments of inner to outer relations.In the case of touch, a progress is early shown in thepower to distinguish a large moving mass fi'

om a small oneby the force of its collision. Even soophytes, which con.

tract bodily if their tentacles are roughly handled but drawin particular tentacles only if these are touched lightly

,

have reached this stage. When, as in higher creatures, amuscular system and a concomitant muscular sense aredeveloped, there results an appreciation of relative hardnessin the objects met with ;as is proved by ths dfi erenws

832 m um-m m.

between theactions which follcw the contact withaefi m d

nizable,andalsoamounts of tenacity ;as mush-ated in theact ofaspider testing the strength of its web. The poo

wpe'

ble the sisesand shapes ol’ the things laid hold of ; and

spplisnces of touchaudmuscularseuseare fully developed,asin mau, we find thatbstweeu the extremes ot' harduessaud”M agm t uumber of gradations can beapprech tsd ;thatm immense variety of textures can be kuown tacmally ;enoes of siseand shape,asoertained by the fingeu only .

rally, though not accurately, describedasasense serving to

aseries of gradations ot’

like kind. To the lower familiea

all oases surrounded byaliquid that has watm' for its chief

oonstituent the iasoluble bodies are one with the iuorganioMatter which permanently continues undissolved in the

scaor in ariver, is stoue or earth ; while matter which,though soluble, is found in a solid form, is screaming thatis or has beeu alive. Hence, to those lowest creaturesinsolubb—the things that have tastoaud the thingathatare b etcha—s tand respectively for food and nomad.From this stage upwards, successive specialisations, of

which we may presume the first to be inanability to dk

themselves in the uarrowing of the clasm of thiugs whichare eatsu. Fish that take particular baits, iusects awdquadrupeds that fccd ou particular plants , illustrats thia.Obviously, it is ueither needful uor pmcticable to trace outthis progrcss iu detail. ltaufi ces to notice that the highc

834 M u m m ers.

in the transition from whiteness to blackness : soadding tothe number of things discriminated.

blue, work unlike efi‘

ects on the organism ; as wellas thoss

in the evolution of the visual faculty, the progrsss is towardsacapac ity to discriminate a greater variety of intensities of

colour, of intermediate tints, and of degrees of light andshade.marked difi’erenoes in theareas occupied by images cast onit become appreciable ; and hence arisesapossibility of dis

approach of alarge body changes the statc ofagreatm'

portion of the retinathan theapproach ofasmall one : theresult being an appropriate difference of action. Andas inthe case ofamounts of lightand qualities of colour-mucosasive advances of this kind bring with them perceptions ofsmaller unlikcuesses . Finally, there is reachedthe power to recognize not size only but shape. A minuterdivision of the sensitive tract into separate nervous elements,renders it a fit instrument for this. Employed by an organism ol

’proportionate complexity, an eye of complex structuregives difl'erent impressions, both according to the numbers

according to the particular combinations of them simultaneonely affected and the particular combinations, varyingasthey do with the forms of the bodies seen, serve as stimuli totho properly-adjusted actions. All which several kinds ofvisual development, reaching great heights among the

superior animals,unite in giving man the power to identify

by the eye innumerable dill’

ereut objects ; and so to makeinnumerable special adaptations in his conduct.Similarly with hearing. At first nothing but a sensitive

nccu to concussions affecting the whole environment, this

m oonsssrounm hs mcm smo m sm m . 333

cam e, when localised -and developed, becomes a meansatdistinguishing the strengths of the vibrations . A moderate sound near the auditory organ produces a differenteffect from one causing a violent tremor of the wholesurrounding fluid ; and slowly as the multiplying apparatusof which the ear essentially consists, is developed, more

according as some neighbouring noise is faint, or mode

faculty arealso accompanied by increased ability to discriminate qualities as well as quantities of sounds. Birdswhich answer one another in the woods and which whencaged may be taught definite melodies, must recognizemany difierences in pitch. Parrots, whose imitationsexhibit great variety in timbrs as well as great com

pass, show apower to appreciate those secondary quali

from one m other. By most domestic quadrupeds, especs

ally suchas answer to their names, marked contrasts ofpitch, or of timbre, or of both, are responded to. Andamong men the auditory faculty reaches a developmentwhich, besides enabling them to recognise numerous adja.

cent creatures, various mechanical operations, countlessnatural phenomena, by the accompanying sounds, also

pitch, and timbre of their voices, and even to perceive theparticular states of feeling in which such persons then are.Throughout the animal kingdom

,then, the specialization

of the senses measures the specialization of the correspondences between inner and outer relations— is a meansto this specialization. Al ike in the difl'eren tiation of thesenses from one another, in the differentiation of eachsense into the divisions which eventually constitute it, andin the difi

'

erentiations oi" these into the minute subdivi

sions that make possible the appreciation of minute dis

836 W W W .

fiaing the organism to respond toagreaterand grsater

158. While the developing faculties of touch, taste,m eno sighgand hearing, have been msk ing it possible forthe organism to respond to smaller difieren ceain the simplerproperties of things, there has been growing upapower ofresponding to those more complex properties of things whichace not cognisable by sensation alone. This makes itsappearanoe so gradually , and is so intimately associatedwithme dimct mnofions d me sm thu it h m y

possible to treat ot' the one without in seme degree involv

ing the other. Indeed, the boundary line was crossed in

the foregoing section, when speaking ot’

visibls and of

The essential nature ot this higher order of speoialis sd

after underanother head. For the present it will sufi os

to say , that theyare seen wherever Space or Time, or bothSpaceand Time,are involved. Iaet us lookat the matterin the concrmObserve, fiu t, that in itself eatension of the con espou

deuce, difl'

ering in kiud t'

rom thatabove dweribed though

eye, brings simultaneouslyagreaterability to identily distantobjects and a greater ability to discriminate between thesises of near objscts . Aud it is clear that thesaoounatsabilities to identify objects at a distance and to appreciatedilh encm ofappamnt magnitudagive togetherapower ofaccord iugas the pm eimd enemies or pray ersnearor hopelessly remota;and tbese difl'm daction im»plyanewaeries of special correspondencu .

838 . easm n m m sm.

nature ofaneighbouring body is known, either by its calcur,or by the sound it makes

,or by both— as exemplified in the

deer that gallops away from a creature that barks but notfrom one that bleats, in ths bee that flies towards a llow ,

in the trout that rises at one object but not at anotherthere is a still further specialisation. And when magm'

tudss

and formsand distances also come to beappreciated, there

higher animals elude danger and secure pmy —actions suchas those of the chamois springing from m g to crag , of thehawk pouncing on its quarry, of the dog catching themorsel of food thrown to it, of the bird building in nest

and feeding its young.

Similarly, that increased speciality implied by extensionof the correspondence in Time, when joined with that iacreased s

peciality implied by a better discrimination of

objects, gives origin toafurther series of higher speeialisations . As fastas the sequences which are perceived todiffer in length become more numerous , and as fast asthere is a multiplication of things distinguished from one

another ; so fast do the adjustments of the organism tospecial actions going on around it augment in number geometri cally. Save in respect to rapid mechanical changes

,no

correspondences of this orderare shown by the lower elassssof ereatures ; and , lacking as they do the ability to estimatetime, even the higher mammals supply but few and im.

perfect examples of it. The lion that goes to the river-aideat dush to lie in wait for creatures coming to drink , andthe house-dog standing outside the door in expectationthat some one will presently open it, may be citedasapproximative instances. But only when we come to the humanrace are correspondences of this degree of speciality exhibited with distinctness and frequency. In preparing hisweapons against the approaching immigration of certainbirds, in putting aside to dry the skins which he preservesfor clothing, in making the fire by which to cook his fiiod,

m oom sm m w as mcm smam srsm tm . 839

the savagoadapts his conduct to the special changes under

time,and object —tbeaction of the organism inadjusted tothe changes ofaparticular thing in apu 'ticular spotataparticular period. A large proportion of human actions,

natural productlons then fit for use ; the endeavour to

there before it ; these, and numerous daily procedures,

“54. Under this,as under previousaspects, anadvanceof the correspondence is clearly displayed in the course ofhuman progress . The growth of classifications implies theestablishment of more numerous distinctions among sur

rounding things, and a confiorm ing of the conduct to theirrespective properties . Agriculture, as it develops, bringsknowledge of the serial changes undergone by variousplants and animals ; while special materials, timcs , modes,

ments in the Arts have in volved an incalculable multiplication of special processes adapted to produce special changesin special objects . Our whole social life, alike in the menu.fi cwry , in the shop, on the highway, in the kitchen, displaysthroughout, the performance of particular actions towards

particular things in particular placesat particular times .

Above all in exact science, or rather in the actions

guided by exact science, civilization presen ts us with a newand vast series of correspondences far exceeding in speoialitythm that came before them . For this which we call exactscience is in reality quanti tative provid e», as distinguishedfrom that qualitative precision constituting ordinary knowledge. The progreu of intelligence has given theability tou y both that auch m d auch things are related in oo

840 m amm als.

mm lves such m d m ch m om ts cf spm timeJm-cmtemIt has become pcssible tc predict, nct

be found together, but to predict how mueh of the one will

be fiouud with so mueh of the cther. Ithas become pou ibletc predict, not simplt t this phencmcncn will occuraftsrM but to predict the exact timeat which it will occur,or the exact distauce in spaceat which it owill occur, or

menu to definite measures gives -to those subjectiveaoticnathat correspond with them,adegree c f precisicn,aspccial

doings of the astronomer who, onacertain day, hour,and

those of the farmer who soarranges his work that he mayhave hands enough for rmping some time in Awuat or

ot’

quick-lime will bo nequired to deoompoaeand precipitateall the bio carbonate of lime which the watsr in a given

specific than does the laundress who softens a tubafuflof hard waterby ahandful of soda. In theiradaptnticnato

cf modern artillery-officers, who, by means cf aspecificquantity ot

'

powder, consisting ofapecific ingredienm dn

specific proportions, placed in atubs ataspecific inclinstion, send a bomb of specific weight, on to a specific object,sud cause it to sxplodeataspecifio mcment. And when

we bsar in mind thatacience, consideredas the devclopmatof qualitative provision into quantitative provision, is not

only thus distingniabed by ths rclatively-bigh speciality d

m s OORBESPOKDEN CB AS IN CREASIN G IN m u m .

156 . The adjustmen t of inner to outer relations progresses in generality at the same time that it progresses inspeciality. This statement seems to involve s contradiction,

but the contradiction is verbal only— the generality herereferred to being ofadifierent order from that which pm

Primitive correspondeuces m general in the sense fi s t

those relations in the environment to which organic rela

present. During a summer’s day, light, heat,and carbonicacid, bathe all the leaves ofaplant ; and the depm dentchemical changes within the plant, go on foras mauy hoursas the surrounding elements and actions remain in the samerelation. Hence the correspondence, involving neithermyspecisl point in space norany special moment in time, is ot's very general nature . And the like holds with those inferior animals to which the environment presents both thedisintegrating matter and the integrable matter in difl'med

forms . The geners lities, however, to which the organismresponds mose and more the higher it sdvances ,are not

those exhibited by the mass of the environing medium, butthose exhibited by the individual objects it contains ;andgeneralities of this kind become cognisable only u in

m cos sssrosnxm as mm am m om smm r. 848

sponding to relations displayedin commoo by sevcral did’sreut groups of bodies, but not by other groups , can be

various groups of bodiesas enable it to disfinguishamongdifferent c lasses of objects, can there possibly arise sub

jective generalities parallel to those objective generalitieswhich bind together classes of objects superficially unlike.

ness as the specialities increase in nnmberh —generalitieswhich form the material out of which specialities are produced by con tinual subdivision . The growth of a responseto the distinction between liquid matter and solid matter

,

then to the distinctions between liquid, inorganio,and organicmatters, afterwards to those between liquid , inorganic, vegstal, and animal matters, implies a correspondence to generalities thatare step by step less comprehensive ; and sachfurther multiplication of classes supposesafurther reductionin the number of examples which each sub-class includes.These, however, are generalities which, under their obverseaspect, we considered in the last chapter. For all special

correspondences covering certain groups of cases. The pre

m tiouaryacts ot' a barn-door fowl on seeingahawk hoveringabove, are related to theac ts of that hawk in partieular,onlyas being like the scts of hawks in general. The corre

is special, only in the sense of ret’

erring to the

But that advancing generality of correspondence here tobe contemplated, shows itself in the recognition of con

stant cc-existsnces and sequences other than those which

common to many clas ses that have come to be regardedas eutirely uuliks. Instead of being secn in aresponseto tho m usmnt reh tiou between aparticular sceng aud

344 m m m ars .

possesm‘

ng it ; this progress is seen h|adjustments to such

relationsas those betwwn bulkand weightfi nsnims tenesaand passm ty— re

'

lations'

which extend beyond class lumte,’

growth of generalities of this order must be opposite in

direction to the growth of the preceding ones.

To trace up tlfis gmwth fibm the IWato the higherforms of life,atter themanner pursued in previons clmptsrs,is extremely dimcult if not impossible. Fer this speciesof correspondence does not manifest itself in distinct, nu»combined forms. The extensions of the corresp ndem in

Spaoeand Time,as wellas its increase in Speciality,areexperimentally demonstrable ; but an internal relation

punllel to some external relation which is net peculiar tespecial classes of things, m not be separatsly identified in

simply to modify the acts otherwise originated, it caabsdiscovered only byanalysis of these.

Hence onr course must be toascertain the condiwunder which aloneadvance of the correspondencs in gwe

rality becomes possible ; and then to show how the proceases of evolution almady dwcribed, give m e to thsse

conditions . Letas do this .

Q 167. The establishment of a generality of this higher

powcr of recoguizingattribataas distinguished frmn fi eobjects possessing them . Before any two properties thatarefound together under many varieties of nae. form, colour.texture, ternperature, motion, &c . , can have their com etrelation of cc-oxis tsnce responded to by the organism, thc

organism must be able to identify these two properties,

formation of special class-generalities , which gronp togsthl rclustm of phenomenathat greatly resemble oneanothsr incam pectg requires no distinct parting ofattn'

bntes . But

846 m am mals .

