Transcript
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Chapter 1:
1. Evaluation of TQM. Need & introduction.p270
2. Strategy of TQM.
3. Implementation of TQM & TQM techniques .
4. Define quality p-259
5. Adoption of customer focus. P-5 (p)
6. Philosophy of TQM.
7. P.D.S.A p-3(p)
8. QFD(Quality function deployment) p-4(p)
9. Diff. between manufacturing and service in terms of quality. P-2(p)
Chapter 2:
10.Explain difference between old and new concepts of quality with the help of
timeline.
11.Give the detail note on quality gurus and their respective contribution.
12.Write a note on contribution of Deming and Judan.
13.7 deadly disaster /decease of management
14.14 principles of management.p13
Chapter 3:
15.Write a note on contribution of Ishikawa and tabugy on quality mgmt.p-6(p)
16.What do you understand by quality control and discuss quality control.263
17.What is significance/importance of quality control? Pg no 262
Chapter 6:
18.Explain quality tools and techniques 259
19.Cause and effect diagram. (quality tools+ techniques+ ishikawa + Diagram)p-
8(p)
20.Quality improvement.
Chapter 9:
21.Introduction of quality circle and explain features of quality circle.
22.What is the organization for quality circle? p-274
23.Operation of quality circle.
24.Formation of quality circle.
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Chapter 7:
25.Give a detail note on methods of quality mgmt & techniques of quality
improvement.p-263
26.Types of quality improvement.
27.Benefits of quality improvement.p-17(p)
28.10 steps of Jurans quality improvement process.p-18(p)
29.Important aspect- total employee involvement
30.Overall total employee involvement.
31.Manipulate quality improvement.
Chapter 12:
32.Explain Capability Maturity Model.
33.What are the 5 steps of maturity model?
34.What is structure of CMM?
Chapter 13:
35.Quality management is different in services than manufacturing sector.
Explain.
Chapter:9
36. Methods of 6 six sigma projects
37. Implementation of 6 sigma.
38. Expalin 6 sigma process or criticality explain.
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Q-10) Comparison of Traditional Quality approach and Total Quality
Management
Quality element Previous state (Traditional) Total Quality ManagementDefinition Product oriented Customer oriented
Priorities Second to service and cost First among the equals of
service and cost
Decisions Short term Long term
Emphasis Detection Prevention
Errors Operations System
Responsibility Quality Control Every one
Problem solving Managers Teams
Procurement Price Life cycle costs, partnership
Managers Role Plan, assign, control andenforce
Delegate, coach, facilitateand mentor
Q-11 & 12
I. Contribution of Deming:
Deming Philosophy
W. Edwards Deming is best known for his management philosophyestablishing quality,
productivity, and competitive position.
The philosophy of W. Edwards Deming has been summarized as follows:
"Dr. W. Edwards Deming taught that by adopting appropriate principles of
management, organizations can increase quality and simultaneously reduce costs
In the 1970s, Dr. Deming's philosophy was summarized by some of his Japanese
proponents with the following 'a'-versus-'b' comparison:
(a) When people and organizations focus primarily on Quality, quality tends to increase
and costs fall over time.
(b) However, when people and organizations focus primarily on Costs, costs tend to rise
and quality declines over time.
The most important Deming works are: Deming cycle, The Fourteen Principles, The
Seven Deadly Diseases.
A. Deming Cycle
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William Edwards Deming was born on October 14, 1900. He is most famous for Deming
PDAC Cycle, otherwise known as the Shewhart cycle, or the Deming Wheels Plan-Do-
Check-Act (modified to Plan-Do-Study-Act). Deming is widely credited with
improving production in the United States in the 1940s and then later in Japan in the1950s.
Before the Deming Cycle was implemented in Japan, consumer products with the label
Made in Japan was considered a joke: cheap, flimsy and just plain garbage.
PLAN: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance
with the specifications.
DO: Implement the processes.
CHECK: Monitor and evaluate the processes and results against objectives and
Specifications and report the outcome
ACT: Apply actions to the outcome for necessary improvement. This means reviewing
all steps (Plan, Do, Check, Act) and modifying the process to improve it before its next
implementation.
