Perspectives on Human Nature and Government Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.

Perspectives on Human Nature and Government

Hobbes, Locke, and RousseauHobbes, Locke, and Rousseau

Without government, society would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short!

• Social order is created by humans. Therefore, they can change it.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes• Without society, we would live in a Without society, we would live in a

state of naturestate of nature, where we each , where we each have unlimited natural freedoms. have unlimited natural freedoms.

• The downside of this general The downside of this general autonomy is that it includes the autonomy is that it includes the ""right to all thingsright to all things" and thus the " and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten freedom to harm all who threaten one's own self-preservation; there one's own self-preservation; there are no positive rights, only laws of are no positive rights, only laws of nature and an endless "nature and an endless "war of all war of all against allagainst all" (" (Bellum omnium Bellum omnium contra omnescontra omnes).).

Thomas Hobbes• To avoid this, we jointly agree To avoid this, we jointly agree

to an implicit to an implicit social contractsocial contract by which we each gain civil by which we each gain civil rights in return for accepting rights in return for accepting the obligation to honor the the obligation to honor the rights of others, giving up rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so.some freedoms to do so.

• People need order. People need order. • People will be willing to give up People will be willing to give up

individual liberties to maintain individual liberties to maintain peace.peace.

• The The social contractsocial contract is an agreement to is an agreement to obey the laws.obey the laws.

• But, human nature will not allow this to But, human nature will not allow this to happen!happen!

• Thus, the need for authoritarian government.Thus, the need for authoritarian government.

Thomas Hobbes

• Locke observed that, in society, Locke observed that, in society, people were rewarded based upon people were rewarded based upon their industriousness.their industriousness.

• But, people should not accumulate But, people should not accumulate too much money, otoo much money, otherwise society therwise society could become a horrible place.could become a horrible place.

• He proposed (like Hobbes before He proposed (like Hobbes before him) that people needed a sense of him) that people needed a sense of order. But how to achieve order order. But how to achieve order while maximizing individual while maximizing individual liberties?liberties?

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Locke stressed the Locke stressed the moral imperativemoral imperative that that prevented humans from pursuing a free-for-all.prevented humans from pursuing a free-for-all.

• A A moral imperativemoral imperative is a principle originating is a principle originating inside a person's mind that compels him to act.inside a person's mind that compels him to act.

• Originally defined by Originally defined by Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant, the , the imperative was meant to be a dictate of pure imperative was meant to be a dictate of pure reason, in its practical aspect. Not following the reason, in its practical aspect. Not following the moral law was seen to be self-defeating and thus moral law was seen to be self-defeating and thus contrary to reason. contrary to reason.

John Locke

John Locke• Locke took the imperative to Locke took the imperative to originate in conscience, as the originate in conscience, as the divine voice speaking through divine voice speaking through the human spirit. The dictates the human spirit. The dictates of conscience are simply right of conscience are simply right and often resist further and often resist further justification. justification. • Locke’s faith in conscience stem Locke’s faith in conscience stem from the idea that man was born a from the idea that man was born a clean slate (clean slate (tabula rasatabula rasa) and was ) and was taught morality by society.taught morality by society.

Tabula rasaTabula rasa ( (clean slateclean slate) refers to ) refers to the epistemological thesis that the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born individual human beings are born with no innate or built-in mental with no innate or built-in mental content, in a word, "blank," and that content, in a word, "blank," and that their entire resource of knowledge is their entire resource of knowledge is built up gradually from their built up gradually from their experiences and sensory perceptions experiences and sensory perceptions of the outside world.of the outside world.

Proponents of Proponents of tabula rasatabula rasa favor favor "nurture" in the nature versus "nurture" in the nature versus nurture debate. nurture debate.

John Locke

John Locke

• In Locke's philosophy, In Locke's philosophy, tabula rasatabula rasa is the is the theory that data is added to the human theory that data is added to the human mind and rules for processing are formed mind and rules for processing are formed solely by one's sensory experiences. solely by one's sensory experiences.

• As understood by Locke, As understood by Locke, tabula rasatabula rasa emphasizes the individual's freedom to emphasizes the individual's freedom to author his or her own soul. Each individual author his or her own soul. Each individual is free to define the content of his or her is free to define the content of his or her character.character.

• Rousseau believed in the concept Rousseau believed in the concept of the of the noble savagenoble savage; humanity ; humanity unencumbered by civilization; the unencumbered by civilization; the “normal” essence of an unfettered “normal” essence of an unfettered human. human.