But what does knowledge of their composition pro-suppose !It pro-supposes that they have been severally resolved intotheir constituents . And the formation of each requiredcompound implies that its constituents are united in the

object is a.

synthesis of impressions, corresponding to

certain united properties which the thiug displays ; and

which correspond with the separate propaties . Thebotanist who k nowsaparticular flower not by the fi

'

uctifi.

number of its petals,which isausnal number—mot by their

forms iu which they do not difler from these, w hy theircolours in which they do not difl'er from those— not by thecalyx, nor the bracts, nor the leaves, nor the stalk, seperately considered, bnt by all these taken together ; obvip

Aud that which he does in adeliberate and conscions

where an object is recognised as of special nature—ésdone in a degree proportionate to the speciality of the

Should it be said that this statement con tradicts the previous statement, since the one

represents the analysis of attributes as a pro-requisite tospeciality of correspondence, while the other represents theanalysis ofattributesas rssulting fi-om incm e oi

‘

the corre

spondence in speciality, the reply is that the two processesgo on in mutual dependence, perpetually acting and

neatly renders theanalysis ot'attribntes more precise ; and

each step in the analys is ofattributes makeapossible .

Thus the coursc ot'

evvolution described in prefiosu

chepm ,is necessaril y accompanied by a disentangliug of

nise them iu theabetract. Lateraud more slowlyn elations

res coasw cxnxxei ias moccasins m cranium . 347

both of sequence and of cc -existence must come to bediscriminated one from another,and segregated into kindsand degrees of relations. An increasing speciality in the5 6]

.

m to mechanical changes, pro-supposes an in.

creasing decomposition of such changes into their elements—agrowing power to distinguish velocity of motion,direction of motion, mod erationand retardation of motion,

kind of motion in respect of simplicity or complexity, andso on ; and where non-mechanical sequences also come tobe responded to, a parallel analysis must accompany aparallel progress in speciality.

therearises,'and only then arises, a possibility of advance ingenerality of correspondence . Relations between properties

pom eed in common by objects of widely difl'erent kinds,can be perceivedas soonas these propertiesare eeparatelycognisahle. And a still higher progress in the specialisation of the correspondences

,ultimately brings about this

remaining step required for generalization of them . For if,as we have seen , the multiplication of special corresponp

dances must be accompanied by the dissociation of variably.

butes displayed by a group of different classes have been asit were disintegrated in the oonsciousness of the organism,

the attributes that have not been disintegrated must beginto stand out from the rest, as remaining always constantamid these inconstancics . Hen ce there must be establishedin the organism aconstaut relation corresponding to the

totes the advance in generality we are looking for. For

ther, as the comparatively-con stant relations thus first

gm ralised from the experience of hut few clasees, will, inthe majority of cases, be proved by wider eXperience to benot everywhere constant ; and as, by the accumulation ofthese wider experiences

,the same process must be gone

848 m m sm m

with the inconstant cnes, wifii the m ult of bringingflisstill more censtsnt relaticns into view ; the progim mmbe from narrow generalizations to widerand wider ones.

And this we know, d pod criofi , to be the law which the

§ 158. These u plmations will st once show why fi c

inm of the coflu pondenco in gsnm lity ism y dis

m y u it is that thm should beagreatadm in the

ones ; it is only whcn that dcveloped speciality o€ corre

kind, it is only in the hnman race that thiaspeciaol

udjustment of mner'

to outer relations bccomes conspicucu .

Human pi'ogression , howem , exhibits to us, under this

mony bcween tho orgnniam snd its env'

nonmcnt. Perhapsin no mspect is tbe incim siug cormspondence wrought out

by civilization more conspicuous than in the gm th of

honsive. The enormous u pm sion of science wliich these

lattcragu hcve witnm d mainly com ists in the union of

msny particuh r truths into genm l truths , snd in tho union

of many general truthainto truths stillmoregensral. mu .

nations m nesdb ss ; for the pwpoaifi0n is fitmflhr andsdmittcd by nll. It is cnough simply to point to this gm p

phm on as one of thc m y fom of thc evolution we

Ameremention , too, of tho fict that thc gm erslixstim d

contrasted smells or tastes , to the power of distinguishing

many slightly-contrasted smells or tastes. It is thus withtbe progress from ths t lowest form of hearing shown by aresponse to any violent mentor of the surrounding fluid, tothose higher forms of it in which difl

'

erences of loudnessarerecogniaed,and, byand by, difierences of pitch and timbre.The insect which lays its eggs only on aplan t having s

particular odour, or the bird which is alarmed byatone ofacertain pitch but not by atone of another, shows an

that shown by the snail which withdrawn into its shell onbeing touched. Though the stim ulus responded to is morespecial, it is not more couiplex . In esch csseasingleundecomposable sensation is followed by certain muscularactions ; and though these muscular actions are more intri

relation between anteceden ts and consequents is verynearly, if not quite, of the same order. But where thestimulus responded to consists , not of a single sensationbut of several, or where the m ponse is not oneaction buta group ofactions, the increase

'

in speciality of correspondence results from an increase in its complexity.

When, alter that response to the habitual relation betweenopacity and solidity, which is first established, there arisesaresponse to the relation between solidity and power to

of reflected light come to be rccognised in conuexion with

difl'ercnces of bulk— when there is acquired anability toidentify objects by form,as wellas by colour and size conjoined ; it is manitest that each successive stage implies theappreciation of larger clusters of attributes. The impression received by the organism from each object isamore

as byafalcon swooping on its quarry ,all these externalrelations are simultaneously recponded to ; it is elw thst

meats. There is nc need to dwell on this tu-uthas fiirther exemplified dnring the evolution of the othasenses ; nor to trace up in detail that yet higher com

as ofakind fitted furacertain use, exu nines itsaystalbline form, its colour, textuxe , hn dnm cleavago, tin cture,degree of transparency, lustre, specific gravity, taste, sm ell,

cided in his cm duct byall thess taken together ; it will be

in the speoiality of the coriespondence involves increaae in

complexity are no longer co-osdinats . A furtheradvanoe

advance m ccmplu ity . Lot us lookatan en mple or two.

Thearchm' whc points hisarrow, not at the object hen eh w hiabut above ig aud wbo vm-ies thoangle of

elevation’ according' as the obyect’

in far or near, exhibim'

m thing mom thanaepecial rapcm e to special stimnli ;

that thoamount ol thcir dm t hu aome relatiom to the

then pcem t to tho senscs. Againflhe engineer who erecu

854 W armers“.

latious iu the organism , paranel toall thoee general relao

§ 162 . Thm seem m plw e fitter thm thiafor drw '

mg

theactieitiaof the organism , in so faras thmir complexityis concerned. In the lowestanimal types we seeatcuch

ascend, abilities to receive increasingly-complicated impres

seut themaelves . And the truth here to be oheerved is,

that the heterogeneity of the stimuli which can beappmciated is in general proportionate to the heterogeneity ol

N otq fimh that snrvival of the fittest ensures this con

nexion . As every advance consists in the adjustmsnt of

tion ;andas theability to recognixs the external ielatienis useless unless there is m abi li” ty to modi fy°

the conduet

appropriately ; it is clmr that for the better pm ern tion ol

life, the pnssiveandactive elm onts of the cosrespondsnee

tc specialiae the mevementu otherwise it can be of no

M u mm ofan enemy , will not m t desnuction

unless it is tbllowed by such quicli acta, such doublinga,coch leapoms the enemy may be eluded by . Discriminationshon in the choice of materidafior its nag is ao muchfaculty throwuaway unlu s the bhd bu sufi cient coustiuc

tweakin tor nidification . l t will not profit the savage todiscoverat what seasons and what times of the tide par.ficuhr fisbare to heaughh uuless he hu du terity ceough

tumakeand u e hm h or neu foratching thm Eves-yi

m oom srosm cs u mcm smo m conrtm rr. 355

where it must on the average happen that eachadditionnldifferentiation of the perceptions, opening the way foranadditional dilfereutiation of the actions , fails to benefit thespecies, and therefore fails to be established in the species,unless there goes along with it an additional difi

'

erentiation

This connexion between progress in the impressibilitiesand progress in the activities, is, indeed, otherwise necessitated ; for they soact and react that theadvance of either

involves the advance of both . The gen eral relation betweenirritability and contractility, which, in the lowest types ofanimal life, constitute one indivisible phenomenon, is arelation which the regulative and the operative divisions of

their manifestations ; they are cc-ordinate in their evolution.This truth becomes conspicuous when we contemplate thetwo functions un der their most general formh sensution

and motion. Given an organism with certain sensory andmotor faculties, what will happen from the increase ofeither ? Higher powers of motion and locomotion mustbring the organism into relation with a greater number ofobjects ; and must therefore multiply its impressions.Higher impressibility must subject the organism to morefrequent stimuli to action ; and so must multiply its motionsand locomotions. Again, varied activities entail varietyamong the relations in which a creature puts itself towardssurrounding things ; and hence entail variety among themodes in which surrounding things affect it . Conversely,the more various the impressions receivable from surrounding things, the greater must be the number of modificationsin the stimuli given to the motor faculties and hence, thegreater must be the tendency towards modified actions inthe motor faculties. Thus the progm s of each is involvedwith the progress of the other, in respect both ofactivityand complexity.

866 crum b -u rn s”.

This inevitable simM eity in the development of tb

clearly seen on analyaing amw cam W i l m a»abili ty

'

to recognme°

dn'ection'

in space. At fin t thiaseem

only .an enpans ion of the retinasufi ciently gm t to wdm‘it

of its compoueute being M y efiected by iml geafalling on them . But aliW considcration shom fhatsomething more is raquired thanability to perceive dificr

ences between the positions of images on the visual tract.

to have mcaniug cnly when theyare severaflr connectsdd in

the organism vvith those difl'erences cd'

motion mquiwd to

bring its smfi ce into contact with the things scen. More

oculu impressionado not of themaelves give idcas cf space.Such ideas are producm of agrowing experiencs which

touched by particular mm hr adjustmeuts. Direction,ratus suifloiently developed to cfl'ect specialh sd movemenh .

Consequently, theability to perceivedirectionand theabihtyto takeadvanmge ot the pemcpfionmre necessarily counate.

shapes , obviom ly imply the libaconditions. So, too, in it

shades z these variations have to bs discloscd by corrc

spending variations in the adjustments of the matches,idcaof weight, as connectsd with vism lappearances , canbearfivedat until thue isapower of lilting,aithcr by jmor timbs. N cr can dogrccs of hudnessand unlikm ouas of

Indeed,as thccc

838 m m

5 163. This all-essential rehtim ship must detain “somewhat longer. I t will be instrnctivc to gin ceat thainter-dependence of the rscipio-m functionamd the

difigo

unusual dewelopm t of organs which, by the help ci' cem

Why touoh, the simplestand earliest sense,ahonld. in its

theadvanoe of intelligenoe, will perhapaseem dificalt to

to be translated, before their meaniugs can be known. If

be actual contact. Eating, breathing, locomotim , the

d w h m d bm m me brmg ing up d m an imply

they receiveare primarily uaed butas symboh of tangiblepropertieaand the relations among thsm. Hm onlyasM as the impmu ionagained through the skin andmm dm become vafied m d wmpieg can thm baacom

tongnc must beas copious as tbe torcign ; othm isaitcannot renderall the foreign meanings . And thns , as sessin tho factamferred to, a highly-elaborated tactual apps .

ratus comes to be the uniformaccompanimcnt of superiorintelligence. But let ns lookat theas facta.Each great division of theanimal kingdom supplies thm

rs s ooaszsros osscs ss mcssasmo m com um r. 359

The Oal opodm which in sagacity go mr beyond allother Mailm an structurally distinguished from them

in having severalarms by which they can graspan objectm an sidemat the same time that they apply it to tho

head of the sub-kingdom Articulate, bring their claws andare

by the invertebrate classes, let us devote our attention tothose which the vertebrate classes furnish.It will beadmitted that, ofall birds , parrots have thegreatest amount of intellect. Well, if we examine in whatthey difl'er most from their kindred, we find it to be in

development of the tactual organs. Few birds are able tograspand lift upan object with the one foot while standingon the other. The parrot, however, does this with case.In most birds the upper mandible is scarcely at all moveable. In the parrot it is moveable to amarked extent.

down close on the lower mandible. But parrots have itlarge, free, and in constant employment. Above all, thatwhich the parrot grasps it can raise to its beak ; and so

can bring both mandiblesand tongue to bear upon what itshand (for it is practically a hand) already touches on severalsides. Obviously no other bird approaches to it in thecomplexity of the tactual actions it perfum e and the tacttml

Among mammals it is unquestionable that as a generalrule the Unguiculata, or those which have limbs terminatingin separate digits, are more intelligent than the Ungulala,or hoofed animals. The feline and canine tribes standpsychologically higher than cattle, horses, sheep, and deer.Now, that feet furnished with several sen sitive toes canreceive more complicated impressions than feet ending inone or two masses of horn, is manifest. While, by a hoof,only one side of a solid body can be touchedat ouce, the

360 sim m ers.

touch the adjacent sides ofasmall body, if not the oppositesides. And when we remember how thoss toed qnadrnpeds olhigher types, which cannct grasp with their £eet, can nsrer

theless use them for holding down what they are tearing or

"

7as Here wearerally reminded of the

. n conclus ive, instancelopmat of intelligence and development atW hat seen in the elephant. I “1 n m 1:

boom the elephant is markedly distinguishfimhm of m mmah ,alfi s by its proboscis and by in aW . Theassociation betwwn the operative mamhave ficulm sands out the mom cumpicncm ly, if

endowment of both being ”captured . On the a; l.

