AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES - ThaiJO

Agr. Nat. Resour. 54 (2020) 609–616

Article history:Received 21 June 2020Revised 17 October 2020Accepted 18 November 2020Available online 30 December 2020

Keywords:Broken rice flour,Extrusion,Optimization,Protein,Silkworm pupae powder

Research article

Optimization of ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour and of barrel temperature to develop high protein breakfast cereal using response surface methodologyPatthama Hirunyophata,†, Parisut Chalermchaiwata,*, Nattira On-nomb,†

ª Food and Nutrition Program, Department of Home Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailandb Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand

† Equal contribution.* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Chalermchaiwat)

AbstractArticle Info

AGRICULTURE ANDNATURAL RESOURCES

The effects were investigated of the ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour (10:90, 20:80, 30:70 or 40:60, respectively) and of barrel temperature (140°C or 150°C) on the chemical and physical properties and on sensory evaluation of breakfast cereal. An increase in the silkworm pupae powder resulted in increased values for a* and b*, bulk density, hardness, crispness and the protein and fat contents of extrudates, while there were decreases in the values for L*, the sectional expansion index and moisture content. The sensory evaluation showed that all treatments had overall liking scores of 6.02–6.66. The study clearly showed that a feed composition with a ratio of 35–40% silkworm pupae powder to 60–65% broken rice flour and with an extrusion temperature of 140–150°C provided optimal extrusion conditions to produce a breakfast cereal with a high protein content (30.96–33.56 g/100g) and an overall liking score of more than 6.0, which was considered acceptable. In addition, the developed product could help to improve the nutritional value as an effective solution to protein-deficient diets and to reduce global warming and increase food security in the future.

online 2452-316X print 2468-1458/Copyright © 2020. This is an open access article, production and hosting by Kasetsart University of Research and Development Institute on behalf of Kasetsart University.

https://doi.org/10.34044/j.anres.2020.54.6.06

Journal homepage: http://anres.kasetsart.org

Introduction

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2009) predicted that in 2050, the global population will be 9 billion people. This will result in increasing global food demand by up to 70% compared with current food requirements. Conventional sources of protein will not be sufficient for the global human population, and alternatives sources such as plant-based protein and edible insects will be required (Huis et al., 2013; Zielińska et al., 2015). An interesting new source of protein is silkworm pupae which could be used in the human diet, especially for individuals suffering from poor nutrition

because of a protein deficit. Silkworm pupae are one of the major waste by-products after the unwinding of the silk-thread on the cocoon in the sericulture industry in Thailand, with about 80% of the weight of the fresh cocoon being discarded as waste material after silk reeling in an open environment, leading to pollution and bad odors (Hanboonsong et al., 2013). Instead, silkworm pupae could be used in a variety of applications ranging from food supplements for humans and animals to manure for agriculture and medicinal applications (Javali et al., 2015; Thirupathaiah et al., 2016). Many studies (Mishra et al., 2003; Longvah et al., 2011; Jonas-Levi and Martinez, 2017) have reported silkworm pupae as a nutrient-dense food source composed of 12–22% protein, 8–20% fat, 1.20–4.70% carbohydrate, 1.14% fiber and having energy of 620–988 kJ. Silkworm pupae are

610 P. Hirunyophat et al. / Agr. Nat. Resour. 54 (2020) 609–616

a high protein source composed of all the essential amino acids, with more protein than eggs, milk, beef, pork and chicken by 0.5–2.4 times, as well as providing the comprehensive recommended daily intake for adults (Akhtar and Isman, 2018). However, several studies showed that presenting insects invisibly within familiar preparations may be effective to reduce consumer reluctance (Tan et al., 2015; Hartmann and Siegrist, 2016). Therefore, a challenge for the current project was the transformation of silkworm pupae to produce breakfast cereal for easy consumption is to overcome the culture of consumption and daily protein intake requirements. In addition, very limited data are available on the nutritional value of breakfast cereal from silkworm pupae. Breakfast cereals play an important role in the diet and ensure proper organism functioning in the nervous system and gastrointestinal tract (Wójtowicz et al., 2015). Breakfast cereal is a ready-to-eat extruded product produced using the extrusion process. Extrusion has beneficial effects on nutritional properties such as increased protein, fiber and total carbohydrate contents and the destruction of the antinutritional factors of extrudates (Wani and Kumar, 2016a). Breakfast cereal is ideal food for people’s modern-day lifestyle, where speed and convenience, as well as complete nutritional values, are desirable food characteristics (Charunuch et al., 2014). Although starchy materials are the most suitable to deliver good technological features for production of acceptable breakfast cereal, they are often low in nutrient density (Brennan et al., 2013). Many studies have improved the nutritional value of breakfast cereal by adding vitamins, minerals, fiber and essential fatty acid (Tahvonen et al., 1998; Chassagne-Berces et al., 2011; Oliveira et al., 2017), especially protein (Azzollini et al., 2018). Additionally, Mbaeyi-Nwaoha and Uchendu (2016) who studied the effect of eating breakfast have suggested that a high protein breakfast was found to be better than a low protein breakfast, due to maintaining a normal blood sugar level between mid-morning and lunch. Therefore, the present study was designed to utilize sericulture industrial by-product by increasing the value added and as a source of protein. Response surface methodology (RSM) and an empirical modeling technique were applied to optimize the production of high protein breakfast cereal from silkworm pupae powder and broken rice flour using twin screw extrusion.