II. JOSEPH MOSSES JURAN
Born : December 24, 1904 Died : February 28, 2008
Occupation: Management Consultant, quality guru
He defines quality as fitness for use in terms of design, conformance, availability, safety
and field use. He is prepared to measure everything and relies on systems and problem
solving techniques. He focuses on top-down management and technical methods rather
than worker pride and satisfaction.
Contributions
A. Pareto principle
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In 1941 Juran stumbled across the work ofVilfredo Paretoand began to apply
thePareto principleto quality issues (for example, 80% of a problem is caused by 20%
of the causes). This is also known as "the vital few and the trivial many". In later years
Juran preferred "the vital few and the useful many" to signal that the remaining 80% of
the causes should not be totally ignored.
B. Management theory:
The principal focus in quality management was on the quality of the end, or finished,
product.
The tools used were from the Bell system of acceptancs sampling, inspection plans, and
control charts.
C. The Juran Trilogy:
I. Quality Planning
Create a process that will be able to meet established goals and do so under operating
conditions
Establish quality goals
Identify the customers
Determine the customers' needs
Develop product features that respond to the customers' needs
Develop processes that are able to produce the product features
Establish quality controls
Transfer the plans to the operating forces
II. Quality Control
Keep the waste from getting worse; meet quality goals during operations
Evaluate actual performance
Compare actual performance to quality goals Act on the difference
III. Quality Improvement
Breaking through to unprecedented levels of performance
Prove the need
Establish the infrastructure
Identify the improvement projects
Establish project teams
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Provide the teams with resources, training, and motivation to:
- Diagnose the causes and - Stimulate remedies
Establish controls to hold the gains
To support this triology juran has formulated a list of responsibilities of top managers.
Create awareness of the need & opportunity for improvement.
Create the infrastructure, establish a quality council, select project for
improvement, appoint team, provide faciliators.
Provide training in how to improve quality.
Review progress regularly.
Give recognition to the winning teams.
Revise the reward system to enforce the rate of improvement.
Maintain the momentum by enlarging the business plan to include the goals for
quality improvement.
Jurans views
The product development cycle should be shorthened through use of
participative planning.
Suppliers relations should be such that a minimal number of suppliers are used;
teamwork between a company & its suppliers would based on mutual trust &
contaracts should be greater generation.
Training should be result- oriented rather than tool-oriented;what is desired is
related more toward behavior change than toward education.
Ten points:
1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve.
2. Set goals for improvement.
3. Organize to reach goals.
4. Provide training.
5. Carry out projects to solve problems
6. Report progress.
7. Give recognition.
8. Communicate results.
9. Keep score.
10.Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems
and processes of the company
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III. In short other gurus
1. Feigenbaum
He used a total quality control approach that may very well be the forerunner of todaysTQM. He promoted a system for integrating efforts to develop, maintain and improve
quality by the various groups in an organization.
Feigenbaums philosophy is summarized in his three steps to quality:
1. Quality leadership2. Modern quality technology3. Organizational commitment
2. Philip Crosby(1926-2001)
Philosophy
Crosby is best known for the concepts Do It Right First Time and Zero Defects.
He does not believe workers are responsible for poor quality - you have to get
the management straight.
The essence of Crosby's quality philosophy is embodied in what he calls
(l) the "Absolutes of Quality Management" and
(2) the "14 Basic Elements of Improvement."
His absolutes of quality:
1. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements, not as 'goodness' or'elegance'.
2. The system for causing quality is prevention, not appraisal.3. The performance standard mustbe Zero Defects, not 'that's close enough'.4. The measurement of quality is the Price of Non-conformance, not indices.
Fourteen points:
1. Make it clear that management is committed to quality.2. Form quality improvementteams with senior representatives from each
department.
3. Measure processes to determine where current and potential quality problemslie.
4. Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool.5. Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees.6. Take actions to correct problems identified through previous steps.7. Establish process monitoring for the improvement process.
8. Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvementprogram.
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9. Hold a Zero Defect Day to let everyone realize that there has been a change andreaffirm management commitment.
10.Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves and theirgroups.