.

the elephant there is no need to dwell : all h ow m sewricrity . The powers of its trunk, however,rawd. Note first, im universality of mow

asingle arm ; and thus the elephant can ascerh inm space, both of its own members and of sun-

Q

ins u ling thmga, more completely than all otherthe PH meta. Again , the trunk m grasp bcdm of

aJ Wm a pen to a wee stump and by“M a far 3m m variety Of taugihle u 15 7:a, .jjf.

than my of the lower m u s lin. The finger- like r

862 m m emanate.

can be grasped in one hand while it is being manipulatfiby the other, or by the lipsand teeth—fl n be heldat the

any part of the body, or any neighn object. Sothat far more complex perceptions of size, shape, structnee,

their vmi ons combinations , can be reached by them thm

How, in man, recipio-motorand M ennoni tes

needs saying. As contemplated from an obverse point ofview, the connexion between them 18 abundantly exemp lified in works on natural theology. All that we need herenotice is the extent to which, in the human race,aper® t

tactual apparatus subserves the highest processes of theintellect. I do not mean merely that the tangibleattrihuteaof things have been ren dered completely cogn inable by thecomplex and versatile adjustments of the human hands, and

sible those populous societies in which alone a wide intelli

gence can be evolved. I mean that the most far-reachingcognitions, and inferences the most remote from perception ,have their roots in the definitely - combined impression

M inter-dependence of the impreaaibilitieaand activitiesas displayed in the courae of human pmgm iaso strikingand instrnctiveas to demand specialattention, even at theoost ofafurtherauspension ol

'

the generalargnment.

§ 164. All developed science, consisting as it does of

results, is lineally desccnded from thatain nplcst kind cf

measmement ncbiered by placing s ido by side the bodieahc td in the hands . Onr knowlcdge of the tbrem

the Solar System is u prm ed in termathataro u danible,

m coau srosnm s s mcnm smo m com sxm . 368

byan nltimateanalysis , to equal units of linear eatension ,which were originally fixed by the directapposition of likenatural objects } And the undeveloped sciences that havenot yet passed the stage of qualitative prevision, dependingfor

O

theiradvance, as they do, either on experiments re

quiring skilfnl manipulation os' on observations implying

dm ectionand other analogous procedures, could not havereached this stage in the absence of a highly-developedmanual dexterity.

in certain other phenomena of civilization. This mutualdependence of the regulative and Operative powers, whichAnaxagoras hadaglimpse of when he uttered his hyperbolical saying thatanimals would have been men had theyhad hands, is remarkably and conclusively exemplified inthe reciprocity ofaid between the Sciences and the Arts .

It needabntalittle analysiato show that under theirpsychological aspects, Sciences and Arts represent what intheir lowest forms we call sensory and motor processes.The perceptions gained through sensory organs and theactions performed by motor ones, respectively rise, by com

operations. A comparison of the extremes does not very

obviously show this ; but on looking at the transitions thefiliation becomes manifest. It cannot be denied that thecomplex perceptions of which each sense is the agent,togetherwith the still more complex perceptions reached byco-operation of several senses, are forms of the organism'simpressibility ; nor that the combinations, more and more

are forms of the organism’s activity. It cannot be deniedthat out of these complex perceptions, woven into generalideas still more complicated , finally arise the previsions of

' Foru plm tioc, m enay cn“TheGenesil ol 80imoa."

864 m m swrnsstst

dexterity in which the elaboration of the motor faculty ter

seek cut the essential natnre of the chaugesan organim

-fl reciprocityat sex

-vim between theand the Am M gm t step towards a h ow

“

go of

laws has men’s operations on things,9 while“)

each more m ccessfiflopm tion on things has, by itsresults

, facili the discovery of furthw laws.uomy and agriculture, geomeh

'

y and the layingbuildings, m haniaand the weighing of se f

“ r

e

wm among the earhwt mis tione of the two. This

WH m y m m m tbs gm z- ff 5 ; n ud e l

« w e Through the medium of the scala,f

I,“

v

A“

“

1:r

.é,

fl .

h“

JM

‘ M M OW w w fl ' ex

Q 0 w I

l

.| R7

.

"“Hf

“

.J 'i

, n 0 m i

li f “ 1

x . l,

vw

e 6«

3e N o m m ed N

-

J_ .

z

.l . i 11,

, M anI'

l

l, a

the help of swingsand

306 su m m ers.

lense to the lcnses existing in the eye. The crowbar is buto nemore leverattached to the series of levers forming thearmand hand. And the relationship which is so obvious inthese first steps, holds throughout. This being perceived,asmeaning becomes manifest in the fact that the developmentof these supplementary senses is dependent on the devd cp.

ment cf these supplementary limbs,and vics csm i. Accu

turningand planing ; and these cannot be made withouttheaid of previous measuring instruments of someaccmracy. A first- rateastronomical quadrant can be prodncedonly byafirst-rate dividing engine ; afirst~rate dividingengine can beproduced only by first- rate lathes and cuttingtools ; and so, tracing the requirements backwuds, it' becomes obvious that only by repeated actions and reactionson each other, can directive and executive implements bcbrought to perfsction. Only by mesns ofartificial limbscanartificial senses be developed ; and only througharti.ficial senses does it become possible to improveartificial

Lastly, it may be remarksd that not only do thc directive and executive elements of the correspondence devctophand in hand, but the complications they reach have analoities which we found to distinguish the highlyi nvolved cognitions of Science, is visible also in the highly- involvedoperations of Art. Just as a particular conclusion inScience is reached by putting spedal datatoageneral principle, which general principle concreted by other dstagivuother conclusions ; so,aparticular art-pmduct is obtained

by some more general proccs s. which material subjeotod to

§ 165 . And now on returning from this longand clabom digm sim bringiug with us the coucepfim arrived d .

rus cons ssrosnm as m u seum is constan t-r. 807

we find that they serve greatly to elncidate the subject ot'

the chapter - the increase of the correspondence in com

plexity .

While tracing the inter-dependence of impressibilitiesand activities as they evolve into regulative and operative

correspondence has been illustrated in several ways. The

through each sense has shown it ; and still more the pro

greasing heterogeneity of the combinations of impressions

and re-compounding oi'

the muscular movemm ts, alike ofeach limb by itselfand of the limbs and body together,have further exemplified it.

‘ Aboveall it hm been shown

in theadvauce of this reciprocity between the recipioemotor

of complex perceptions. Inall which it is manimet that, asallegedat the outset, advance in speciality of correspon

dence is in its higher form achieved throughadvance incomplexity of correspondence.How this increase of the correspondence in complexitywhich we have followed up through the higher an imals toMan, has been continuing during civilization, has just beenshown : the advance of the Sciencesand the Arts abundantlyexemplified it. One note-worthy fact, however, remains to benamed. Human evolution, considered under this aspect, is

Sciencesand theArts. Itmnstbe lookedatalso on its sub

advance in the complexity of the cognitions and operations that have been age by ageattained to, there has

868 m am as.For scientificandartistic progless is dne not sit o

theaccumulation cf knowledgeand ofapplianceaz the impressibilities and the activities have themselves grown tohigher complications . Tare is evidence from various

quarters that the minds of the inM or human races caunotrespond to relations of even moderate complexitn mnch

science M According to the traveller li eutenantWalpole, it is remarked of th0 8andwich i slanders, by thfirteachers, “

that i nall the early parts of meir edncaticn.

wonderful rapidity, but will not exercise their think ingfaculties.” That is to say, they can readily receive dmple

ideas but not complex oues. Again , of the Australians weledge, but they have n0power of combination or concentration .

“ The reports oi ndoo schools discloseJhcngh in

aless marlted manner, the same fact. One ol'

the reasmassigued in the United States for not educating negro

cluldrenaloug with white ohfldiem has been thataflcracertainage they “ do not cormspondinglyadvance in lsaming— their intellects being apparently incqaable of beingcultmed beyoudaparticulnr point.” And this sb ten cnt,

which might else be snspected of hn agm with thatmade respecting the same mce in Afrioaby Sir SameclBaber, who says ;—J ‘ In chfldhood l believe the negm to be

h d vm h inteflwtud qd ch eaof thewhite child ofa

& , too, of the Andm n ohfi

dren we read that they “catch np words madilyand tepeat

' Seal’rcoacdinp of thamhnohgiealw"I ho Allnu N ’

yann . Wi lda”.

S M M M NW SatcaVol.

TBS (JO-ORDlN A'

l‘l03 O? CORRESPONDEW

5 166 . Fou r to comprehend the increase of the correspondence between the organism and its environment, in

to contemplate the facts under yetanotheraspeot. Wemust look at the general conditions by fulfilment of whichthese more elaborate adjustments of inner to outer relations are made possible. The performance of a compound

thing more than asusceptihility to eaoh of the sever-lelements constituting the compound impression, and apower to efieot each of the several motions constituting thecompound action. It implies that the constituent sensations and contractions shall be combined after a particularmanner—shall be co-ordinated ; and the perlbction ot

’

thc

correspondence will m '

y s s the perfection of the co

Lot us talce firstasimple caso, as that of the action s

oreuturcs in which the motion of some conspicuous adjacentobject is responded to hy random muscular movements, tocreatures in which the muscular movementsare suchas tocarry the body owey from the dangerous object ; we riseto nn adiustm0nt ol'at least two joined relations in theorgan ism to two joincd relations in the onviroumeut.

m cc-osnnun os or cosm rouors css . 371

The strong visual impression produced by the adjacentmov

'

mg object being the stimulus to activity ; then, that theactivity may be of the right kind, such modification of theimpression as depends on the direction of the body in spacemust be recognized, and the activity modified accordingly.

which indicates position, must together control the motorchanges ;and the control mnst consist in so ordering their

respective amounts that the resulting motion may carry theorganism away from the source of danger . When distanceas well as direction becomes coguisable,andwhen the colour

the stimulus is composed ofamuoh greater number of ele

mentsnmitedafteraspecial manner ; and the more rapid,skilful, and varied the consequent actions become, the more

of motor changes. While just as a wrong combination ofmotor changes involves a fall or other failure of action ; so,a wrong combination of the separate stimuli entails a miso

taken perception .

Space need not be occupied in tracing up these simple

apartioular manner ; and that, as espeoially seen in this

case of localities, it is only in virtue of a definite relationshipamong them thatadefinite perception is possible. No

as far as the muscular contractions implied are fitly regulated in their order, theiramounts,and their modes of con

§ 167. Advancing from these cases in which the direotivestimuli, though hoterogenous,are made up of elem0nts fiiat

17

m am m als.are uimnltaneously present to the senses, to the caaec inwhich come cf their elementsare pm emt to the seuses nnd

some not , we meet withacensory co-ordinaticn ofanewand highcr order. And where the m mndh g m fim m

wheu pursued runs te its burrow, supplies us withan inastm ce ct

’

thc one ; whilean instance of the other cccm

in auy process which, like the buildiug of ancst, is

efiected by instalments varionsly interrupted by other pro

Frcm the ctcgo in whichasingle pastimpressicn unites with many present cmes tc ccmposeaspecial sfimnlus,and in which theaction completed st in

ten nis is tolerably homogeneous in character, theadvance

ueous in its instalmentn, as wellas in the manner cf theirsuccession. In men’s daily transactions, the complexsights, sounds, and muscular sensations, serving for immediate guidance,are cc -ordinated with recollections of the

pm ons, placec, things, evemm, tc which thcse tram ctinm

refer ; and cne whc mistakes the hourat which certainbusinecs in to be doue with certain pccple at acertain

to market, and sold, compose a series of widely vdxflerentgroups ofactions (each consisting of many minor groups),

toachieveasiugle end ; and toachieve it they must beadjusted in a particular manner. h e elaborateneu of

374 m m m esa.

united withm cedingaudaucceeding ctepain a mede thatis quite specific. An estimate cf the hqrse-power reqnired

to moveagiven steam-veeselat a specified speed, invclvea

abody mcving throngh flnid varies as the square of the

velocity ; that theareacppcsed by avessel to the watervaries as the squares cf its dimensious ; that the ton

nage variesas the cubes cf the dimm sicns ; wi th sundry

lmgths , bmadths , depths, have to be combined with these

general truths, each with each ; snd the resultahave to befurther ccmbined after particulm' modes . If cne of the

generalities be applied to the wrong specialities— ii the

representing sectionalarea, bnt on those representing tcn~nage—if the databe inen ct

,cr the principles bc misunder

stood, m' thc calculation be erroneously perfcrmed, that is

-if there be imperfect cc -ordination of the vm'icus mw talacte involved ; afalse conclus ion is reached : there is a

udjusted to exterual ones,as is prcved by the result.It will further elucidate both this doctrine d oc -ordina

last. UndeveloPed life ialed byassociaticnsamong scme

cf the supm'ficial atu-ibutes of th

'

mgs . Developed lit’e ia

led byassociaticusamong thcse fnndamentalattributee cnwhich theactions ot

'

the thiugs depend.'I’hm'e is no in

variable conuexicn betweenalcud soundaudan adjaeentenemy ; and hence, creatm~eain which cue of theae sm cc

asan index tc thc othcr,arc oficn wrcng in theadjusmcutl

nexicn between linear dimensionaand solid content , or

between vclocity uud moutentumfiaccnatantand therefnn

rm: m us eum s or com m on ers.

tion, is completely conformed to a group of outer relations,

composition of the phenomenon is, in a sense, paralleledby the composition of the cognition. The law that themomentum cfamoving bcdy varies as its velocity multiplied into its weight, cannot be known until there exist

and weight ; it cannot be known until there exist in themind ideas of time

,space

,and matter, without which velo

until there are processes of thought answering to thosequantitativeccnnexions which varies as”and “ multipliedinto” indicate ; nay, the law cannot be known until thestates of consciousness symbolizing time and space, are socc-ordinated as to symbolize velocity ; nor until the statesof consciousness symbolizing velocity and weight are socc- ordinated as to symbolize momen tum ; nor until thesethree are again cc-ordinated according to those laws ofrelation implied by “ varies as and “ multiplied in

meuon must have its internal representative ; and theseveral laws of dependence among these attributes must beeach represented by some constant relation among their

fl'

hcse facts bring out into yet clearer light, the generaldoctrine variously presented in the preceding chapters. Thatin these highest manifestations of Life produced by the cul

ply such intense vital action while they so greatly subserve

there should be this elaborate and complete cc -ordinationof inner relations to symbolize cuter relations, servesasa

"ins fiction of the truths, that hife is the m in.

xce cfacorrespondence between the crganism gnd its

m m m fi e degm ofmfem u themW PW OO The many proofs Which have ban

the ccrrespondenceadvance hand in

878 m m m rs ssxs.

were not formed,and the appropriate operations producedby them

,in periods incomparably briefer, human lifewould

and pemepticn as the interpretation of groups of symbols,

for an index of the combined attributes with which suchscent is connected ;and sim ilarly , in uudeveloped languageasimple sound is used to indicate acomplex idea. In

limits . Butalarge increase in the number of con -espou

sounds and markaare too few in number te represent

componnd symbols must be used before there can bea

are without cdour,and things thatarealike in odour, can

aice, as wellas of scent, can beappreciated. And when

qualities, “ But on what condition cnly doeathis moreelaborate language become serviceable ? or, to ccnfine the

It iamquired tbpt the cons titnent elcmenm d each com

pod te sign shan be m etficiently w -ordinatei so rapidlyunited mtheact of percepticm so integrated,as to becomapractically one. Had the letterathat malne up every word

m mreem rcs or coas rsm nrm s. 379

larning to m i the system m uld be cf little or no use.