Materials and Methods

Preparation of raw materials

Eri silkworm pupae (Samia ricini D.) were purchased from a cloth weavings, Bannongyaplong in Khon Kaen province, Thailand. The silkworm pupae were washed and drained to remove excess water then stored at -18°C until used. Frozen pupae samples were thawed in a refrigerator at 5°C (Srikaew, 2012). Then, the samples were dried using a tray dryer at 60°C for 16 hr, before being cooled at room temperature (Purschke et al., 2017). Broken rice of Khao Dawk Mali 105 (Oryza sativa L. cv. KDML) was purchased from Chia Meng Marketing Co., Ltd. (Hongthong rice) in Nonthaburi, Thailand.

Silkworm pupae powder (SSP) and broken rice flour (BRF), which were used as ingredients, were milled (80 mesh) by the Fitz mill machine (Model M5, The Fitzpatrick Co., Ltd; MA, USA). The breakfast cereal formula was developed and modified according to the basic formula of Azzollini et al. (2018) which was used for the formulation and production of insect-rich snacks from mealworm powder. The ingredients used for extruded breakfast cereal preparation consisted of SSP and BRF at the ratios of 10:90, 20:80, 30:70 or 40:60, respectively. All ingredients were mixed with a food mixer for 10 min and packed in linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) plastic bags at 25 ± 2°C prior to the extrusion.

Extrusion process

Extrusion was performed in a co-rotating twin screw extruder (Hermann Berstorff Laboratory, ZE25×33D; Germany) which consisted of 7-barrel parts ending with a 24.5 mm thick die plate and one floral-shaped die hole (7.0 mm in diameter). The barrel length-to-diameter ratio (L:D) of the extruder was 870:25. Mixtures of raw materials were fed into the extruder by a volumetric twin screw feeder (K-Tron soder AG 5702, type 20; Switzerland). The feed rate was controlled at a screw speed of 370 rpm. The feed moisture and feed rate were 13% wet basis (wb) and 18 kg/hr, respectively. After extrusion, the extrudates were collected and dried in a hot-air oven at 80°C for 10 min, packaged in LLDPE plastic bags and stored at 25±2°C until further analysis. Experimental design

A 4×2 factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design with RSM was used to optimize the conditions for the development of the high protein breakfast cereal from SSP and BRF according to Wani and Kumar (2016b) with some modifications. The investigation involved the effects of two independent variables: levels of SSP to BRF ratio (X1; 10:90, 20:80, 30:70 or 40:60) and barrel temperature (X2; 140–150°C) on the bulk density (Y1), crispness (Y2), protein (Y3) and overall liking (Y4) of high protein breakfast cereal from SSP and BRF. In addition, the model was also validated (Promsakha na Sakon Nakhon et al., 2018).

Chemical properties

Moisture, protein (N×6.25), crude fat, crude fiber and ash contents were determined in triplicate according to Association of Official Analytical Chemists International (2016).

Physical properties

Color The color of the extrudates was measured using a Hunter Lab apparatus (Hunter Lab, ColorFlex; USA), which measures three parameters: L*(lightness), a*(red-green) and b*(yellow-blue). The average values of 10 measurements were recorded.

611P. Hirunyophat et al. / Agr. Nat. Resour. 54 (2020) 609–616

Sectional expansion index

The sectional expansion index (SEI) was measured as the mean of 10 samples using a Vernier caliper (Mitutoyo Co., Ltd.; Japan). The SEI was calculated as the cross-sectional diameter of the extrudate divided by the cross-sectional diameter of the die opening (Brennan et al., 2008) based on Equation 1:

Section expansin index = Diameter of extruderDiameter of die

(1)

Bulk density

Bulk density (BD) was measured in terms of grams per cubic centimeter on a dry basis using a seed displacement method (Chiu et al., 2013; Meng et al., 2010) based on Equation 2:

BD = (p/v)×100 (2)

where p is the sample weight (measured in grams) and v is the excess sesame seed volume (cubic centimeters). For each trial run, 10 measurements were made.

Texture properties

The texture of the extrudates was based on the hardness and crispness as determined using a TA.XTplus Texture Analyzer (TA.XT PlusC; Stable Micro Systems; UK), using a five-blade Kramer shear cell probe. The hardness and crispiness of an 8 g sample was measured for each test. The testing conditions were: probe distance of 50 mm, test speed of 2 mm/s and post-test speed of 10 mm/s (Anton and Luciano, 2007; Chassagne-Berces et al., 2011). Hardness was defined as the peak force of the first compression required for the sample to rupture in newtons (N), while crispness was the total number of measured force peaks along the curve. The results represented the average of 10 measurements.

Sensory evaluation

Untrained panelists (n=50) were recruited from Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. The criteria for recruitment were: age 18–35 yr, edible insect consumption, regular breakfast cereal consumers and no history of allergy to protein, chitin, seafood and insects. Panelists with asthma or an allergy were not recruited. Each panelist was presented with two sets (four samples/set) of extruded samples and had a 15 min break between sample sets. For each sample, panelists received a sample served in a cup (3 g) coded with a 3-digit random number to avoid bias. Panelists were provided with drinking water to clean their mouth between consecutive tastings. They were instructed to first visually evaluate the acceptability of product appearance and color and then to bite and swallow each sample before scoring it for odor, taste, crispness and overall liking using a 9-point hedonic scale (1 = disliked extremely, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9 = like extremely) according to Meilgaard et al. (1999).