11.Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles they face in
attaining their improvement goals.12.Recognize and appreciate those who participate.13.Establish quality councils to communicate on a regular basis.14.Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement program never
ends.
4. Genichi Taguchi (3 rd is jurans)
Taguchis approach assumes that smaller the variation aboutthe nominal specification,the better is the quality. He measured quality as the variation from the target value of a
design specification and then translated that variation into an economic loss functionthat expresses the cost of variation in monetary terms.
Taguchi also contributed to improving engineering approached to product design. By
designing a product that is insensitive to variation in manufacture, specification limits
become meaningless. He advocated certain techniques of experimental design to
identify the most important design variables in order to minimize the effects of
uncontrollable factors on product variation. Thus his approaches attach quality
problems early in the design stage rather than react to problems that might arise later
in production.
5. Shigeo Shingo
He is associated with Just-in-Time (JIT) system. He also introduced single (digit) minute
exchange of die (SMED) system, in which set up times are reduced from hours to single
digit minutes. Towards achieving the zero defects, he invented poka-yoke (mistake
proofing) system. By using the devices or systems using poka-yoke principle, even a
single mistake is not allowed at all, even inadvertently. Poka-yoke device identifies the
problem and even before the item is processed, the production process is stopped and
corrections incorporated in the system after root cause analysis. Thus, not a single
defect is produced, nor it gets sent to the customer.
6.Walter Shewhart (1891-1967)
Western Electric & Bell Telephone Engineer Father of Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Founder of the Control Chart (e.g. X-bar R chart) Originator of PDCA cycle ASQC (American Society for Quality) 1stHonorary Member 1947
The Shewhart Philosophy
Shewhart was the pioneer and visionary of modern quality control.
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Shewhart is most widely recognized for his control chart development andstatistical contributions through Bell Laboratories.
Indeed, the Shewhart charts (e.g., X-bar and R charts) have become fundamentaltools of quality control; but, of wider impact, Shewhart published, in 1931,
Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, a landmark book in
modern quality control. His book was used by the Japanese after World War II, with the aid of visiting
consultants, to help shape modern quality practice in Japan.
Shewhart, using a literal definition of quality (Latin qualitas, from qualis,meaning "how constituted"), defined two common aspects of quality:
(1) "objective quality," which deals with the quality of a thing as an "objectivereality" (of the thing) independent of the existence of man and
(2) "subjective quality," which deals with the quality of a thing relative to whatman thinks, feels, or senses as a result of the "objective reality."
Shewhart linked the subjective quality property with value and concluded "it isimpossible to think of a thing as having goodness independent of some human
want."
This definition has been expanded by Ishikawa to include "true" (customer-language based) and "substitute" (technical-language-based) quality
characteristics which form the basis for modem quality planning and quality
function deployment.
It is of great historical interest to point out that the Shewhart postulates (lines ofreasoning) and general conclusions published in 1931 laid the foundation for
modern quality theory and practice throughout the industrial world.
His general conclusions are stated below:
It seems reasonable to believe that there is an objective state of control, making possible
the prediction of quality within limits even though the causes of variability are
unknown....It has been pointed out that by securing this state of control, we can secure
the following advantages:
1. Reduction in the cost of inspection.2. Reduction in the cost of rejection.3. Attainment of maximum benefits from quantity production.4. Attainment of uniform quality even though the inspection test is destructive.5. Reduction in tolerance limits where quality measurement is indirect.
Q-21)Quality Circle is a small group of employees in the same work-area or doing a similar
types of works who voluntarily meet regularly for about an hour every week to identify, analyze
and resolve works related problems, leading to improvement in their total performance and
enrichment of their work-life.
The above definition reveals, the following features of Quality Circles :
1. Small group of employees : Experience has shown that the optimum number of members
in quality circles is about 8 to 10. The philosophy behind small groups is it should allow
every member to actively participate and that fairly grade number minimize of employeesshould be present for the meetings.
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2. In the same work-area or doing similar type of works : Quality circle is a homogeneous
group and not the inter-departmental group. Designation of members need not necessarily
be equal but the work in which they all are engaged should be common.
3. Voluntarily : (Quality circle is not adopted practice but voluntary in nature. Employees
join Quality Circles on their own.