Able theugh it might be, to express with precision all

system of simple signs, did it remain thus cumbrons in its

to be spelled out in this deliberate fashicm; the methcd of

mcoguition by combined sensations would yield in utility tc

the method cfmcoguition by a single sensation. Universalin its '

pewers, it would yet be too slcw cf nse to satisfythe reqnirements. In both cases , however, the pro.

gressive integration of the component correspondencesremoves this difficulty, by practically reducing the coma

pound sigus tc simple ones . A ward made up ofadoseuletters comes eventually tc be reccgnised ns qnickly as

perception cfacarriage, seemingly take no more time tc

receiveand interpret thanasingle scund cr tas te. And thna

spondenoes, without loss in their rapidity. Let us glanceat the results.

170. It is needless to dwell on the apparent simultaneity with which the many visual sensations given us byan object, arouse those ideas of tangible extension, of resist

from them, seeming to constitute butasingle state of con

sciousness . N or is it requisite to do more than indicate the

nearly identicalasseunblages ; as shcwn in curability to

880 en m t m m m .

particular mental state. But to conveyavivid ideaof fi c

aerves the perceptions , itwill be well to describean experi

We jndge of distance byat lesst three separate indications . When the cbserved object is lmcwn to m theanfleit subtenda, or, rather, the space which its image com on

therenna,° aids in the esnmate.

’

The particular'

focaladyuab'

cf the visualares, supply athird evidence. In crdinaqstrumen t of ProfessorWheatetone’s invention—the Pseudoacope— the last twoare made tc con tradict moh cther.

The muscularactions by which the visualaxesarebeiug the more marbed,andacccmpanied by the strougc

is that when lookedat through the Pseudcaccpe, ccnvex

verdict of consciousness may be auddenly '

reversed. If;after ccntemplating the inside ofacupand wonderingat ita

little w that the cutside gradcally comeainto viewandthe cpening grcwc more ellipticd , there preaentlyarxivesatimawhw the percepticnallat once changen,and the capis seen under its m'dinn '

yaspeet. N ew the fact hero to bermarked u m mgnifimng is the impowb ility ofauy inteamediate cr hesitating jndgment. N otwithstanding the comflict cf evidence, thcre is, caveat the mcment cf change,adefinite pcreeption eithcr of concavity or cf ccnveuity.

The perception is uot inccmplcte or cbacum bnt perfcctly

mind,” as the phrase is— the occurrence cd

'

particular perceptwns

'

will often bc unconscicusly followed by theaclacns'

appropriate to them : sometimes with ludicrous efiect. Thestart en cne si& cansed byalcud noise cleseat hand, orthe throwing out cf thearms to regain the balanceafter

ceases, originally quite distinct, come to be so united that

plex, the law may be traced ; witness the feats cfask iifulbilliard-player. In one of his strokes we see the relative

positious of the threc balls to oneanother, to the cushions,

aud to the poclrets,all uuited intoacomplex visual impression co-ordinawdwith the greatestnicety ; we see the direction of the cue, itsadjustmen t to the ball, the strength cf

fied to suit the requirements ; and we see that by lcug habit

poundaction, that the one follows the otheralmost mechauically . N omasoniug or calculaticu is required ; or, indeed,is permissible. For it is uotcrious that in gameaof tkill,

part cf the higher faculties, almcst inevitably causeaafm

‘

lure. The direct guidance that has been esh blished

must bc allowed free play ; and success becomeasure inproportiou as, by ccnstant co-cid inaticm, the combined

creatures, is gn dually m umed by more complu com

171. Not ouly to the constituents of immediate perception, to the elements of composite motion, and to the combination of the two, does this law apply ; it applies also tothe highest processes ef coguition . The mostadvanced

meats of mauipulatory skiIL For mak iugageneralisation

which the generalization includes— uniting them into asingle ccguition . Afier there has been amentalaccumu

(m embered firstas isolated facts andafter further expe.

t ienes colligated as facts having some resemblance), theresuddenly , on the occnrrence perhaps cf some typical example,arises a cognition of the relation of co-existence or sequencecommon to the whole group : the particular facts, beforelooselyaggregated,allat once crystallise intoagencral fact

The mode in which this resultis broughtabout, is the same in these highest casesas inthe lowest cases . .Continnous repetition of experiences inwhichany two sensafionsare always joined, any two mus

perception unifm'mly followed by a special motion, resultsin the greater or less integration of the component changes ;

experiences which, though superficially unlike, one and allpresent the same fundamental relation of cc-existence or

the elements of this relafion , and stil ultiplying axpeIt will be

obvious without details, that the same thing holds respecting the generalization of generalizations . The integrationcf correspcndences is traceable fi-cm the simplest up to the

most elaborate of the in tellectual processes . And in the

884 cam eram an .

h snu mthe fimh the eflhot is to simphfy the directiveandexeonfivewfioncand so to msks practicable those edjcstments that would else fail from the too slow succession of

the processes they involved. For as the perception of a

cipient had to spell out the consti tuent s ensations ; so, any

rslization ,afi’

ord valuable gm'

dance, weuld be of little or noservice if every member of the series had to be separs tely

§ 172 . This gradnal nnion of the elements ofany inteenalchasge by which the organismadapts itsacts toan extcrnalcc existence or seqnence, has bcen , in common with provisostraits of advancing correspondence, abundantly displayed inthe course of human evolution . Progress m integration hasbeen anecessaryaccompm iment of progrcss in specialitysnd oomplexity, sinoe without it highly specialand complc:

correspondences caunot beachiey ed ; snd henoe in proportionas civilization has dispisyed the last it must have displayed the first. The one having been illustrwed in deh ilit is therefore needless to illustrate the other. M arty,greater length and degree of Life, involvedas they sre by

W W W

rendered oneanother poss ible. Every kind ofadvance hasOpened the way foradvan ces of othcr kinds ; and these

again hsve reacted in hh e manner. All have been t’ur

thered by each ; and each has been furthered byall.Not

mately, as in the researches ofastmnomers, the grcatestextension of the correspondence in Space is achieved

the correspondence in Time and Space involve increase inits speciality ; but, eventually, that immense ism-ease inspeciality implied by the making of telescopes and chronometers, givesanew progrcss to thc correspondence in

'

fime

and Space . On the onc hand, such greatcr complexity o¢’

the correspondence as is shown by dis criminating betweenobjects which have many attributes i n common, amounts toadvance in its speciality ; and, on the other hand,advancein speciality is that without which greater complexity c o

correspondence cannot be reached. While, by the corre»

spondcnce to higher generalities, the way is opened fiormore complex and more special correspondences ; it is byaccum ulated cxperienccs of such more complexand morespecial correspondences that the correspondence to still

At bod i

ciders of cormsponden ce is clearly traceable ; but the

the wm nm become. . lf we consider the results of im.

bringing within viewawider region ,and so extsnding the

cm pondence in Space, and besides giving earlier noticeof q iproaching prey or encmies,and so extending the corre

spondcnce in'l‘imc ; it biingsagieater powerof discrimina

piace in thc mau of science whoadjnsts afnrther inner

res comm ences m ram worm . 887

betweenan eleotric currentand the maguetination os‘

iron

-we see that while the discovery is anadvance in specio

of advances inall orders of correspondences . It makes

the phenomenaof terrestrial magnetism . Through the

galvanometer it leads to adjustments, both general and

subsisting among electrical phenomena of various orders.In the same way it does the same thing in mspect toan

Throngh theagency of the electric teiegraph which haaalso grown ont of it, it makes possible hosts of specialcorrespondences between men's actions and the changesoccurring at remote points on the Earth’s surface ; itenables astronoma-s toascertain the relative longitudes ofobservatories with the greatest nicety ; and by supplying

trausits, it gives better datafor calcnlating the distancesand motions of the stars, for determin ing the structure of

oaidereal Systcm, forascertaining themotion of the Sun

through space. In snchameng other ways has this one

advance facilitated otheradvances ofall ordersand inalldirections ;and, inagreater or less degree, the likehappens

So that from the lowest to the highest forms of iife, the

increasing adjustment of inner to outer relations is one

by continuous differentiationand integration, a congeries oforgans performing separate functions but remaining mutually dependent, or rather growing more mutually dependent ;so, the correspondence between theactions going on inside

of the organim and those gc ing on oumide of is beginning

888 sarcas m

becomes differentiated into various orders of correspon

dences , which, though constantly more and more sub

divided, maintain a reciprocity of aid that grows ever

same progression. Withont dwelling on the fact thfi tbo

primordial tissue displayathe scveral forms of irritabiltty in

inteUigenco, whicharises by combination of themand mnsttherefore conform to their law of devel

dwelling on the fact that intelligentceadvances pori pmwith theadvance of the nervoas system,and &at the ncrvoussystsm hss the same law of

'

developmentas the other sys

tems -without dwelling on these facts , it is suficiemtly

grees of com spondence between the organismand its envimnmentam but diflderentaspects of the evolution of hife in

5 174. That 1ntelligence hn neither distinct grades noris oonsti tuted

’

of faculties'

that m tin ly independsng bnt

elements, isaconclnsion equally thrust npcn us when wc

turn fwm the charactcristics of the organism to the ohau cteristics of ths envimnment. Every wt of lntelligenoe

it results thatas, in theadm ce of fliiasdjnstmm t. the

890 m amm als.

Physiology, we have now to see what distinguishes the onogroup from the other. We decided that we should “ bes t

mental evolution as it may be most generally conceived,

and subsequently specialising the conception ”

One of theee steps has been taken in thepreceding chaptsn ,

broadestaspectas biological truths . It remains to take

Psychology, as dealing with a certain order of vital

science of Life, it nevertheless constitutes a sub-mclearly marked ofi

’

from the rest ; just in the same way tln tChem istry, although a part of the general science of Mole.cular Physics, is rightly erected into ’aseparate sub-science,because it deals with the re-distributions of heterogeneousmolecules instead of the red istribution of homogeneous

That which distinguishes the science of psychicd life

fi-om the science of physical life, we found to be the distinotcognizance which it takes of phenomena outside the organismas wcllas of phenomenainside the organism. Wo u wthat, passing beyond tho question with which Physics deals—What is the connexion between twc phonomenaAand Bin the cnvironmcnt l and passing beyund the question withwhich Phys iology deals—What is the connexion betweentwo chauges aand b in the organism l the question withWhIOll Psychology deals ia—What is the connexion betweenthese two connexions l How is the rclationato b in thoorganismadjusted to the rclation A to B iu the envim m t?

tacitly rccoguises phenomenain the environmentas imphsd

com m en ces i s m i ne m m rr. 891

recognition is but tacit, and that the great mass of biologicalinquiries are carried on without ieference to it ; whereas inPsychology the recognition of environing actions and relations is avowed and all-essential— is repeated from momen tto moment— is a necessary component of every proposition.

The distinction then drawn in the most general way, hasrecently been illustrated in various special ways. For while,that we might obtain the most comprehensive conception ofpsychological phenomena, we returned to the most general

the definition of Life as a whole ; we have met with abundant proof that the truths ofPsychclogy differfrom thetruthsof Physiology by taking for their subject-m m neither therelations of inner acts nor therelations of outer sets, but theadjustments of the inner to the outer. On glancing backover these chapters it will be found that in the first two of

them, treating of purely physical life as exemplified in

plantsand inanimals of the very lowest typeathe environement was recognized in the smallest poss ible degree : onlythat part of it which touched the organism had to be takenin to account. But the moment we rose to atype of

creature which adjusts certain organic relations to relations of which both terms are not presented to its surface,As soon as there existsarndiinentary eye capable of re:

the orgauism,and so rcndering it possible for the organismto make some adapted movement, there is shown the dawnof actions we distinguish as intelligent. As soon as theorganism,

feebly sensitive to a jar or vibration propagatedthrough its medium, contraem itself so as to be in lessdanger from the adjacent source of disturbance, we perceiveauascent form of the life classed ss psychical. That is tosay, whm the correspondences exhibit some extensionin S’

pace or in'l‘

ime, some increase of Speciality or Com

892 cm n n svwm m .

physical lifeand psychioal life. 1n so faras it dealsatall

Physiology hmits itself to the few in which the outsr

actionsare those ofagents inactual contact with the or

certain efl'ects by tonch (as insects which fertiline fiowers) ;thus leaving to Psychology all otheradjustmentaof innerto onteractions. So that, practically, the sphares of tho

176 . Q uiteapart, however, fmm the consideratiom thus

recalledand enforced, we see here the need ficramore

which thaprecediug chapters exhibit in its fundamental

and more completely integrated, leaves us withacom

Instinct, Memory, Reason , Emotion, Will, and the remmust be tranalated in terms of this oonception . If,asabovealleged, theaeveral gradeo of Mind and its componsatthe oom spondencs , they can be interpretodas such ;andto oomplete theargument it is needful that theyahonld beso interp

'eted.

We have now, then. to enter uponanothsr dcpartment of

rying with us tho fundamental truth evolved by it, it iemahmto found upon that fundamental h-uthaSpocial Synthesis.

CHAPTER 1.

ram: sam e or im m erses .