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed using analysis of variance facilitated by the IBM SPSS® version 23 software (IBM SPSS Inc.; USA). Duncan’s multiple range test was used to determine multiple comparisons of mean values with statistically significant difference established at p < 0.05. For optimum formulation, RSM was used to investigate relationships between independent and dependent variable using a regression model. Contour plots were analyzed using a trial version of the STATISTICA 10 software package (StatSoft, Inc.; USA). The correlation coefficient of determination (R2) and the lack-of-fit term were used to judge the adequacy of the model fit. Model verification was evaluated using the correlation coefficient (r) and root mean-square error (RMSE) values.

Ethics statements

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Kasetsart University (Approval no. COE62/069).

Results and Discussion

Chemical properties

The proximate composition of the raw materials is shown in Table 1. SSP contained 60.10% protein, 18.31% fat and 6.64% fiber, while BRF contained 8.35% protein 0.97% fat and 0.21% fiber. It was noticed that SSP had 7, 19 and 32 times higher amounts of protein, fat and fiber, respectively than BRF. In addition, the chemical properties of the breakfast cereal obtained with different formulations is provided in Table 2. The moisture content of extrudates was affected by SSP and barrel temperature. As the barrel temperature increased, the moisture content of the extrudates decreased (less than 6% wb). However, the moisture content of extrudates was similar to that reported by Moscicki (2016) of approximately 6–8% wb. The factor of barrel temperature had no significant effect on the protein or fat contents. By increasing the SSP, the protein and fat contents increased from 13.88% to 33.23% db and from 0.45% to 3.73% db, respectively. The protein contents of the breakfast cereal (20–40% SSP) were in the range 20.42–33.23% db. Therefore, this product could be claimed as high protein according to The Public Health Ministry (1998), who stated that food claimed as high protein must contain protein ≥20% of the Thai recommended daily intake (Thai RDI). It seemed that the fat content increased when the level of SSP increased. This could have been due to the silkworm pupae being a source of polyunsaturated

Table 1 Proximate composition of raw materialsComponent Silkworm pupae powder Broken rice flourMoisture (% wb) 5.92 ± 0.10 10.18 ± 0.04Protein (% db) 60.10 ± 0.79 8.35 ± 0.05Fat (% db) 18.31 ± 0.43 0.97 ± 0.04Crude fiber (%db) 6.64 ± 0.13 0.21 ± 0.05Ash (%db) 5.43 ± 0.03 1.02 ± 0.10

Values are mean ± SD of triplicate measurements; wb = wet basis; db = dry basis


fatty acid (60–70% of fat content; Zou et al., 2017). The fat content from all treatments was in the range 0.45–3.73% (Table 2). Based on one serving size (50g), the fat content of this product was in the range 0.23–1.78 g. Therefore, this product could be claimed as a low fat product as according to The Public Health Ministry (1998). In addition, the results showed that the fat content loss was approximately 2.46–20.37% during extrusion compared to the raw ingredient. This might have been due to oxidation between lipids, amylose and protein (Camire, 2000). Furthermore, Arêas et al. (2016) reported a real active loss of most essential fatty acid during the extrusion process. The chemical analysis of the breakfast cereal samples indicated that this product was a healthy breakfast choice being low in fat and high in protein based on the definition of Williams (2014).

Physical properties

Color

The color of the different breakfast cereals made from SSP was a yellowish-brown. The L* value was significantly affected by SSP and barrel temperature, while the barrel temperature had no significant effect on the a* and b* values. Increasing SSP resulted in a decrease in L* (lightness) but a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) increased (Fig. 1 and Table 3). The extrudates with high SSP had a dark color, as evidenced by the decreasing L* and increasing a* and b* values. The nature of the raw materials was implied in the color changes of extrudates. In addition, an increase in the barrel temperature tended to decrease the lightness. This might have been due to a Maillard browning reaction of the mixture (high protein content from the SSP and BRF) occurring during the extrusion process. The results were in accordance with Oliveira et al. (2018), who reported a decrease in L* in whole grain wheat flour and jabuticaba peel breakfast cereals. The color could also be a result of non-enzymatic browning reactions as a consequence of heat-moisture processing. In addition, the extrudates with the highest SSP had lower puffing and greater density and were a deep brown color and had lower L* (lightness) values. A correlation between expansion and the lightness of extrudates was reported by Oliveira et al. (2017) and Promsakha na Sakon Nakhon et al. (2018). Altan et al. (2008) reported that puffed products had greater lightness than dense products because of the large air cells in the product.