4. Meet regularly for about in hour every week: Normally, Quality Circles should meet for
about an hour every weeks which would help the members to identify and resolve
problems as and when they occur.
5. To identify, analyze and resolve work-related problems : The accepted theory is Unit
the worker/employees who do the works day after day better know the problems limiting
the excellence. The problems are identified by the members themselves by brainstorming
and also on the request from management and other departments. The problems are then
arranged priority wise to tackle them in a systematic manner.
6. Leading to improvement in their total performance : As the Quality Circle resolves the
problem relating to quality, cost-reduction, safety etc. the total performance of the work-
area goes up.
Q-23) How Do Quality Circles Operate?
Appointment of a steering committee, facilitator and QC team leaders.
Formation of QCs by nomination/voluntary enrolment of QC members.
Training of all QC members (by an expert consultant).
Training of non-participating employees (by an expert consultant). Problem data bank and identification of problems for QC work.
QC problem resolution by QCs through standardized techniques.
Presentation of QC solutions to management.
Evaluation of award/recognition
Q-25) Give a detail note on methods of quality mgmt & techniques of quality
improvement.
Quality Management:
The term quality management has a specific meaning within many business sectors. This
specific definition, which does not aim to assure 'good quality' by the more general definition,
but rather to ensure that an organization or product is consistent, can be considered to have
four main components: quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality
improvement. Quality management is focused not only on product/service quality, but also the
means to achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control of
processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality.
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Answer from book p-263
Q-29& 30) Employee Involvement
Just as is true with TQM, there is no single authoritative source or theory to support
employee involvement as a management approach. It has a long history dating back to early
research work which was done on democratic leadership in work organizations. That research
work, which started in the 1930s,emphasized the consequences of employees being involved
in decision making. It shows that under certain conditions employees are more committed to
decisions and that better decisions are made if they are involved.
Another important part of the work on employee involvement concerns work design and its
impacton intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. The work on individual job enrichment,
as well as the work on self-managing work teams and sociotech work systems, forms a
critical part of the historical thinking that has been combined to develop management
approaches that stress employee involvement.
Perhaps the most important overall focus in the work on employee involvement concerns
pushing decisions to the lowest level in the organization. The approach consistently
advocates a "bottoms up" approach to management. Jobs or work at the lowest level is
thought of as designed best when individuals or teams do a whole and complete part of an
organization's work process. In addition, it is argued that the individuals or teams should be
given the power, information, and knowledge they need to work autonomously or
independently of management control and direction. The job of management is seen as one
of preparing the individuals or teams to function in an autonomous manner. Management isan enabler, culture setter, and supporter rather than a director of employee action.
Some of the writings on employee involvement place a strong emphasis on reward systems.
They suggest combining participation in decision making and democratic supervision with
rewards for skill acquisition and for organizational performance. The Scanlon Plan, profit
sharing plans, and employeeownerships are important reward system practices which are
associated with employee involvement efforts.
The writings on employee involvement give a considerable amount of attention to
organizational change. They stress "bottom up" change and, in most cases, start with
retraining supervisors and redesigning work relationships at the first level of the organization.In many respects, employee involvement does not argue for a continuous improvement
approach so much as discontinuous change because it talks of substantial gains in
organizational effectiveness as a result of moving to completely new work structures and new
ways of organizing work.
The logical evolution of employee involvement programs is toward a substantial flattening of
the organization and, in many cases, the elimination of substantial amounts of staff work and
support work.
This work is often seen as moving either out of the organization or being done at lower andlower levels in the organization. Employee involvement programs stress that substantial
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amounts of the work that is done by managers is unnecessary because it simply supports a
command and control approach to management which is not needed when employees are
involved in their work and are capable of self-managing.
Q-32) explain PCMM?5 levels of maturity model?
PCMM introduction
People Capability Maturity Model, (PCMM,P-CMM) is a maturity framework that focuses
on continuously improving the management and development of the human assets of an
organization. It describes an evolutionary improvement path from ad hoc, inconsistently
performed practices, to a mature, disciplined, and continuously improving development of the
knowledge, skills, and motivation of the workforce that enhances strategic business
performance. Based on the best current practices in fields such as human resources,
knowledge management, and organizational development, the People CMM guides
organizations in improving their processes for managing and developing their workforces.