’

177. The two great classes of vital actions called Physiology and Psychon are broadly distinguished in this, thatwhile the one includes both simnltaneous and snccessive

changes the other includes successive changes only. The

themselves as an immense number of different series boundup together. Those forming the subject’matter of Psychology present themselvesas butasingle series. A glanoeatthe many con tinuous actions constituting the life of the bodyat large, shows that they are synchronous— that digestion,circulation, respiration , excretion ,

inall theirmany snb divisions

,are going on st one time in mutual de

afier another.

however. Even were the highest psychical life absolutelydistinguished from physical life in the way alleged, which we

This ehsptsraudall its succen on umposing Part . ,m in in sub

rtancatho samau in tho wiginal aditiou. Tho numcrous chaugu ol

“ pres-ion, omissions of superfluous passages, and occasionaladditions of

explanatory -sam ban basn such only u conduoo to tho elosm pn

m athe doctii ucs set twth—ths dootfinu thm sclm bch g m

flanged. l uamo this foramaon sufi ciontly indicatsd in thom18

896 srscm . stamen s.

see reason to doubt, it would still be truethat psychical life in its lower phascs is not thus dis

tinguished : the distinction arises only in the course of vitalprogression. That gradual differentiation and integration

,

seen alike in the evolution of organic structures and in theevolution of the correspondence between their actions andsctions in the environmen t, is also seen in the separation of

this correspondence into its two great orders . While throughit have resulted the various subordinate divisions of the

correspondence, through it also has resulted this fundamental divisien. We will lookatafew of the facts.

Passing over the small an imals moved by cilia, in which

the independence of the many irritationsand motions simultaneously going on is manifest—passing over the !oophyta,in which moderate local stimulations produce local contractions withoutafl'ecting the organism as .awhole— passingover these creatures devoid of nervm s systemg lot us consider what happens when the nervous system has attained

In such so-oalled Radiataasthe Star-fish, each of the several like divisions composing thebody “ is connected with a ganglionic centre, that seems tobe subservient to the functions of its own divisionalone, andto have little communication with, or dependence upon, the

diflFerent parts of its body z each part separatcly respondiugto the impreasions made on it. An d hence the fact thatfiralongth of timeatter beiug divided t’rom oneanother,actions. In theArticuIato , specially fitted by their

is well brought out byaxperiment. “ The l aah'

s rok'

giou

.‘ W ah h fiptn d w fm M ali“

898 m m m m m .

may be efi ciently executed without the aid of the brainThe vivisectioas of Longet,apian ,and othcrs , show that

tive powers, when both cerebrumand cerebellum have beenremoved ; and that birds similarly deprived of these greatcephalic gangliacan still walkabout, fly,and eveu pick np

movements,although born wi thout either cerebrcm 01' cere

bellum . Apart from evidenceof this kind, theper

there are many actions belonging to the psychical division,which either may or may not enter into the men tal current.The motion of the legs is neoessarily accompanied byvarious muscular and tactual changes . These, together with

sciousness— may be thought ofas by achild learuing to

walk ; or they may, as in ordinary walking, be lettalmostwholly out of co The processes we performwhile eating displayasimilar relation . The severalacts bywhich each morrel is selected, cut, prepared,and carried tothe mouth, may pcrhaps be held to enter into the currentof our thoughts , though in general, and especially duringconversation , they obtrude themselves on consciousnessvery slightly. But many of the impressions and motions

is grasped,and the muscular changes which thearms mevery moment undergoing, sw eelyatall occupy the attention. So that out ofagreat number of psychical or quad

woven into the thread of coneeim saean while the others

(and thathm w wm timu h dcw u m y u fln dn d b

m m am m m mm m m w m

m sm as or mm n m cx. 899

Go that only hy gradual difl’ercntiation have theactions

stead of simultaneous and successive ; and the distinctionis not even now complete. In the lowest types each partof the organisinmhile it performs by and for itselfall othervital fun ctions, also responds by and for itself to external

them,are both simultaneousand successive to as great an

extent as the physical changes. When a nervous systemmakes its appearance, these incipiently-psychical changes

connected. As the ncrvous system developsand integratss,the twisting of these various strands of chauges into one

thread of changes grows more decided. But to the lasttheir union remains imperfect. The vital actions consti

§ 178. This distinction between the psychical and the

physical life will be moat clearly understood, if we considerthe mode in which it firstappears and the leading stages ofits progress .

creatures consist, there is complete community of actions .

The vital processes go on simultaneously in many placesalike. These primordial organisms, if organisms they canbe called, exhibit no difl

‘

erentiations of structure or function ; and thus the two great divisions of life, equally with

no s -o hr that we oannatmllany of thm ahaolntcly unconscionaWhenwalking thm is the boun d in scriu g thm may bg nnder osrtain cirsumsh nosaatsctual series ; thm is very oftsu (in myself at leastlan

hwnts me zand thm is the vinal n ries xall ofwhich, n bordinato to thsdominaat conscionauen furmd by somo train of M m m finnallym ing it

‘and weaving themselves intu it.

100 m m

the innerand outer tissues— the substauce of the bodyandits limiting membrane. The parh of the original protoplasm are subject to butasingle oontm st of oouditiom

surrounding medium ; the internal portionsare not. Andm response w tlns prhnmy mflflseneu of condifionathereeventually arise unlik cnesses of structure and fu nction.That which is pemanently outermost tahes on the momform 0f vitalaction which its circumstances demand. Thatwhich is permanently innermost similarlyassumes amorespecialised order of activity (Pris . of

sideted as at first physiological only . In virtue of its

position, the surface necessarily monopohzes the duties of

absorption - the taking in of water and nutrimen t audoxygen ; while to the included mass remainauch dutiesasits inclusion permits . And when, by involution of thesurthce,a‘ stomach is formed, the changs implicsafurtherseparation of duties, such that nutrition is chiefly confined

to one part of tho limiting membranc and aeration to

another. But theadvance is not an advance in thc physiological division of labour solely . It h at the same time

psychicalactions into serial order. N ecessarily assmningthe vital oflioes entailed by its externality, theak in also

form the raw material of in telligence. The mcohanioalm d other changes going on in the environmcnt, can be

responded to by the organism only whcn it is aflhctcd hythem ; and auy change they work in it must be proxi

matsly expcrienoed by its surface. Theak in, then, heingthe port inunediately l ubject to the various kinds of u tu s

M samulh neceuarfly bccomes the part in which psychical

502 arrow . m u m.

auditory impressions are receivable only within yet narrower

functionally one. The cars are simultaneously W bythe same sounds and in the highest creatures the eyes, beingso placed as to converge their axes on the same object, yieldto consciousness what seems to be one image. Nay, even

The greatest sensitivcuess of the retinais confined to aminute spot ; and the feelings initiated iu this spot dominate ovcr the others in conscionsness. If weadd that whenthe most advanced intelligence is reached, the sensationsaris ing in the nose and the palateare but occasional, whilethosearising in the eyesand earsare perpetual ; it will beseen to what extremely small portions of the organism the

are ultimately confined .

Continued differentiation and integration, thus concert.

tin ting the actions out of which psychical life is evolved, firstou

'

the surface of the orgauism , sfiexwvards on csrtain regiomof th t surface, afterwards on thosemost specialised parts ofit constituting the organs of the higher senses, and finally inminnte parts of these parts , neceuarily render the psychicalbringing its changes moreaud more into serial order. Wehave nothing to do with the progressive development ofthe nervous system,

and the sctions thatare carried on

tlu'oughout its mass . These internalactions are initiatedby the external oues to which the senses are subject.And just in pwportion as the exterual ones tend towu d s

the serial form, the consequent internal ones do the

same.

§ l 79. This growing seriality in the psychical changes is,indeed, uecessitated byadvanoe of the oorrespondeuce. Inother wordathe sdvsuce of ths oorrespondeuce, the da.velopment of consciousness, and the increasing tendency

m amm ar m m n cn 408

aspects of the same progression.For how only can the constituent changes ofany complexcorrespondence be cc-ordinated l Those abilities which anmtelligent creature possesses, of recognizing diverse external objects and of adjusting its actions to composite phenomenaof various kinds, imply a power of combining manyseparate impressions. These separate impressions are re

ceived by the senses —by difierent parts of the body. If

they go no further than the places at which they are received,they are useless. Or if only some of them are brought intorelation with one another, they are useless. That an efiectualadjustment may be made, they must be all brought into relation with one another. But this implies some centre ofcommunication common to them all, through which they severallypass 3and as they cannot pass through it simultaneously,they must pass through it in succession. So that as theexternal phenomena responded to become greater in numberand more complicated in kind, the varietyand rapidity of thechanges to which this common centre of communication issubject must increase— there must result an unbroken seriesof these nervous changes, the subjective face of which iswhat we call a coherent consciousness.Of course I do not mean that material actions thus become

mental actions. As was said in N 41—4 1, 62 , 63, no eflortenables us to assimilate Mindand Motion. I am merelyshowing a parallelism between a certain physical evolutionand the correlative psychical evolution.

§ 180. That mental phenomena constitute a series is adoctrine of old standing, and one the general truth of whichnone call in question. As we have seen, however, it is to beunders tood in s qualified sense . When the factsare con

templated objectively, it becomes manifest that though thechanges constituting intelligence approach to a single succession, they do not absolute ly form one— that there we

£04 m u s eu m

which are notpresent to consciousness- fi ll that, through

merge into thom which we distinguish as physical . Whenwe consider the facts subjectively— when we interrogateconsciousness, we find that though the generd seriality of

moment,though ordinarily reg

'ardedas single states, are inreality multiple ones , and i t becomesaperplexing questionhow far each of these can he cousideredamemberofalineaxseries of changes . Besides the partioular thing to which tha

nu clear separan'

on

'

cau be made among the degrees ol

ness. Only one point of the objsct lookedat is perceivedwith perfect distinctness . Yet it cannot be said that

for the object as awhole may be identified by thesingle glance directed to this one point . Obviously ourconsciousness of things with

'

m the visihlearea, hecomeasmaller as they become mors mmote from the cm tre to

which the axes of the eyes convelge. Obviously thers

scem to be agreat number of nascent conscionsneaseaof difl'erent intensities existingat the same moment (hil,

speaking, it isamultitude of n'

mnltansouachangeaboundStill more conspicuous becomes the

£06 arm ors-ram s.

changes, forming what we may consider as consc iousness

guished from physical changes by their seriality, are rel»tively so distinguished ;and in proportion as they assumethat most developed form constituting rationality they cc

here into a seemingly-single succession of states. Thoughthese statesare physiologically composite, and were oncepsychologically composite, yet, to the extent that they have

181. Such, then, is the outcome of our exam ination.Gradually difl'erentiated from the lower order of changmconstituting bodily life, this higher order of changes con

stituting mental life assumes a decidedly- serial arrangement in proportion as intelligence advances. Though thisserial arrangemen t never becomes complete, yet in the

the highest processes of this consciousness are possibleonly on condition that its successive states, compound asthey may be in nature, shall comport themselves as practi

presses a relation, and that every re lation subsists betwu n

two terms, of itself proves that distinct thought mtotes serial arrangement of its components .A succession of changes being thus the subject-mutter

mine the law of their succession . That they follow one

another inaparticular way, the existenoe ot’

lntsltigsncs

itself testifies. Ths problem is to explain thoir ordsr.

CHAPTER 11.

run LAW or mrsnmcrs cr.

Q 183 . All Life, whether physical or psychical, being thecombination of changes in correspondence with external ccexistences and sequences, it results that if the changesconstituting psychical life occur in succession, the law of

their snowssion must be the law of their correspondence .

Anadequate statement of this law is by no means easy tofind. Did the phenom ena in the environment form, like thephenomena of consciousnes s, a succession, there would beno difficulty. The entire fact would be expressed by sayingthat the internal succession parallels the external succession .

But the environment contains many successions of phenomena, going on simultaneously. Further, there are foundin it a great variety of phenomena which are not success iveat all, but cc- existent. Again, it is unlimited,and the phenomenait includes are not only innumerable, but insensiblypass into a relative non -existence as the distance from theorganism increases. Once more, the environment, relativelyconsidered, is ever varying as the organism moves fromplace to place. How then can the succession of psychicalchanges be in any way formulated ? How is it possible toexpress the law of a single series of internal phenomenainterms of its correspondence with an infinity of externalphenomena, both serialand non o serial, mixed in the most

IOS sm m m m m .

ganiam in fortuitous combinations nevm' twice alike 1’

Were it not that the inner relations must correspond withthe outer ones ; and that therefore the order of states of

consciousness must be in some way expresfible in terms ofthe external order we might despair of finding any general

that no general law ean apply to extended portions of theseries of changes . Mainly dependentas these must be, on

the assemblages of things by which the organism is en.

vironed, and on the new assemblages perpetually disclosedby its movements, they can be no more formulated thanthese assemblages can be formulated. Evidently, it isin the immediately-connected changes, and small groupsof changes , rather than in the longer concatenatioms of

changes, that a law is to be sought.

188. A correspondence between the internal orderandthe external order, implies that the relation betweenanytwo states of consciousness corresponds with the relationbetween the two things producing them. How corresponds ?The two sums of consciousness occur in sum csion gandall successions arealike in so faras theyare simply suoceaosions. In what, then, can the correspoudence conaist l In

this, that thepersistence of the connexion between the statesof consciousness is proportionate to theWrit ten“ of theconnexion between the agencies to which they answer. Therelations between external objects , attributes, acts, areofafi grades , fiom the necessary to the fortuitous . Therelations between the answering states of consciousness mus tsimilarly be ofall grades, from the necessary to the for

tuitous . When any state a occurs, the tendency of someother state d to follow it, must be strong or weak accordingto the degree of persistence with which A and D (the objectsorattributes that produoeaand d ) occur together in theenvironment. Ill in the environment, there is a more per

£10 M L sm m s .

of this k ind what is the implication ? Do we not speah of

the injuries suffered as resulting from lafi of sagacity ? or

as evincing iguorance ? And is it not a corollarythat, as

non-conformity of the inner to the outer order is want ofintelligence, conformity of the inner to the outer order isthat in which intelligence consists l'

A few instances in which the failure of the correspondenceis not total but partial, will enforce this conclusion. Thedog that comes on hearing his name called, usually does soexpecting to find his master or some member of the family ;but if, as occasionally happens, his name is called by astranger, the sequence in his states of consciousness is notadapted to the external facts : he makes a mistake. Amongthe Australian savages, who mostly meet with violent deaths ,it is the belief that any one who dies without apparent causehas been killed byan uuseen foe ; andastranger who happens to be found near st hand is liable to be sacrificedas the

between death and enmi ty very generallyagrees with the

connexion in the environment, it by no means uniformly doesso. The earlier chemists, by a large number of experiencesrespecting the combinations ofacids and bases, were led to

think of substances that neutralized bases as substanceshaving sour tastes ; but this relation of ideas, though very

What, now, do we say of cases like these, in which the

inner order does not completelyanswer to the outer order fWe say that they imply a low degree of intellect, or alimited experience, or a but partial enlightenment. And thedisappearance of these discrepancies between thoughts andhots we speak ofasanadvance in in telligence.