Sectional expansion index and bulk density

The SEI was related to the BD expressed as a quality index of the degree of puffing in the finished product. In general, a decrease in the SEI is associated with increasing BD (Chalermchaiwat et al., 2015). The results of the current study showed that SSP and barrel temperature had significant effects on the SEI and BD of the breakfast cereal (Table 3). Extrudates obtained from the highest SSP had the minimum SEI (1.89) and maximum BD (0.24 g/cm3) values. Oliveira et al. (2017) reported that the BD of commercial breakfast cereals had intermediate values as 0.11–0.29 g/cm3, which is a desirable characteristic. It is possible that the high protein content of the SSP reduced the size and number of internal air cells due to the premature rupture of air cells or the inhibition of starch matrix puffing during the extrusion process (Parada et al., 2011). A similar observation was reported in multigrain breakfast cereal (Kaur et al., 2015). In addition, as the barrel temperature increased from 140°C to 150°C, the SEI increased, while the BD decreased. The barrel temperature was reported to have a positive effect on the degree of starch gelatinization and expansion (Riaz, 2000). Similar effects of an increase in barrel temperature on expansion and bulk density have been reported for extruded products made from broken rice flour, pulp powder and red gram powder (pigeon pea) (Kothakota et al., 2013).

Table 2 Chemical properties of breakfast cereal as affected by ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour and by barrel temperatureSSP:BRF Barrel temperature (°C) Moisture (% wb) Protein (% db) Fat (% db)10:90 140 5.52 ± 0.03a 13.88 ± 0.20d 0.45 ± 0.07d

10:90 150 5.29 ± 0.13b 14.27 ± 0.24d 0.54 ± 0.19d

20:80 140 5.06 ± 0.15c 20.08 ± 0.10c 1.21 ± 0.06c

20:80 150 4.53 ± 0.07d 20.42 ± 0.04c 1.56 ± 0.35c

30:70 140 4.64 ± 0.21d 26.71 ± 0.11b 2.25 ± 0.20b

30:70 150 4.07 ± 0.09e 26.32 ± 0.11b 2.26 ± 0.83b

40:60 140 3.90 ± 0.02e 33.23 ± 0.25a 3.65 ± 0.63a

40:60 150 3.58 ± 0.04f 33.06 ± 0.12a 3.73 ± 0.57a

SSP = silkworm pupae powder; BRF = broken rice flourMean ± SD with different lowercase superscripts in each column are significantly (p < 0.05) different

Fig. 1 Breakfast cereal as affected by ratios of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour with different barrel temperatures: (A) 10:90 at 140°C; (B) 10:90 at 150°C; (C) 20:80 at 140°C; (D) 20:80 at 150°C; (E) 30:70 at 140°C; (F) 30:70 at 150°C; (G) 40:60 at 140°C; (H) 40:60 at 150°C


Table 3 Physical properties of breakfast cereal as affected by ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour and by barrel temperatureSSP:BRF Barrel

temperature (°C)Color SEI BD

(g/cm3)Hardness

(N)Crispness

L* a* b*10:90 140 58.08 ± 0.64ab 1.47 ± 0.26d 21.72 ± 0.79abc 2.55 ± 0.05a 0.15 ± 0.00e 219.54 ± 11.13d 49.50 ± 3.89d

10:90 150 58.76 ± 1.40a 1.41 ± 0.22d 21.22 ± 0.35c 2.59 ± 0.03a 0.14 ± 0.00f 199.82 ± 9.98e 50.75 ± 8.36d

20:80 140 56.17 ± 0.83cd 2.29 ± 0.12b 22.31 ± 0.70a 2.42 ± 0.05b 0.17 ± 0.00d 343.45 ± 12.49c 71.63 ± 4.31c

20:80 150 56.97 ± 0.93bc 2.00 ± 0.08c 21.54 ± 0.45bc 2.45 ± 0.05b 0.15 ± 0.00e 335.04 ± 10.03c 72.88 ± 4.32c

30:70 140 52.92 ± 0.47e 2.39 ± 0.26ab 21.19 ± 0.25c 2.20 ± 0.03c 0.20 ± 0.00b 435.19 ± 18.99b 98.00 ± 3.02b

30:70 150 55.02 ± 1.35d 2.32 ± 0.07b 21.58 ± 0.56bc 2.23 ± 0.03c 0.18 ± 0.00c 429.72 ± 23.35b 100.00 ± 2.83b

40:60 140 52.91 ± 0.49e 2.56 ± 0.08a 21.93 ± 0.13ab 1.89 ± 0.03d 0.24 ± 0.00a 480.40 ± 13.47a 112.50 ± 3.74a

40:60 150 52.67 ± 0.84e 2.61 ± 0.04a 21.70 ± 0.20abc 1.94 ± 0.03d 0.20 ± 0.00b 476.86 ± 16.01a 114.88 ± 3.94a

SSP = silkworm pupae powder; BRF = broken rice flour; SEI = sectional expansion index; BD = basic density Mean ± SD with different lowercase superscripts in each column are significantly (p < 0.05) different

Table 4 Sensory liking of breakfast cereal as affected by ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour and by barrel temperatureSSP:BRF Barrel

temperature (°C)Appearance Colorns Odor Taste Crispness Overall liking

10:90 140 6.34 ± 1.15b 6.34 ± 1.12 5.64 ± 1.14c 5.18 ± 1.37c 6.64 ± 1.57b 6.02 ± 1.33c

10:90 150 6.44 ± 1.11b 6.26 ± 1.29 5.74 ± 1.27bc 5.48 ± 1.39bc 7.00 ± 1.29ab 6.18 ± 1.12bc