The People CMM helps organizations characterize the maturity of their workforce practices,
establish a program of continuous workforce development, set priorities for improvement
actions, integrate workforce development with process improvement, and establish a culture
of excellence.
The People CMM is a process-based model; it assumes that workforce practices are standard
organizational processes that can be improved continuously through the same methods that
have been used to improve other business processes.
The only unique characteristic of the People CMM is its staged framework for
introducing and steadily improving successful workforce practices.
Since its release in 1995, thousands of copies of the People CMM have been distributed, and
it is used world-wide by organizations, small and large, such as IBM, Boeing, BAESystems,
Tata Consultancy Services, Ericsson, Lockheed Martin and QAI (India) Ltd.
Current Version of the PCMM is Version 2, was released in 2001
Benefits of implementing PCMM
Characterize the maturity of their human resource practices
Set priorities for improving the competence of its work-force
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Integrate competence growth with process improvement
Establish a culture of workforce excellence
Q-33) People CMM Maturity Levels
The People Capability Maturity Model adapts the maturity framework of the Capability
Maturity Model for Software, to managing and developing an organization's work force.
PCMM has five maturity levels and each maturity level provides a layer in the foundation for
continuous improvement and equips the organization with increasingly powerful tools for
developing the capability of its workforce.
PCMM Process Area
The maturity level of the PCMM Version 2 is consisting the 22 Process Area. The below
depiction shows the name of all the 22 processes areas along with level.
Maturity Level Focus Process Areas
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5
Optimizing
Continuously improve and
align personal work group and
organizational capability
Continuously Workforce Innovation
Organizational Performance Alignment
Continuous Capability Improvement
4
Predictable
Empower and integrate
workforce competencies and
manage performance
quantitatively
Mentoring
Organizational Capability Management
Quantitative Performance Management
Competency Based Assets
Empowered Workgroups
Competency Integration
3
Defined
Develop workforce
competencies and workgroups,
and align with business strategy
and objectives
Participatory Culture
Workgroup Development
Competency-Based Practices
Career Development
Competency Development
Workforce Planning
Competency Analysis
2
Managed
Managers take responsibility
for managing and developing
their people
Compensation
Training and Development
Performance Management
Work Environment
Communication Coordination
Staffing
1
initial
Organizations at the Initial Level of maturity usually have difficulty retaining talented
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individuals. Even though many low maturity organizations complain about a talent shortage,
the inconsistency of their actions belies whether they actually believe it Low maturity
organizations are poorly equipped to respond to talent shortages with anything other than
slogans and exhortations. Despite the importance of talent, workforce practices in low
maturity organizations are often ad hoc and inconsistent. In some areas, the organization has
not defined workforce practices, and, in other areas, it has not trained responsible individuals
to perform the practices that exist.
Organizations at the Initial Level typically exhibit four characteristics:
1. Inconsistency in performing practices,
2. Displacement of responsibility,
3. Ritualistic practices, and
4. An emotionally detached workforce.
Q-34) what is the structure of CMM?
CMM Overview
2.1 Introducing the Capability Maturity Model
The Capability Maturity Model for Software (CMM) is a framework that describes the key
elements of an effective software process. The CMM describes an evolutionary improvement
path from an ad hoc, immature process to a mature, disciplined process.
The CMM covers practices for planning, engineering, and managing software development
and maintenance. When followed, these key practices improve the ability of organizations to
meet goals for cost, schedule, functionality, and product quality.
The CMM establishes a yardstick against which it is possible to judge, in a repeatable way,
the maturity of an organization's software process and compare it to the state of the practice
of the industry [Kitson92]. The CMM can also be used by an organization to plan
improvements to its software process.
DEFINITION:
The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a methodology used to develop and refine an
organization's software development process.
Structure of the CMM
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The CMM is composed of five maturity levels. With the exception of Level 1, each maturity
level is composed of several key process areas. Each key process area is organized into five
sections called common features. The common features specify the key practices that, when
collectively addressed, accomplish the goals of the key process area. This structure of the
CMM is illustrated in Figure
The components of the CMM include:
Maturity levels A maturity level is a well-defined evolutionary plateau toward achieving a
mature software process. The five maturity levels provide the top-level structure of the
CMM.