§ 185 .

“ Bnt how does this conception inclnde cc-existences l’” it may beasked.

“ In so faras the environmeut

presents motions and changes, thars is no difiioulty in

understanding the law of intelligence to be, that the

m raw or m en u . 411

strength of the tendency which the antecedent of anypsychical change has to be followed by its consequent, isproportionate to the persistence of the union between the

external things they symbolise . But when this union is notbetween successive things but between simultaneous things—notaunion in Time but a union in Space, it is less easyto see how the parallelism between the inner and the outerorder can result from fulfilment of this law. The connexion between two states of consciousness occurring in

two external phenomena occurring in succession. But if itcan do this, it cannot also represent the connexion betweentwo external phenomenanot occurring in succession .

The full reply to this objection will be contained by im .

say that the relation of oo-existence is distinguished fromthe relation of sequence by the readiness of its terms tofollow one another through consciousness in either order

,

with equal facilityand vividness ; that the consciousness ot

it arises when, in passing backwards and forwards from one

term to the other, the sequences being similarly unresistingcancel one another ; and that thus it consists of a duplication in consciousness, made up of a sequence and its inversion. Such being the nature of the relation of cc-existence

,

subjectively considered, the law of intelligence as aboveformulated applies to it no less than to the relation of

sequence. If two phenomena, A and B, habitually cc

exist in the environment, then, when the phenomenon Ais preseato the senses, the produced state of conscious.

usesa, is immediately succeeded by the state b, representing the phenomenon B. The process of thought does notand here, however : if it did, the external relation wouldbe known as a sequence. But the phenomenon B, in theenvironment, being as much the antecedent of A as A is ofB (neither of them being antecedent or consequent, except

£12 W arm-arm .

in the order of our experience of them), it recults that thsstate bhaving been induced, the law involves that it shallbe followed by the state c . Theatateaagain induces ms tate b, and is itself once more re- induced ;and so onaslong ss the relation remains the object of thought. Lot ustakeacase. If the outlinesand colours ofabodyarc pre

the consciousness of something resistant ; and conversely.if, in the dark , a body is touched, the resulting consciousness is instantly followed by the consciousness of scmethingextended. But in neither case is thisall. When the ideaof extension has been suggested that of res istance does not

finally disappear ; nor when the idea of resistance has beensuggested does that of extension finally disappear. Bothcontinue to be thought of, as it would seem , almost simultaneously . And since the two terms of the relation

ness ; since further, the persistent consciousness of them

sent presentation of both is reallyarspid alternation—asalternationao rapid ss to produce the efl‘eot cf centinuity ;just as thealternating impressions to which the retinaissubjected by the pictures on the Opposite sides ofarevolving thaumatmpe, causeaconsciousness of the two picturesas fused into one. Indeed,as this illustration snm ts, itis in virtue cf the law cf intelligenceas above formulatsd,that the relation of cac-existence becomes cognizable. Forthis rapidity with which two states of ccnscionsnesaanswcr

internal states which ccrrespond to extremely -cohsrent ex

ternal phenon ena. And it is in consequence of this m

treme cohesion , with the quick alternation involved by in,that the two phenomenaare presentedappam tly together,and thc ideaof co-aistence genersted.

$14 m om simm ers.

of the un ion between the external things they symbohss.

Thus far, we have considered this law with reference to

those connexions in consciousness which correspond to

Here the connexions in the environment to which theconnex ions in consciousness correspond,are accidental on es.

fortuitous relation in thought. Two adjacent mental impressions answer to two phenomena that are by chanceadjacent in Space or

'I‘imc . Thus far the law manifestly

applies as before : the internal order conform to theexternal order. But how, it may be asked, can the tamJaney of theauwcedent state of consciousness to be followedby the consequent state, be described as proportionate tothe persistence of the un ion between the external things

the environment to be that between acertsin person andsome unusual place at which he is met. This relation mayeither be considered generally, in connexion with our experiences at large ; or specially ,asaparticular experience.Generally considered, the relation is one whose terms haveno persistence of union whatever : this person may neverhave been in that place before or since ; and in conformitywith this absence of persistence in the external union, iathe absence of any tendency for the idea of the person andthe idea of the place to follow one another—at any ratebetbre he was met there. Specially considered, the relationis one thatactually occurred ; when it occurred, the unionbetween its terms was absolute ; and in conformity wiathis temporarily-absolute union of its terms, was the tem.

porarily-absolute tendency of the answeri ng states of consciousness to follow one another. As , at the moment it wasobserved, the adjacent cc -sxistence of the person and theplace was as absolute as is the coe xistence of extensionandresistance in a solid mass ; so, at the moment it wasobservod, the two states of consciousness produced by ths

ran Law or mattress es . 415

person and the place oohered as absalutelyas do the con

does to the more or less habitual relations which experience

187. In the succession of psychical changes theredoubtless occur many combinations which are not easilyexplicable. Thus, on the case last instanced it may be

met in acertain place, thm exists no tendency for the

states of consciousness answering to the person and the

placate occur together ; yet afterwards , the tendency forone of the states to call up the other is ot

’

ten so decided

sistent relati on seems to be established between the states

Sometim e, indeed, the exceptionalclm 'acter of the oxternal relation becomcs the veuy cause of

tenacity in the intemal relation . The moreastonishing theevent— the more utterly it isat varianoe with the ordinarycoume of thingg the stu-onger becomes the cohes ion be

tween the answering states of consciousness. Whence it

toalaw the reverse of that enunciated. Again,

sciousness ever escape out of certain indissolubly-relatedstates when om e it gets into them ? 1f

, for instance, thenecessary co existence of extension with a perceived resis tance, is l§nown through the rapid alternation of the statesof consciousnessanswering to them ; sad if theee stateaareas inseparable in the organismas the phenomenain the en

vironment ; why should not the two go on reproducing eachother for ever ?

Fullv to answer theseand all like queries, would be to

n o m oral.am nesia.include in this chapteran en tim system cf psycholog ; M

whenall peculiarities in the suwession of psychical changecare explained, everything is expla'msd . Here, none bu t

general replies can be given . Of these the first

inte lligence in the abstract ; not the law of our intelligence,cr ofany intelligence with which weareacquainted. It iathe law tc which psychical changeaconl‘orm moreand momss intslligonce becomes higher ; bnt which can be perfcctlyconformed to only by perfect intelligence. And some of

thcanomalieapcinted out imply nothing beyond imperfec‘

tion in the conformity. But in the majority of

cases it will be found that what seem to be nonaconfcrmiticeare really conformities of a complex kind. It must beremembm d that the succession cfany one state of com

sciousnesuaftmany otherfi s due not tcasingle tendency ,but toacombination of tendencies . As in the enviromnent

phenomena ; as the relations in which it stands to these

some purely fortuitoua; it isacorollary from thealleged law

number of other states simultaneously tending, with variousdegrees of strength, to arise alter it. Consequently, thechange whichactually takeaplace is the resultant of manytendencies acting together. The next state of consciousness

is produced by composition of forces. The force with whichthis next state cohered to its immediate antecedent, is aidedby the forces with whichagronp o!

’adjacent states cchercdto it ; and by the union of many small forceeracom.

single tendency much strcnger than any one or two cf its

components. A great physical law of the external wcrldsupplies us with an analogy. Simple as ' is the principle

OHAPTEB III.

w e osowrn or mat tresses.

Q 188. The law enunciated in the foregoing chapter,being the law oi’ Intelligence in the abstract— the law which

we have next to examine the modes in which better fulfil

ment of the law is exhibited ;and to seek ths general causefor thh m m mew

’ '

ng fulfilment of it.

tingnished. Them is,first— increase in thcacctwacy with

which the inner tendencies are proportioned to the onter

persistences. Thexe is, second— increase in the m bor of

cases , unlikeas to k ind but like ss to grade of complexity ,

in which there are inner tendencies answering to outer Ms is tences . And there is , third— increase in the complaca,of the coheren tatates of consciousncssmnswering to cchcreflcomplexities in the environment. The organism isamid innumerable relations cf all mwdcrs . It begins byimperfectlyadjns ting itsactions toafew of the simplest of

these. Toadjust itaactions more exactly to theee few sim

pleat, is one form of advance. To adjust its actions to a

groatervariety of thme simplcsq isafurther t’orm of advance.To adjust itsactions to success ive gu des of the more complicated. is yetanother form ot

'advance. And to whatcverstage it reachm thereareatill the same thres kinds ct

'

im

provement opm to it—aperfecting of the correspondencesalreadyachieved ; an whievement ct' other correspondence

m onom s or mm m rm . 419

of the same order ; and an achievemen t of con 'espondenceaof ahigher order : all of them implying greater fu lfilmentof the law of intelligence.

But now, what are the requisites to this progress 1’ Is thegenesis of Intelligence explicable on any one general principle applying at once to all these modes of advance ? If so,

189 . In the environment there exist relations of allorders of persistence, from the absolute to the fortuitous.Consequently, in a creature displaying a developed correspondence, there must exist all grades of strength in the

intelligence is only thus possible, it is manifestly a conditionto intelligence in general that the antecedents and con

sequents of psychical changes shall admit of all degrees ofcohesion. And the question to be answered is — How aretheir various degrees of cohesion adjusted ?Concerning their adjustm ents there are two possible hy

potheses, of which all other hypotheses can be but modifications . On the one hand, it may be asserted that thestrength of the tendency which each state of consc iousnesshas to followany cther, is fixed beforehand by a Creatchthat there is a “

pro- established harmony ” between the

ilmer and outer relations. On the other hand, it may be

of consciousness has to follow any other, depends on thefrequency with which the two have been connected in expertence— that the harmony between the inner and outerrelations arises from the fact that the outer relations producethe inner relations. Let us briefly examine these twohFor the first the reason given, like the reason given forthe special—creation hypothesis at large, is that certain of

the phenomena cannot otherwise be explained. This super~natural genesis of the adjustment is alleged because no

19

C2O

asingle fact to rest on . The facts that may be cited in its

have not yet been enplained ; and thisalleged explauationof them as due to a pro- established harmony, is simply a

Afurther criticism is, that those who espouse this theory darenotapply it beyond a narrow range of cases. It is only

as in the se- called fcrms of thougbtand in the cougenital

But they shculd either go the entire length with Leibnits ,

cr not go with himat all . If theyassume that theachustment of inner relations to outer relations has been in come

that it has been inall csses fixed beforehand. I flanswering

sistent connexion between states of consciousness ; why,where the outer connexion is almost absolutely persisten t,and the inner connexion proportionately persistent, must wenot supposeaspecial provis ion herealso l why must we not

of persistence ?

would involve the asserti on of a rigoro us necessity in old

this hypothesis are, more than any others, disinclind tomake. It would raise the awkward question whyat birththere is notas greatapower of thinkingmnd of

correctly,as stany suhsequentperiod. Itwould imply thatmen are equally wise concerning things of which they hmhad no experience,as concerning things of which they have

in enlightenment which characterisss human progeesaion.b ehem m t od y is thc hypothed s without fonndafioq

in m amm als.The only orders cf psychical sequences not obvicudy in

cluded by this general law,are those classedas reflex m d

any experience has been bad. But it is possible that, rightlyinterpreted, the law covers these also . Though reflex andinstinctive sequences are not determined by the experiencesof the individual organism manifesting them ; yet the ex'

have determined them . Hereditary transmissionappliatopsychical peculiarities as well as to physical peculiarities.While the modified bodily structure produced by newhabits of lifie is bequeathed to future generations, themodified nervous tendencies produced by such new

'

habitsof lifearealso bequeathed ; and if the new habits cf lifebecome permanent the tendencies become permanent. Letus glance at the facts.Among the families of a civilized society, the changes ofoccupation and habit from generation to generation and theintermarriage of families having dilferent occupatiom andhabits, greatly confuse the evidence of psychical heredity. But it needs only to contrast national charactersto see that mental peculiarities caused by habit become hm'

e

maritime, hunting, commercial, races— races thatare independent or slavish, active or slothful we know that many .

cf these. if not all, have s commcn origin ; and hence it iainferable that these varieties of disposition, which haveevident relations to modes of life , have beenproduced in the course of generations . The tendencies tocertain combinations of psychical changes have become

In domesticated animals parallel fis tsare familiar. N ot only the forms and constitutions, but thedispositionsand instincts of horses, oxen, sheep, pigs, fowls,havc beccme different fi'

om tbose of their wild k indwd.