20:80 140 6.70 ± 1.04ab 6.62 ± 1.10 5.82 ± 1.12abc 5.84 ± 1.27ab 7.14 ± 1.09a 6.66 ± 0.96a

20:80 150 6.68 ± 0.96ab 6.54 ± 1.09 5.88 ± 1.14abc 5.98 ± 1.39a 7.16 ± 1.02a 6.58 ± 1.11ab

30:70 140 6.84 ± 1.11a 6.42 ± 1.46 5.78 ± 1.07bc 5.78 ± 1.42ab 6.68 ± 1.27b 6.44 ± 0.97ab

30:70 150 6.86 ± 1.14a 6.46 ± 1.31 6.22 ± 1.28a 5.98 ± 1.45a 6.78 ± 1.11ab 6.56 ± 0.97ab

40:60 140 6.58 ± 1.30ab 6.30 ± 1.39 6.08 ± 1.28ab 6.20 ± 1.44a 6.76 ± 1.27ab 6.46 ± 1.23ab

40:60 150 6.44 ± 1.23b 6.28 ± 1.31 6.02 ± 1.29abc 6.18 ± 1.34a 6.84 ± 1.11ab 6.46 ± 1.13ab

SSP = silkworm pupae powder; BRF = broken rice flour Mean ± SD with different lowercase superscripts in each column are significantly (p < 0.05) different; ns = not significantly (p > 0.05) different

Texture properties

The texture properties (hardness and crispness) of the expanded breakfast cereals are perceptible attributes to consumers and may be correlated with the expansion and cell structure of the product (Oliveira et al., 2018). The increases in the hardness and crispness were likely caused by decreased expansion and increased bulk density at a higher SSP. In the current study, the highest crispness (114.88) and hardness (476.86 N) values were observed with low expansion and high BD when extrusion occurred at a barrel temperature of 150°C with 40% SSP (Table 3). The effect of SSP on the texture properties could have been due to the presence of protein, as changes in the properties of the extrudates containing protein were due to the reduced elasticity and weakening of the cell structure when starch-protein interactions took place, leading to harder structures (Obradović et al., 2014). A high hardness product naturally offers a high breaking stress because the air cell membrane of extrudates becomes harder due to the high protein content of SSP. Kaur et al. (2015) reported that protein-rich extrudates produced less expandable products with a more rigid network, resulting in higher resistance to shear. A similar observation was found in high protein glutinous rice-based extrudate (Chaiyakul, 2008). However, the porous texture and crispness of the breakfast cereals were improved by SSP. The SSP protein concentrate forms small uniform pores in the extruded product after being squeezed out of the die, as the protein concentrate can work as a high-

quality emulsifier between hydrophilic and hydrophobic materials by exposing the hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups to their respective phases (Obradović et al., 2014). It was noticed that increasing the protein content increased the crispness.

Sensory evaluation

The SSP content was the most important parameter affecting the sensory properties of the extrudate. Table 4 shows that increasing the SSP from 10% to 40% resulted in increased liking scores for appearance, color, crispness and overall liking (6.02–7.16 = like slightly-moderately liked). Breakfast cereal with 30–40% SSP had the highest liking score for odor and taste, which may have been due to the unique flavor being slightly salty and tasting oily from the SSP. This result was in agreement with other research regarding increased amounts of insect powder such as cricket powder (Terry et al., 2017) and mealworm powder (Roncolini et al., 2019) resulted in a decrease in liking scores. The overall liking scores of the high protein breakfast cereal products (20–40% SSP) were more than 6 (liking slightly). Gámbaro, et al. (2006), Giménez et al. (2007) and Giménez et al. (2008) used an average value of 6 (like slightly) in a 9-point hedonic scale as the minimum acceptability limit for consumers liking a product. Therefore, it might be concluded that the extrusion process produced an acceptable high protein breakfast cereal from SSP and BRF.


Optimization and verification

RSM was used to investigate the relationships of the ratio for the independent variables SSP to BRF (X1) and of barrel temperature (X2) with the dependent variables bulk density (Y1), crispness (Y2), protein (Y3) and overall liking (Y4) using a regression model (Wani and Kumar, 2016b; Promsakha na Sakon Nakhon et al., 2018), as shown in Table 5. For the regression models, there were high R2 values for protein (0.99), bulk density (0.95), crispness (0.99) and overall liking (0.79). The superimposed optimization area was obtained from the contour plot regions under the optimum conditions based on the SSP:BRF ratio (10:90, 20:80, 30:70 and 40:60) and barrel temperature (140–150°C), as shown in Fig. 2. The optimal extrusion conditions with predetermined cut-off criteria were arbitrarily set as: protein >20 g/100g (10 g/50 g serving size for Thai RDI), BD of the expanded breakfast cereals with intermediate values in the range 0.20–0.29 g/cm3 (Oliveira et al., 2017), crispness ≥107.40 (commercial breakfast cereal) and overall liking score more than 6.0 or slightly liked on a 9-point hedonic scale (Giménez et al., 2012). Within this optimal range shown by the shaded area, Fig. 2e, the extrudate would have protein of 30.96–33.56 g/100 g, BD of 0.22–0.24 g/cm3, crispness of

111.75–119.13 and an overall liking score of 6.70–6.88. To validate the generated models, three extrusion conditions were studied, and the results were compared with the predicted values (Table 6). Suitable r (0.912–0.996) and RMSE values (0.008–5.045) were observed for all three extrusion conditions. Therefore, the regression model was adequate for predicting the optimum conditions for making high protein breakfast cereal made from SSP and BRF. Within the optimal extrusion conditions of 35–40% SSP and 140–150°C barrel temperature, the breakfast cereals would have a high protein content (≥ 20% of Thai RDI) Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgements

The Food and Nutrition Program, Department of Home Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand provided instruments.