Process capability Software process capability describes the range of expected results that
can be achieved by following a software process. The software process capability of an
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organization provides one means of predicting the most likely outcomes to be expected from
the next software project the organization undertakes.
Key process areas Each maturity level is composed of key process areas. Each key process
area identifies a cluster of related activities that, when performed collectively, achieve a set of
goals considered important for establishing process capability at that maturity level. The key
process areas have been defined to reside at a single maturity level. For example, one of the
key process areas for Level 2 is Software Project Planning.
Goals The goals summarize the key practices of a key process area and can be used to
determine whether an organization or project has effectively implemented the key process
area. The goals signify the scope, boundaries, and intent of each key process area.
An example of a goal from the Software Project Planning key process area is "Software
estimates are documented for use in planning and tracking the software project." See
"Capability Maturity Model for Software, Version 1.1" [Paulk93a] and Section 4.5, Applying
Professional Judgment, of this document for more information on interpreting the goals. (kp
PP.GO.1)
Common features ; The key practices are divided among five Common Features sections:
Commitment to Perform, Ability to Perform, Activities Performed, Measurement and
Analysis, and Verifying Implementation. The common features are attributes that indicate
whether the implementation and institutionalization of a key process area is effective,
repeatable, and lasting.
The Activities Performed common feature describes implementation activities. The other four
common features describe the institutionalization factors, which make a process part of the
organizational culture.
Key practices Each key process area is described in terms of key practices that, when
implemented, help to satisfy the goals of that key process area. The key practices describe the
infrastructure and activities that contribute most to the effective implementation and
institutionalization of the key process area.
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For example, one of the practices from the Software Project Planning key process area is
"The project's software development plan is developed according to a documented
procedure."
Q-35)
Sr.
No.
Characteristic Service Manufacturing
1. Quality Improvement
Approach
Short term related to day-to-day
problem solving, less strategically
oriented
Long term, structured, strategic
2. Stages w.r.t quality simultaneous production and
consumption (co-creation between
producer and consumer)
consumption and production at different
stages
3. Tangibility many critical aspects are intangible many critical aspects are tangible
4. Quality is achieved Through direct customer contacts Through channels
5. inventory concept of inventory may not be
material, but can be virtual such as
requests and, in healthcare, patients
waiting for service can be
considered a type of inventory
usually has inventory and buffers
6. Quality control through
machines
Limited Extensive
7. Transactions Large volume of paper work
involving low amount of money
Small volume of paper work involving
high amount of money
8. Scope of quality errors More Less
9. Customers preparation
of former specification of
quality of
service/product required
Do not prepare Detailed specifications are prepared.
10. Variability in quality considerable variability in service
delivery
some variation
11. Set of varietyopen universe in variety of service
casesclosed set in variety in product
manufacturing
12. Benefits substantive and peripheral benefits mainly substantive product benefits
13. Customer expectations Dynamic Not much dynamic
14. Customer involvement Direct Indirect
15. Quality Focus factor Human factor Product quality
16. Indicators of quality Customer complaints/declining sales Quality standards specifications
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Q-36)
Quality management tools and methods used in Six Sigma
Methods tools and techniques are vital to the success of any six sigma project. Method is a way
ofdoing something in a systematic way. Here systematic implies an orderly logical sequence
of steps or tasks. A tool provides a mechanical or mental advantage in accomplishing a task.
A technique is a specific approach to efficiently accomplish a task in a manner that may not be
immediately obvious.
1.SIPOC - SIPOC is a high-level picture of the process that depicts how the given process is
serving the customer. It is an acronym for Suppliers-Input-Outputs-Customers.
2.Operational definition - Operational definitions are the first step towards effective
management. It helps us build a clear understanding of a concept or a phenomenon so that it can
be unambiguously measured.3.Benchmarking - Benchmarking is a standard by which something can be measured or
judged. This term was first used by surveyors. They set a benchmark by marking a point of
known vertical elevation. Therefore, benchmark becomes a point of reference for a
measurement.