• Since the concept embodies the Since the concept embodies the idea that without the bounds of idea that without the bounds of civilization, humans are essentially good, the civilization, humans are essentially good, the basis for the idea of the basis for the idea of the noble savagenoble savage lies in the lies in the doctrine of doctrine of the goodness of humans.the goodness of humans.

• Pride and civilization distance humanity from its Pride and civilization distance humanity from its original, natural state of goodness.original, natural state of goodness.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Agreed with Hobbes’Agreed with Hobbes’ Social ContractSocial Contract: : mutual agreement to protect the rights of mutual agreement to protect the rights of everyone; not only the wealthy.everyone; not only the wealthy.

• No person is above No person is above the law. the law.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

"Man is born "Man is born free; and free; and everywhere everywhere he is in he is in chains."chains."

• Human nature is basically goodHuman nature is basically good• Admired the Admired the noble savagenoble savage – –

humans living in a state of humans living in a state of simple freedom governing simple freedom governing themselves; compassionatethemselves; compassionate

• Society & civilization are Society & civilization are corrupting forces on the corrupting forces on the individualindividual

• Society robs us of our freedom Society robs us of our freedom & makes us “bloodthirsty”& makes us “bloodthirsty”

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Hobbes (1588-1679):

• Without government, society would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, Without government, society would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short!and short!

• Without society, man would live in a state of nature, where we each Without society, man would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms. have unlimited natural freedoms.

• State of nature leads to “State of nature leads to “Right to all thingsRight to all things" and thus the freedom " and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten one's own self-preservationto harm all who threaten one's own self-preservation

• Right to all Things leads to “Right to all Things leads to “War of all against allWar of all against all" (Bellum omnium " (Bellum omnium contra omnes), and thus chaos, anarchy, end of the world-type stuff.contra omnes), and thus chaos, anarchy, end of the world-type stuff.

• Humanity needs the Humanity needs the Social ContractSocial Contract in which individuals honor the in which individuals honor the rights of others but lose certain freedoms. Unfortunately, human rights of others but lose certain freedoms. Unfortunately, human nature will not allow this to happen (we are essentially greedy and nature will not allow this to happen (we are essentially greedy and egocentric), thus, the need for authoritarian government.egocentric), thus, the need for authoritarian government.

Locke (1632-1704):

• People need a sense of order.People need a sense of order.

• Society avoids chaos because of the Society avoids chaos because of the Moral ImperativeMoral Imperative..

• The Moral Imperative is based on conscience (God).The Moral Imperative is based on conscience (God).

• Humans are born as blank slates (Humans are born as blank slates (tabula rasatabula rasa), which ), which means society can instill proper morality, and thus, a means society can instill proper morality, and thus, a conscience.conscience.

• Tabula rasa also implies self-determination and Tabula rasa also implies self-determination and “ “nurturenurture” in the nature vs. nurture debate.” in the nature vs. nurture debate.

Rousseau (1712-1778):

• Believed in the concept of the Believed in the concept of the Noble SavageNoble Savage, in which , in which humans come from a state of compassionate simplicity.humans come from a state of compassionate simplicity.

• Believed that Believed that Human NatureHuman Nature is essentially goodis essentially good. .

• Pride and civilization distance humanity from its original, Pride and civilization distance humanity from its original, natural state of goodness. natural state of goodness. "Man is born free; and "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains."everywhere he is in chains."

• Agreed with Hobbes’ Agreed with Hobbes’ Social ContractSocial Contract, but felt more , but felt more optimistic of its success. optimistic of its success.

Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentTheory of Moral Development

• Why do some people feel Why do some people feel they must obey the letter of they must obey the letter of the law while others believe the law while others believe that there is a higher law?that there is a higher law?– Most countries, including the Most countries, including the

United States, are founded United States, are founded through illegal acts of rebellion through illegal acts of rebellion or revolution.or revolution.

• In order to answer this In order to answer this question, Kohlberg began to question, Kohlberg began to look at the ways in which look at the ways in which people develop morally.people develop morally.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages Kohlberg suggested a stage theory of moral Kohlberg suggested a stage theory of moral

development:development:

• Preconventional MoralityPreconventional Morality

1. Punishment / Obedience1. Punishment / Obedience

2. Personal Reward Orientation (individualism)2. Personal Reward Orientation (individualism)

• Conventional MoralityConventional Morality3. Interpersonal Orientation (good for group)3. Interpersonal Orientation (good for group)4. Authority and Social Order (law & order)4. Authority and Social Order (law & order)

• Postconventional MoralityPostconventional Morality5. Social Contract Orientation5. Social Contract Orientation6. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation6. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Kohlberg’s Stages:Kohlberg’s Stages:

• Preconventional MoralityPreconventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience OrientationStage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation• Motivation: Motivation: Avoid (physical) punishment Avoid (physical) punishment • MORALITY IS WHAT YOU CAN GET AWAY WITHMORALITY IS WHAT YOU CAN GET AWAY WITH • Example: Example: I’ll do the right thing so I don’t get hit.I’ll do the right thing so I don’t get hit.