Table 5 Predictive regression models for protein, bulk density, crispness and overall liking of breakfast cerealDependent variable Predictive model R2 Lack of fit (p-value)Protein 7.011 + 0.6347X1 + 0.0043X2 0.99 > 0.05Bulk density 0.441 + 0.0025X1 - 0.0022X2 0.95 > 0.05Crispness 4.484 + 2.174X1 + 0.172X2 0.99 > 0.05Overall liking 4.609 + 0.120X1 - 0.001 X1

2 + 0.000041X22 - 0.00028 X1X2 0.79 > 0.05

X1 = ratio of silkworm pupae powder to broken rice flour; X2 = barrel temperature; R2 = correlation of determination

Table 6 Experimental and predicted values of breakfast cereal under selected conditions for verification of optimized regionProperties and extrusion conditions Predicteda Experimentalb r RMSEProtein SSP:BRF = 40:60, 150°C 33.04 33.56 ± 0.07 SSP:BRF = 35:65, 145°C 29.85 30.96 ± 0.22 0.996 0.921 SSP:BRF = 37.5:62.5, 140°C 31.41 32.43 ± 0.33Bulk density SSP:BRF = 40:60, 150°C 0.21 0.22 ± 0.01 SSP:BRF = 35:65, 145°C 0.21 0.22 ± 0.00 0.987 0.008 SSP:BRF = 37.5:62.5, 140°C 0.23 0.24 ± 0.01Crispness SSP:BRF = 40:60, 150°C 117.23 119.13 ± 7.64 SSP:BRF = 35:65, 145°C 105.50 111.75 ± 7.25 0.981 5.045 SSP:BRF = 37.5:62.5, 140°C 110.07 115.88 ± 3.31Overall liking SSP:BRF = 40:60, 150°C 7.05 6.88 ± 0.73 SSP:BRF = 35:65, 145°C 7.03 6.70 ± 0.98 0.912 0.238 SSP:BRF = 37.5:62.5, 140°C 7.04 6.86 ± 1.07

r = correlation coefficient; RMSE = root mean squared error between experimental and predicted valuesa = values derived from predictive regression model (Table 5)b = mean ± SD of triplicate measurements


Fig. 2 Contour response surface methodology plots after overlapping critical boundaries of four contour plot regions for protein (>20 g/100g), bulk density (0.20–0.29 g/cm3), crispness (≥107.40) and overall liking score (>6.0 based on a 9-point hedonic scale): (A) protein content (colored curves shown in grams/100 grams); (B) bulk density (colored curves shown in grams per cubic centimeter); (C) crispness score; (D) overall liking score; (E) optimum area (shaded)

References

Akhtar, Y., Isman, M.B. 2018. Insects as an alternative protein source. In: Yada, R.Y. (Ed.). Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. Woodhead Publishing. Sawston, UK, pp. 263−288.

Altan, A., McCarthy, K.L., Maskan, M. 2008. Evaluation of snack foods from barley-tomato pomace blends by extrusion processing. J. Food Eng. 84: 231−242. doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.05.014

Anton, A.A., Luciano, F.B. 2007. Instrumental texture evaluation of extruded snack foods: A review. Cienc. Tecnol. Aliment. 5: 245−251. doi.org/10.1080/11358120709487697

Association of Official Analytical Chemists International. 2016. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 20th ed. AOAC International. Rockville, MD, USA.

Arêas, J.A.G., Rocha-Olivieri, C.M., Marques, M.R. 2016. Extrusion cooking: Chemical and nutritional changes. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Academic Press. New York, NY, USA, pp. 569−575.

Azzollini, D., Derossi, A., Fogliano, V., Lakemond, C.M.M., Severini, C. 2018. Effects of formulation and process conditions on microstructure, texture and digestibility of extruded insect-riched snacks. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 45: 344−353. doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.11.017

Brennan, M.A., Derbyshire, E., Tiwari, B.K., Brennan, C.S. 2013. Ready-to-eat snack products: the role of extrusion technology in developing consumer acceptable and nutritious snacks. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 48: 893–902. doi:10.1111/ijfs.12055

Brennan, M.A., Monro, J.A., Brennan, C.S. 2008. Effect of inclusion of soluble and insoluble fibers into extruded breakfast cereal products made with reverse screw configuration. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 43: 2278–2288. doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2008.01867.x

Camire, M.E. 2000. Chemical and nutritional changes in food. In: Riaz, M.N. (Ed.). Extruders in Food Applications. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 127–147.