The various breeds of dogs exhibit numerous varietiesof menta‘ character and faculty permanently establisbfi

m anom cr mu u m m 423

by mode of lit'

e ;and their several tendencieaare spcntane .

ously manifested. A young pointer will pointatacoveythe first time he is takenafield. A retriever brought upabmad has been remsrked to fulfil his duty without instruc

tion. In such cases there is evidently a bequeathed tomdcncy fcr the psychical changes to take place in aspccialway} Even from the conduct of untamed creatures

birds ot'

inhabited coun tries are far more dimcult to approach than those of uninhabited ones . And the manifest

states ?Of the two hypotheses, then, the first is sup

ported by no

positive evidence whatever, while the second is supported

‘ Hae . Darwin's Orly‘ac/ Spedn been published bstcrs l wrots

thh paum h l shouu no donht hareac qnafified my words as to rs o

cog Bang wfittsm how

waJM tc h t the pu n gs M with nothing h yuod m bd chm gu ,

and to inaks the neediul qualificatiou inanctaI dc this psrtly toavoidan iocoun niont ccmpliu ticn cf tho m temm t. But my chiet rem n is

M whne hd fi ngm d we fitm tw h dwap aw c puafingm[ believe tliat in cualibe tbn e it b not ths chid m Th reatens !“i l was smnewhat surpriaed whenavery competent crfiic called in quss

on whatanthority l had afleged ths iact twhteh l suppou d- to bs wsfl

known) l wu unahls to jnstiiy myu lt An Am riean fdsnd who wu

Reynoldaof tt uited Statcs Navy . I hialctter uhs crigiual is hctcnn o) is w ittai from Brook

’s Island, described by Captain Reynolds

After

givh g otbaW ot thh m h h bih t u yn— “ Ths birds

m t gd out d them d m pwph whu m hfi bat sbow fightaudbau tc be hspt cfi

'

with sticks. During this fldllq thc trcp'

c birds lose

M taflfm which m plaokd bm fim n m wcfid pfllabhded m whilo walking ovsrafisld.

”

m m ammals .

hesions of psychics l ststes are prc-adjusted to ths outu

pess istences of the relatious symbolised, is asuppositionwhich, if tam literally, involves absurdities so p u t matnoue nowmake it in respect ofany cohesious save the con.

genital. That it is the true supposition in so fsr ss this

limited rsnge of csses is concerued, no evidence can be

given ; since only to one present st the creation of sn

as the fscts sre accessible, the supposition is wholly s t

variance with them ; and it is entertained only whem it

cannot be brought fsce to face with the facts . Onthe other hand , the snpposition that the inner cohesions areadjusted to the ' outer persistences by accumulated ex

perience of those outem' pers istences , is iu hs rmony vrith s ll

so far ss redlem wtions and instincts sre concerued, tho

experience-hypothes is seems insuficient ; yet, its seemiqginsufioiency ocours only whem the efidenw is beyond onr

reach. Nay , even here, such few factsas we canget point

tothe conclusion that automatic psychical connexions resultfrom the registration of experiences continued for numbcc.less generations .

In brief, the case stands thus:— It is ngreed ths tall pst i

things equal, to be proportionate to the multiplication of ex

dissoluble. Though such infinity of experien ces cannot !»received by a single individual, yet it may be mceived bythe snccession of individus ls formingamce. And if there is

s trsnsmission of induced tendencies in the nervons system ,

it is inferable thatall psychical relations whatever, fi'

om tho

necessary to the fortuitous, result from the experiences ol

the oun espondhg external ”M asada-s no w

£26 m am a.In the progress of life at large,as in the progress of thc

sistences , must begin with the simpleand advance to thecomplex ; seeing that both within and without, complex rolaticas, being made up of simple ones, cannot be establishedbefore simple ones have been established. After experienc ecl

’

eome persisten t relation A to B in the environment, hs s

chical statesaand b; andafter some other persistent outer

relation O to D, has similarly generated a pers istent innerrelation c to d ; then, if in the euvironment there ex ists anyrelation between the relations A to B and O to D, it becomespossible for repeated experiences to generate in the organismarelation between ato band c to d. But it is manifcatlyimpossible for this to be done until the relations 0 to b andc to d have been themselves generated. This deduction

, too,

we see to be in complete conformity with the facts, both of

individual evolutionand of general evolution.Further, it must follow that the only thing required for

the establishment of a new internal relation answering to anew external one, is, that the organism shall be suffic ientlydeveIOped to cognize the two terms of the new mlaM M d

that being thus developed, it shall bed in circ umstanceswhich present the new relation . Here also

,there is haro

mony between the dpriori inference and the inferu cafromobservation. In our domesticanimals thcre are constantlyformed new pg chical relations answering to such new phys ical relations as have terms suficiently simple to be pm»ceived. And in human civilisstion we see the truth

illustrated in the progress to wider and wider gcnen lBut the validity of these several corollsries will beoonsa

nwre spparentas we procsed. Lot us now ps ss on to coatemplate the p owth of lntslligencs nnder its leading

(mum IV.

REFLEX ACT I ON.

Q M . Under its simplest torm, Reflex Action is tbs

A vague manifestation of this sequence marks the dawn of

on being touched, that many of the simpler animals arerecognised as living.

But though in the movements of !oophytes it is fore

we ascend to creatures in which there exist nen es

and muscles . In such crestum the msponse is efi'

ected

not through theageney of the one un iform tissue cousti

but the irritability is confined to one specialised struc

ture, while the con tractility is confined to another special

ol‘

the other. Some impres sion is made on the peripheralterminatiou ol

'anerve ; the molecular motiou it sets up is

propagatedalong the nerve mitil it reaohesagsnglion ; thalarge quantity of molecular motion there disengaged, discharges itsell

’ aloug another nerve pmceeding fi-om the

ganglion to a muscle ; and thus the stimulus carriedthrough an afferent nerve to some libero-motor cen tre, is

Any one of the suckers on thearm ot'acuttle-fish that has

been separated from the body, will, under the influm ca01its own independent ganglion, attach itself to a substance

the tactual and muscular changes in the suclrerand its

ganglion , is parallel to the uni€orm relation between resist

anceand extension in its environment—the inner cohesionof psychical states is as persistent as is the outer relstion

between attributes. And if we remember that in fin

being mpeatedmresponse to the outermlatiomwe see hew

the organization of it in the speciesauswers to the infinitudeof experiences received by the species.

§ 192 . Refiexactiou being the lowest form ol’

psychicsllife, is, by impficatiommost nearly rels ted to physicsl life :

in itwe see the incipient difl'erentiatiom of the tivo. Thistruth may be discem ed from scveral points of view.

polyps when touched, or otherwise stimulated, probablyresults fi-om the increased vital change whieh tho stimulus

thess refiex sctions ,as ofacephalopod’s customis efiectedin s more definite m d more complicated way, yet it dnesnot so fir difieras to be removable fi'

om the class of phy .

sicalactions. Mostly , itwould be cousideredaaamisase ofm ls to call it psychical. So ths twhileas belonging to tho

we dignifyas psychical, it msy be convenient to classify “as psyohical ; yet it must be admitted that in positicn it is

the physical lite is itself regulatsd by reflex sctions. Those

the introduction of food,are of reflsu origin ; as s t-nab s

which the stimulus toan opposite mo

M "W"W in the ganglion with cue or

thu s rhythmimlly-moving organs

5 193. From that lowest kind of Befiu aw’on h wh‘icha

is to complim tious in the stimuli and in the acts

contraction and a combination of contractim . From tmof dispersed mum ular fibres to the excl

fibm s ted into definite bundles,the W hen i s

m m . 48!

in whichawhole group of mnscular motions results

when one of its feet is irritated, suppliesan illustration. To

the task of the physiologist rather than of the psychologist.Here it concerns ns merely to note the bear-ing ot the phe

We have to observe that these simplest of psychicalchanges correspond to external relations which are onlyone degree more specialized than the relations to which

physical changes correspond. While the procssses of the

moisture,light, which pervade the environment at large 3

these lowest processes of the animal life are in adjustmentwith the most general relations of the solid bodice contained in the environment : as those between tangibilityand solidity, motion and life.Further, it is to be noticed that in conformity with thegeneral law of intelligence, we have, in one of these reflexactions, an established connexion between two psychim lstates answering to an established connexion between twoexternal phenomena. Not that the inner tendency isexactly proportioned to the outer persistency. In manycases it is absolute in the organism though by no meansabsolute in the environment. And this is just what is tobe looked for among these manifestations of nascent intelligence ; since the adjustment of the inner tendencies tothe outer persistencies, being the law of intelligence in theabstract, cannot be fulfilled where the intelligence is in

Lastly may be named the fact, that these indissolublyconnected psychical states exist wherre thereareperpetuallyrepeated u periences ot' the sxternal relationato which thsyanswer.

5 194. N et ush g the wmd u the vflgar dq to desiwanothsr k inds ef intslligsnce than the hnman, but resfiiict

ing it to its proper n'

gnification, Instinct may be dcocrihsd

defined, since no elm line of demarltaticn can bath-s i nbetween itand simple reflexaction . As remarbed in the

h t ssctionfi he difigo-m tor processes whieh mflex scfion s

ahew ng pnaby degrees fiem ths simpls to the eomplu ,

and s cum ry inspeetion of the facts ahows us that therscipio-motor proeesass do the like. Nevertheless we maymatic nervousadjnsmsnts , those in which complex stimuli

That the prepriety of thus marking ofl' lnstinct fi‘ofilprimitive reflex action may be clearly seen, let us tabsexamples. “ Aflyucatchsr,” says Dr. Carpenter, “Matslyaftsr its exit fmm the egg, has been kncwn to peékataver]en ctappreciafion of distance

,“ wellas apower of pre

with it.” N ew thisacn’

on, which is provsd by the circumc

m tbs one—an sxcitaticn which is itselt'asomswhatapsfl

£84 m amm als.every mdm dnal'

thronghont lifefi his combination ianady‘Se tbat whils in the primitive forms of refisx acfion a

single impressiona’ollcwed byan'

ngle contmction zwhils

in the more developed forms ot'

refiexactionasingls im«

pression is followed by a combination of contraction ; inthis whieh we distingnishaalnstinct,accanbination of fin ~

pressions is t'

ollowed byacombination of con tractions ; andthe higher the lnstinct tbe more complex are both the

directive and executive cc -ordinations. Carrying with us

this conception, let us new contemplate the facts in com

nexion with the general laws weare tracing ont.

195 . Instinct is obviously further removed from panel}reflexaction is cemmon to the internal visceral proceasasand to the paecesses of externaladjustment, 1nafinct is not.Thereare no instinots d isplayed by the kidneys , the lunga,the liver : they occur onlyamong theactions of tbat nervo

theagent of psychical life.of many stimuli ihto one sti~

mclns is , so faraait goes, arednction of difl‘used simnlg

the combined nervousactawhich take place when the flycs tohsr ss isman inaect,are regardedas asexi es puaingthrough itacentre of eo—ordinn ion in rapid snccession ,

oraaconsolidated into two successive states ot' its centre ct

'

oo

ordinatiom it is sqnally clear that the changes going on in

its centre of co-ordination have a much more decided lineararrangement than have tho changes going on in the

ln its higher forms , lnstinct is probably accompanied byarudimontary consciousness. There cannot be co-ordinat'ionof many stimnli without some ganglionn throngh which theyareall bronght iato rs lation. laths prooesaot' bringing

485

quick suoccssion of changes in agauglion, implying as it

constitutes the raw material of consciousness. The implies.tion is thatas fast as Instinct is developed, some kind of

Further, the instinctive actions are more removed fromtheactions ot' simple bodily life in this , that theyanswer toexternal phenomena which are more complex and morespecial. While the purely physical processes going on

relations common to the environmentas a whole ; while thesimple reflex actions respond to some of the general relationscommon to the individual objects it contains ; these com»

pound reflex actions which we class as instincts, respond tothose more involved relations which characterize certainorders of objectsand actions as distinguished from others.Greater difl'erentiation of the psychical life from the phy

s ical life is thus shown in several ways— in the growingdistinction between the action of the vegetativeand animalsystems ; in the increasing seriality of the changes in theanimal system ; in the consequent rise of incipient comsciousness ; and in the higher speciality of the outer relationsto which inner relationsare adjusted : which last is indeedthe essencc of theadvanoe, to which the others are necessaryaccompaniments.

cumulated experiences, compound reflex actions may bedeveloped out of simpleLet us begin with some low aq uatic creature possessing

rudimentary eyes . Sensitive as such eyes are only to

by opaque bodies moving in the surrounding water, onlywhen such bodies approach close to thsm . But bodies

carried by their motion very near to the organism, wilh by

636 arm am en ts.

thehv fm ther m fiom be brought incontactwith”cases in whichan external object passes byahnostgentis placed, soas nearly to touch the surface but notmust be exceptional. In its earliest forms sight is.as befornsaid, little more than anticipatory touch view

tac tual impress ions are, in all these creatmes , habituhlfipointed out in 140, are probably the necessary cfiects of

which, under like stimuli, occur even in certain plants,andare so shown to be producible byalterations in the prooesssa

beyond question that from the soophytes upwards, touchand contraction ferm an habitual sequence ; and hence, increatures whose incipient vision w ants to little more thananticipatory touch, there constantly occurs the enem a— avisual impression, a tactual impression, a contraoation. Now the evolution of a nervous sysm is a

the senses. On the one hand, until the general sensitivenésais in some degree localized, the internuncial function of thenervous systm mnnot exist; and on the otherhand, n0 suchlocalized sensitiveness can exist without somethmg in this

a nascent nervous communication . And along with a unacent nervous communication we may see the first illustrationof the growth of intelligence. If psychical states (usingthe term in its widest sense) which follow one another timetiter time inam taxn order, become every time moreconnected in this order, soas eventually to become insepariable ; then it mu st happen that iffin the cxpcrience ofanjspecies,avirmal impression, a tactual impression ,and a conauction , are continually mpeated in this suoceasxon, theaeva'al nervouam tes produoed will become so consohdatefl

688 ”con t am inants.

water ; and supposeafurther development of the eya—a

subdivision of it into separate sensih'

ve agents. In such a

according to the pos itions of the objects making dwm.

much more than the other. Bodiesabove hsve their imagescast on the lower parts of its retinm. Bodies below, “visible at all, cast images on their upper parts. Of the impressions thus made, however, few are directly followed bytactual impressions : the creature’s forward movm t carriesit away from the objects making them . Only whm the impression made by a lateral object is both very strongandchanges very rapidly— only when it is the impression produced byanapproaching largeranimal, will them-e resultanysions, not being habitually followed by tactual impressiomwill notafl’ect the actions . But now mark that thm

front. When, during the creature’s passage through the

water, certain parts of its two retinmare simnl

afi'

ected by impress ions of moderate strength ; it commonly

iniprsssion ofaspecial kiud, is followed byataotual im~pression on the prehens ile organs zand, consequently, byallthose musculsractions which ths pressutation of food to

them cd ls fcrth. “o w n ing succes sion will be

tinal nerves ; excitatiou of ths nerves of ths

m az excitation ofaflpeoial sot of mmolss . And then

cular actions by which prey is seized, Eventually, the sightof a small object in front will cause the various motionsrequisite for the capture of prey.