Stage 2: Personal Reward OrientationStage 2: Personal Reward Orientation» Motivation: Motivation: Satisfy own needs Satisfy own needs » OBEYS RULES TO OBTAIN REWARDS OBEYS RULES TO OBTAIN REWARDS » Example: Example: I’ll do the right thing if you give me a I’ll do the right thing if you give me a

cookie.cookie.

Kohlberg’s Stages:Kohlberg’s Stages:

• Conventional MoralityConventional MoralityStage 3: Interpersonal OrientationStage 3: Interpersonal Orientation

• Motivation: Motivation: “Good boy, good girl” “Good boy, good girl”

• OBEYS RULES TO GET APPROVAL.OBEYS RULES TO GET APPROVAL.

• Example:Example: I’ll do the right thing to please others. I’ll do the right thing to please others.

Stage 4: Authority and Social Order OrientationStage 4: Authority and Social Order Orientation• Motivation: Motivation: Maintain Law and OrderMaintain Law and Order

• OBEYS LAWS BECAUSE THEY MAINTAIN THE SOCIAL OBEYS LAWS BECAUSE THEY MAINTAIN THE SOCIAL ORDERORDER

• Example:Example: I’ll do the right thing because I have respect for the rules. I’ll do the right thing because I have respect for the rules.

Kohlberg’s Stages:Kohlberg’s Stages:

• Postconventional MoralityPostconventional Morality

Stage 5: Social Contract OrientationStage 5: Social Contract Orientation• Motivation: Motivation: Majority RuleMajority Rule

• BELIEF IN DEMOCRATICALLY BELIEF IN DEMOCRATICALLY ACCEPTED LAWSACCEPTED LAWS

• Example: Example: I’ll do the right thing I’ll do the right thing because it is in everyone’s best because it is in everyone’s best interest.interest.

Kohlberg’s Stages:Kohlberg’s Stages:

• Postconventional MoralityPostconventional Morality

– Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle OrientationOrientation

• Motivation: Motivation: Maintain universal principles of Maintain universal principles of justice, equality, trust, and respect, justice, equality, trust, and respect, regardless of the reactions of others.regardless of the reactions of others.

• CONSCIENCECONSCIENCE• Example: Example: I’ll do the right thing because my I’ll do the right thing because my

heart tells me it’s the right thing to do.heart tells me it’s the right thing to do.

Kohlberg’s MethodKohlberg’s Method In order to determine at which stage of In order to determine at which stage of

moral development a person was, Kohlberg moral development a person was, Kohlberg presented the person with moral dilemmaspresented the person with moral dilemmas– ““The Case of Heinz and the Druggist.”The Case of Heinz and the Druggist.”

• Mr. Heinz's wife is dying. There is one drug that will Mr. Heinz's wife is dying. There is one drug that will save her life but it is very expensive. The druggist will save her life but it is very expensive. The druggist will not lower the price so that Mr. Heinz can buy it to save not lower the price so that Mr. Heinz can buy it to save his wife's life. What should he do? More importantly, his wife's life. What should he do? More importantly, why?why?

– Moral dilemmas were judged, not according to Moral dilemmas were judged, not according to the respondent’s position (to steal the drug or the respondent’s position (to steal the drug or not), but on the basis of the kind of reasoning not), but on the basis of the kind of reasoning the answer exhibited.the answer exhibited.

Heart of DarknessHeart of Darkness• Why doWhy do some people maintain their sense of some people maintain their sense of

morality in the absence of law, while others morality in the absence of law, while others revert to immoral, amoral, or even savage revert to immoral, amoral, or even savage behavior?behavior?

• Do people need law in order to behave in a Do people need law in order to behave in a moralistic fashion?moralistic fashion?

• Can those who live in the absence of Can those who live in the absence of “civilization” maintain a sense of morality? “civilization” maintain a sense of morality? On what do they base their behavior? On what do they base their behavior?

• WHY DO GOOD?