Chaiyakul, S. 2008. Development of extruded high-protein, glutinous rice-based snack. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Chassagne-Berces, S., Leitner, M., Melado, A., Barreiro, P., Correa, E.C., Blank, I., Gumy, J.C., Chanvrier, H. 2011. Effect of fibers and whole grain content on quality attributes of extruded cereals. Procedia Food Sci. 1: 17–23. doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2011.09.004

Charunuch, C., Limsangouan, N., Prasert, W., Wongkrajang, K. 2014. Optimization of extrusion conditions for ready-to-eat breakfast cereal enhanced with defatted rice bran. Int. Food Res. J. 21: 713–722.

Chalermchaiwat, P., Jangchud, K., Jangchud, A., Charunuch, C., Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2015. Antioxidant activity, free gamma-aminobutyric acid content, selected physical properties and consumer acceptance of germinated brown rice extrudates as affected by extrusion process. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 64: 490–496. doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.04.066

Chiu, H.W., Peng, J.C., Tsai, S.J., Tsay, J.R., Lui, W.B. 2013. Process optimization by response surface methodology and characteristics investigation of corn extrudate fortified with yam (Dioscorea alata L.). Food Bioprocess. Tech. 6: 1494–1504. doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-0894-6

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2009. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, How to feed the World in 2050. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf, 4 December 2020.

Gámbaro, A., Giménez, A., Ares, G., Gilardi, V. 2006. Influence of enzymes on the texture of brown pan bread. J. Texture Stud. 37: 300–314. doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1745-4603.2006.00053.x

Giménez, A., Ares, F., Ares, G. 2012. Sensory shelf-life estimation: A review of current methodological approaches. Food Res. Int. 49: 311–325. doi.org/ 10.1016/j.foodres.2012.07.008

Giménez, A., Ares, G., Gámbaro, A. 2008. Survival analysis to estimate sensory shelf life using acceptability scores. J. Sens. Stud. 23: 571–582. doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459X.2008.00173.x

Giménez, A., Varela, P., Salvador, A., Ares, G., Fiszman, S., Garitta, L. 2007. Shelf life estimation of brown pan bread: A consumer approach. Food Qual. Prefer. 18: 196–204. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.09.017

Hanboonsong, Y., Jamjanya, T., Durst, P.B. 2013. Six-legged livestock: Edible insect farming, collect on and marketing in Thailand. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand.

Hartmann, C., Siegrist, M. 2016. Becoming an insectivore: Results of an experiment. Food Qual. Prefer. 51: 118–122. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual. 2016.03.003

Huis, A.V., Itterbeeck, J.V., Klunder, H., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G., Vantomme, P. 2013. Edible insects future prospects for food and feed security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/3/i3253e/i3253e.pdf, 4 December 2020.

Javali, U.C., Padaki, N.V., Das, B., Malali, K.B. 2015. Developments in the use of silk by-products and silk waste. In: Basu, A. (Ed.). Advances in Silk Science and Technology. Woodhead Publishing. Cambridge, UK, pp. 261–270.

Silkworm pupae powder (%)





(A)

(C)

(B)

(D)

(E)

Overall liking

Bulk density

Crispness

Protein

Bar

rel t

empe

ratu

re (°

C)

Bar

rel t

empe

ratu

re (°

C)

Bar

rel t

empe

ratu

re (°

C)

Bar

rel t

empe

ratu

re (°

C)

Bar

rel t

empe

ratu

re (°

C)150

150

150

150

150

148

148

148

148

148

146

146

146

146

146

144

144

144

144

144

142

142

142

142

142

140

140

140

140

140

10

10

10

10

15

15

15

15

1510

20

20

20

20

20

25

25

25

25

25

30

30

30

30

30

35

35

35

35

35

40

40

40

40

40

1418

22

26

30

0.130.15

0.17

0.19

0.21

5.96.0

6.15.7

5.5

5.3

6272

50

82

98

109

112


Jonas-Levi, A., Martinez, J.J.I. 2017. The high level of protein content reported in insects for food and feed is overestimated. J. Food Compos. Anal. 62: 184–188. doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.06.004

Kaur, G.J., Rehal, J., Singh, B., Singh, A.K., Kaur, A. 2015. Development of multigrain breakfast cereal using extrusion technology. Asian J. Dairy Food Res. 34: 219–224. doi.org/10.5958/0976-0563.2015.00043.3

Kothakota, A., Jindal, N., Thimmaiah, B. 2013. A study on evaluation and characterization of extruded product by using various by-products. Afr. J. Food Sci. 7: 485–497. doi.org/10.5897/AJFS2013.1065

Longvah, T., Mangthya, K., Ramulu, P. 2011. Nutrient composition and protein quality evaluation of eri silkworm (Samia ricinii) prepupae and pupae. Food Chem. 128: 400–403. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.03.041

Mbaeyi-Nwaoha, I.E., Uchendu, N.O. 2016. Production and evaluation of breakfast cereals from blends of acha and fermented soybean paste (okara). J. Food Sci. Technol. 53: 50–70. doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-2032-8

Meilgaard, M., Civille, G.V., Carr, B.T. 1999. Sensory Evaluation Techniques, 3rd ed. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL, USA.

Meng, X., Threinen, D., Hansen, M., Driedger, D. 2010. Effects of extrusion conditions on system parameters and physical properties of a chickpea flour-based snack. Food Res. Int. 43: 650–658. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres. 2009.07.016

Mishra, N., Hazarika, N.C., Narain, K., Mahanta, J. 2003. Nutritive value of non–mulberry and mulberry silkworm pupae and consumption pattern in Assam, India. Nutr. Res. 23: 1303–1311. doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5317 (03)00132-5

Moscicki, L. 2016. Extrusion cooking: Principles and practice. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P. M., Toldra, F. (Eds). Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Academic Press. New York, NY, USA, pp. 576–580.