Here, then, we see how one of the simpler instincts will,under the requisite conditions, be established byaccumulated experiences . Let it be grsnted that the more frequently psychical states occnr in a certain order, the

stronger becomes their tendency to cohere in that order,until they at last become inseparable ; let it be grantedthat this tendency is, in however slight a degree, inherited,so that if the experiences remain the same each successive

generation bequeaths a somewhat increased tendency ; andit follows that, in cases like the one described

,there must

perieneed . Similarly if, from some change in the eu

vironment of any species, its members are frequentlybrought in contact with a relation having terms a littlemore involved ; if the organisation of the species is so fardeveloped as to be impressible by these terms in closecessicn ; then ,an inner relation corresponding to this new

outer relation will gradually be formed, and will in the endbecome organic. And so on in subsequent stages of pro

gross .

This of course is intended merely as a rude indication of

the mode in which the general principles enunciated explainthe development of instincts . . The law of intelligence beingthat the strengths of the inner cohesions between psychicalstates must be proportionate to the persistences of theouter relations symbolized

, and the development of in~

telligence in conformity with this law being, in all casee

“0 erm mmm u rs.

strong iu proportion ss the outer relationsare pm istq t,

conditions of the case, we conclude that this same simple

principle is sufiicient to uccount for ths facts—e rmher, fmatype of them . To trsoe out theactual denelopment oi

ever remain impossible : adequate data are not to be had.

The foregoing is to be taken simplyasanadnmbration ol

the probable mode of development.

§ 197. t t mnst be the ulterior m ults of this mods

of development ? As suming some such process as h t

above suggested to be the one by which instincts in gcnorulare evolved ; let us deduce the characteristics ot' the evoln

tion regarded in its ensemble,and see how far theyagres

The progression from the lower to the highermotincts is,throughout, a progression towards greater specialityandcomplexity of correspondence. The movement producedin s crsature havingarndimentu y eye whenan opaqus nb.

ject is suddenly passed before that eye, is more genon landmore simple than is the movement produced in a creaturewhich grasps the prey passing before it. In the first ”the efiect is produced whatever the relative position of theobject, providing the obscuration be considerable ; in thesecond m e it is produced ouly when the

objeot is just in

front. To the outer relation between a moving opacityanda living solid body, is now added a relation of position ;and not only a relation of position but one of magnituda,since the efl’ect is not the same when alargeas whan asmall body is presented. That is to say , the extm l

phenomenon responded to is a oo-osd inated group ofattriphates and relations ; while internally, there is a tao-od i

$48 m en u-nu ts.

must be those most frequently experienced,amd those towhich the response first becomes decided ; if environing

pasted, experience, also establish answering internal relations ; and if this process slowly extends to relations successively more complexand special,aud less fi~equent ; thenthere will ultimately be established in the organism, numerous psychical relation s having different degrees of cohesion .

Whilean infin ity of experiences will have rendm d the first

and simplest of these psychical relations indissolnble ; whileexperiences extremely numerous, though less numerous, mayhave given indissolubleness to psychical relations one degreemore complex or two degrees more complex or thres h gresamore complex ; it is manifest thatamong relations iucm s~

ingly involved and decreasingly frequent, there must comea stageat which the answering psychical relationsare not

indissoluble. This may be conveniemjy illustrated bysymbols.Let Aand B represen t two attributes ofmattsr in general

tween which aresponsive relation has been established inthe organism. Let Cand D be two extremely generalattributes of animal mancH ay motion and life - to whichalsq there is aresponsive internal relation . It will beatonce understood that experiences of the united group of

attributes A, B, O, D, recurring as they do in every li

creature met with, may eventually establish an answeringconnexion of internal relations that is practicallyas absoluteas the original ones. It is also comprehens ible that if thecreatures serving for preyare belowacertain sise, L, whilethose found to be enemies are mostly ofamuch greatersize, M ; continued experience may establish difl'erent or

ganio responses to the difierent groups of cc-existentattriD. L, and And it is not

difi cult to see that wheu each of thess large classes com

warmer. “8

to be distinguishable into subo classes— say by means of differences of colourb the experiences of the two groups A BC D L S, and A B C D L T, and of the two groups AB C D M P

,and A B C D M Q , may still be severally

numerous enough to make the answering psychical actionsautomatic. But, clearly, along with more involved and morevaried groups there must eventually come imperfect psychicalcohesions. As, by successive additions of perceived attributesand relations, thapsyohwal states become more complex ; and as each more complex combination of psychicalstates corresponding to a more special kind of object is, byconsequence, less frequently repeated in experience ; it follows fromthe gemsral law weare tracing out that its componente cannot be so completely integrated. Not onlymustthe clustered internal states by which the clustered external

at any rate the more recently added of them) ; but the com

posite impression they form must have a smaller power ofproducing the specially cc -ordinated motions by which a fit

The implication lies on the surt'ace. If,as the instincts

rise higherand higher, they come to include psychicalchanges thatare less and less coherent with their fundamental on es ; there mustarriveatime when the oo-ordination is no longer perfectly regular. If these compound

less decided ; it follows that they will eventually become

distinctly automatic character. That which we call Instinctwill merge into something high .

The facts are thus rendered comprehensible. We see

that, if produced by experi ence, the evolution of Instinctmust proceed from the simple to the complex, and that bya prom sion thus wrought out, it must insensibly pass intoahigher order of psychical action ; which is just whatwefind it to do in the higher animals.

20

CHAPM VL

m os t .

Q 199. That growing complioation of the oorrespmwhich u we have just seen, necessitates atrsnsitim 6 0m

asepamfion of the process of com spondmee inmmIn itasimple formflheadjustment of eertain M er m lstiom

to certain outer relstions is one indivis ibleacticn ; but inits comlilex form, such adjustment consists of several etngeeadmitting of greater or less dissociation fiom oneanother

-cspabls of becomingfiagmonb of eon u pondaw~. Thus ,m ong othem ,

results the order of psy¢ imlactiom knm

“ Memory.

While, inany instinctiveact, we see sn entire proeau ofbringing internal relations into harmony with extol-ni lrelations, Memory, taken alone, exhibits relations in com

of the organism to relations in the environment . Wthose successions of ideas which constitute Memory. nearlyall represent past experiences of the outer world 3 yMmany if not most of them stand for pal t experienou ol tbo

ouwr wofld thatare h rtuitously combinedfi t is clesr bbst,even considered as fragments of correspondences, theycannot be hcld to hsve as markedaharmouy with the

mvironmemt as have the homologous parts ofautom fio

actim 'l‘roamchact of reoolteotion is the eushlishmd

We case, what must happen ?

m

the w vm cenb e by which m y imprm im s L E Q D,

-ordinated, cannot rsceive all thessimpressiom atabeolutely the same instant ; and u , on the

other hand, the specialactions to be produoed m be_pro~

duced only by co-operation of all these impressions ; itfollows that they must severally have some slight persis tencaso that the last may arise before the fimt fadee

Not to dwell on this, however, let us now observe thatsince the states answering to h, k,and those answering toIt, m, have been unfrequently connected with their respectivegroups of states and the sequent actions, the nervous changesby which they are themselves producedand by which theyproduce subsequent changes, must be slow. Psychical statesthat often recur in a given order, not only become incrossingly coherent but the transitions from each to the nextbecome moreand more rapid ; and, conversely, thecohesionof psychical states that have been rarely connected, is notonly feeble but the transitions take appreciable times — afact well exemplified in learning a language. But the tolerably deliberate succession of psychical states is one of theconditions to Memory. A remembrance implies a conscious.

nets,and a consciousness implies a perceptible duration. Thenervous states which are gone through instantaneously—asthose by which we infer the distances of the objects we lookat—do not enter into what we term Memory at all we ‘areunconscious of them because they have no appreciablepersistence. Hence, the occurrence of these comparativelyslow psychical changes is a step towards the evolution ofMemory.

A further consequence is now to be noted. When eitherof the groups ofattributes A B O D e f g h k, or A B

0 D e f g h m, is presented, the set of impressions AB C D e f g, produced in common by both of them, snd

by all creatures serving for prey, tends to excite theac tionshy which prey is ordinarily caught. At the same time the

“8 sacru m

impremion produced by h k, or k m, as the ease may be,tends to excite those modified actions which occun 'ed iaexperience after it. Not only, however, is the actual production of them modified actions uncertain, M the experience having been insufi ciently repeated, but either of thetwo tendencies must be partially opposed by the other. Theimmess ion resulting fwm theattnhnte h, being common to

both groups, tends equally to exc ite either of themodified setaof sctions ; while from k the incipient efl

'

ect is a particularmode ofattack ,and from m the incipient efl’ect is runningaway. Hence, one general and two special sets of actionsare instigated ; and from the balance of the instigation ,

itwill often happen that no immediate action atall cm

The various psychical states involved in each set of motions,

severally become nascent ; but none of them reaeh thatintensity which they would have were the motions performed. In the chief nervous centre the difierent impreaosions serve as different motor impulses ; and these, beingseverally supplanted by one another before they pass intoactual motor changes , will eaeh ol

'

them consist ofan inci.piant or faint form of that nervous state which would haveaccompanied the actual motor change had it occurred. But

such a succession of states constitutes remembrance of themotor changes which thus become incipient— constitutes . amemory . To remember a motion just made with the arm

, is

to have a feeble repetition of those internal states whichaccompanied the motion— is to have an incipient excitementof those nerves which were strongly excited during themotion. Thus, then, these nascent nervous excitementatintconflict with one another, are really so many ideas of the

motor changes which, if stronger, they would cause : orrather, they are the objective sides of those changes wh iare ideas on their subjectiveaides. Consequently, Memorynecessarily comes into existence whenever automaticac tiuhis imperfect.This , how07er, is uotall. Besideaamemory of itacwu

Hence, ot’

the impressions produeed by adjaeen t objm

nascent eertain other impressions with which it has heenconnected in experience

—calls up ideas ot'

such ofiwr im

pressions ; that is , eansesam embrance of theattr%utu

As these psychieal states have in their turns been oonm ed

with others, they tend to aronss such others ; and thmtherearises that succecnon ot idess , partly regular, partlyirregular

,which we call Memory— regain in so faraafi e

connexions of external phen omenaare regular, and irregular in so faras the groups of thoss phsncmenaooeur

§ 201. This truth, that Memory comes into existaieetheir successions imperfectly automatic, is in harmony withthe obverse truth, thatas fast as those connexions amongpsychim l states which we form in Memory, grow bycon tent repetition automatic, they cease to be pal -t hiMemory. We do not speak of ourselves as recollecting re

collect those relations only of which the registration ic inoomplete. No one remembers that the object at Which heiooh hasau opposite side ; or thatacertain modification ci

the visual impression impliesacertain distanee ; orthat th”ething he sees mOVingabout isaliveanimal. Toashamanwhether he remembers that the snn shines , that fire bnm ,

that irou is hmd would be amisuse of language. Eventhealmost fortuitous connections among onr expen enéfi'

e'

eu e tebe classed as memories when they have beeemathoroughly familiar. Though, on hearing the voiceaimunacce pm en slightly known to us , we u y we xecollecrfb

whommam ieo btlongmwe do not m the suns expm

sent, But the clem st instunce ot’

the graduai hpeeof memory into sutomafic mhm ucq is yielded by the

the psper hs s s certaiu name, and implies thatapurtioularkey on the piano is to be struek 3and during his first

lessons, each recurrence ot‘

this mark m sccompm ied with

adieth et pm cem of recollmting which i ey cn the piano hemust strike . By long-continued practice, however, the

mark and eh-iking this key , hsve been reduced into one

of the stave, and of its relation to the beginning of the

bar ; the consciousness of the plaoe on the piano where theanswering key lies ; the consciousness ot

'

the muscularad»

ness of the muscnlsr impulse which will giveahlow of the

must be kept cw tracted to produce the right length of note

rate recollections , ultimately constituteasuecession sompid

that the whole of dxem pass inau instant. As fsstas theycease to 'be dis tinct states ot' mind—« fimtas they ceu e to

fiuappeeciahle ph ces in oonsciousness . so fast do they becomeautomatic. The two thingl sm two ddes of the u mething. And thus it happens that the practised pianistcan play while conversing with those around— while hismemory is occupied with quite other ideas thsu the mesn

ings of the signs before him.

Now the fact that in ourselves psychical states whichareoriginally connected by the process we call recollection , be

£53 m u m

i nstinctively, is manifestly the chrome of the fiet that asgrow into more involved groups that are less frequently

lodge of the one fact confirms our deducfion of the other.

§ 202 . Memory , then , pertains to that clacs cf psychicalm tes whichare in process of being organiaed. It coutinues

so long as the organising of them continues, and disappear

of the correspouden ce, each more complex eluster ol’am-L

butes and relations which a creature acquires the powerof recogniaing, is respouded toat first irregularlyaud nn .

certainly ;and there is thenaweak remembrance. By mul~

tiplication of experim es this remembrance is made strongu'

—the internal cohesionsare betteradjusted to the extemalpersistences ;and the response is rendered mm'

eappropriate.By further multiplication of experiences, the internal relatiomareat last structurally registered in harmony wi th theexternal ones ; ahd so, conscious memory pssses into uncon

scious or organic memory. At the same time,anewandstill more complex order ot

'

experienoes is renderedappredable. The relations that occur between thess groups ol

phenomenathat have thus been severally integratsd in

consciousness, occupy Memory m place of the relations betwm the componemts of each group.

'fllesebeoome gu dually m-

ganiaed ;and, like the previous m ax-e mcees“by othen mom oomplex still.

$54 m elan om as .