Obradović, V., Babić, J., Subarić, D., Ačkar, Đ., Jozinović, A. 2014. Improvement of nutritional and functional properties of extruded food products. J. Food Nutr. Res. 53: 189–206.

Oliveira, L.C., Schmiele, M., Steel, C.J. 2017. Development of whole grain wheat flour extruded cereal and process impacts on color, expansion, and dry and bowl-life texture. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 75: 261–270. doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.08.064

Oliveira, L.C., Alencar, N.M.M., Steel, C. J. 2018. Improvement of sensorial and technological characteristics of extruded breakfast cereals enriched with whole grain wheat flour and jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) peel. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 90: 207–214. doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.12.017

Parada, J., Aguilera, J.M., Brennan, C. 2011. Effect of guar gum content on some physical and nutritional properties of extruded products. J. Food Eng. 103: 324–332. doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.11.001

Promsakha na Sakon Nakhon, P., Jangchud, K., Jangchud, A., Charunuch, C. 2018. Optimization of pumpkin and feed moisture content to produce healthy pumpkin-germinated brown rice extruded snacks. Agric. Nat. Resour. 52: 550–556. doi.org/10.1016/j.anres.2018.11.018

Purschke, B., Brüggen, H., Scheibelberger, R., Jäger, H. 2017. Effect of pre-treatment and drying method on physico-chemical properties and dry fractionation behaviour of mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.). Eur. Food Res. Technol. 244: 269–280. doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017- 2953-8

Riaz, M.N. 2000. Introduction to extruders and their principles. In: Riaz, M.N. (Ed.). Extruders in Food Applications. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 1–23.

Roncolini, A., Milanovic, V., Cardinali, F., Osimani, A., Garofalo, C., Sabbatini, R., Aquilanti, L. 2019. Protein fortification with mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder: Effect on textural, microbiological, nutritional and sensory features of bread. PLoS One 14: e0211747. doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0211747

Srikaew, C. 2012. Eri Silkworm Pupae Processing. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University. Bangkok, Thailand.

Tahvonen, R., Hietanen, A., Sankelo, T., Korteniemi, V.M., Laakso, P., Kallio, H. 1998. Black currant seeds as a nutrient source in breakfast cereals produced by extrusion cooking. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 206: 360–363. doi.org/10.1007/s002170050273

Tan, H.S.G., Fischer, A.R.H., Tinchan, P., Stieger, M., Steenbekkers, L.P.A., Van Trijp, H.C.M. 2015. Insects as food: Exploring cultural exposure and individual experience as determinants of acceptance. Food Qual. Prefer. 42: 78–89. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.01.013

Terry, P., Lupul, M., Coate, K. 2017. Evaluating the protein content in chocolate chip cookies using cricket powder as a flour replacement. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 117: A56. doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2017.06.165

The Public Health Ministry. 1998. Notification of the Ministry of Public Health, No. 182: Re: Nutrition labelling. http://food.fda.moph.go.th/law/data/announ_moph/V.English/No.182-41%20Nutrition%20Labelling.pdf, 17 October 2020.

Thirupathaiah, Y., Sivaprasad, V., Bhuvaneswari, E., Munirathnam Reddy, M., Vineet, K., Chandrashakharaiah, M. 2016. Extraction and characterization of mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori L., pupae oil. Indian J. Seric. 55: 31–37. doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.7517

Wani, S.A., Kumar, P. 2016a. Effect of extrusion on nutritional, antioxidant and microstructural characteristics of nutritionally enriched snacks by extrusion cooking. J. Food Process. Preserv. 40: 166–173. doi.org/ 10.1111/jfpp.12593

Wani, S.A., Kumar, P. 2016b. Development and parameter optimization of health promising extrudate based on fenugreek oat and pea. Food Biosci. 14: 34–40. doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2016.02.002

Williams, P.G. 2014. The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: A systematic review of the evidence base. Adv. Nutr. 5: 636–673. doi.org/10.3945/an.114.006247

Wójtowicz, A., Mitrus, M., Oniszczuk, T., Mościcki, L., Kręcisz, M., Oniszczuk, A. 2015. Selected physical properties, texture and sensory characteristics of extruded breakfast cereals based on wholegrain wheat flour. Agric. Agric. Sci. Proc. 7: 301–308. doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.12.051

Zielińska, E., Baraniak, B., Karaś, M., Rybczyńska, K., Jakubczyk, A. 2015. Selected species of edible insects as a source of nutrient composition. Food Res. Int. 77: 460–466. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2015.09.008

Zou, Y.X., Hu, T.G., Shi, Y., Liu, J., Mu, L.X., Xiao, Y., Liao, S.T. 2017. Establishment of a model to evaluate the nutritional quality of Bombyx mori Linnaeus (Lepidoptera, Bombycidae) pupae lipid based on principal components. J. Asia Pac. Entomol. 20: 1364–1371. doi.org/10.1016/ j.aspen.2017.05.012

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES - ThaiJO

Documents