4.Brainstorming - Brainstorming is a technique to systematically generate ideas usually to
handle a challenging situation from a group of people by nurturing free address using
brainstorming is problem solving, new design or new product development and research and
development.
5.AffinityDiagram - The process of affinity programming requires the team to categories the
ideas based on their subject knowledge thereby making it easy to shift and priorities ideas.
6.FishboneDiagram - The fishbone diagram is a graphical method for finding the root cause
of an effect. The effect can be either a negative one such as any defect or positive one such as
described process outcome.
7.RiskManagement - It involves two key elements
Uncertainty
Impact in terms of potential loss. It is a continuous process.
8.Sampling - It is a method to draw inference about one or more characteristics of a large
group of items by examining a smaller but representing selection of group items.
Q-37) Implementation roles
One key innovation of Six Sigma involves the "professionalizing" of quality management
functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely relegated to the
production floor and tostatisticiansin a separate quality department. Six Sigma borrowsmartial
artsranking terminology to define a hierarchy (and career path) that cuts across all business
functions.
Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation.
Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They areresponsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the other
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role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough
improvements.
Championstake responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in an
integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions
also act as mentors to Black Belts.Master Black Belts, identified by champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They
devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist champions and guide Black Belts and
Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, they spend their time on ensuring consistent
application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments.
Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific
projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma
project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying
projects/functions for Six Sigma.
Green Belts, the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job
responsibilities, operate under the guidance of Black Belts.
Yellow Belts, trained in the basic application of Six Sigma management tools, work with the
Black Belt throughout the project stages and are often the closest to the work.
Q-38) Origin and meaning of the term "six sigma process"
A process which is six sigma (six sigma process quality is considered a world class quality) will
yield just 2 instance of non conferences out of every opportunities, provided there is no shift in
the process average. Moreover, the same process will yield 3.4 instances of non-conformances
out of every million opportunities with an expected shift 1.5 sigma in process average. A
process at four sigma level (considered average process) is expected to yield 63 instances of
non-conformances for every million opportunities without shift in process average and 6210
instance of non-conformances with 1.5 sigma in the process.
Criticism
1.Lack of originality - Noted quality expertJoseph M. Juranhas described Six Sigma as "a
basic version of quality improvement", stating, "There is nothing new there. It includes what we
used to call facilitators. They have adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with differentcolors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful.
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Again, that is not a new idea. TheAmerican Society for Qualitylong ago established
certificates, such as for reliability engineers."
2.Role of consultants - The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has
(controversially) fostered acottage industryof training and certification. Critics argue there is
overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim
expertise in Six Sigma when they only have a rudimentary understanding of the tools and
techniques involved.
Some commentators view the expansion of the various "Belts" to include "Green Belts,"
"Master Black Belts" and "Gold Belts" as a parallel to the various "belt factories" that exist in
martial arts.
3.Potential negative effects - AFortunearticle stated, "of 58 large companies that have
announced Six Sigma programs, 91 percent have trailed theS&P 500since". The statement is
attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a
competing quality-improvement process)." The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is
effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process"
and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies." Many of these
claims have been argued as being in error or ill-informed.
ABusinessWeekarticle says thatJames McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at3Mmay have
had the effect of stifling creativity. It cites twoWharton Schoolprofessors who say that Six
Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue-sky work.This phenomenon is
further explored in the book, Going Lean, which provides data to show thatFord's "6 Sigma"
program did little to change its fortunes.
4.Based on arbitrary standards - While 3.4 defects per million opportunities might work well
for certain products/processes, it might not operate optimally or cost effectively for others. A
pacemakerprocess might need higher standards, for example, whereas adirect mailadvertising
campaign might need lower standards. The basis and justification for choosing 6 (as opposed to
5 or 7, for example) as the number of standard deviations is not clearly explained. In addition,
the Six Sigma model assumes that the process data always conform to thenormal distribution.
The calculation of defect rates for situations where the normal distribution model does not apply
is not properly addressed in the current Six Sigma literature.
5.Criticism of the 1.5 sigma shift - The statisticianDonald J. Wheelerhas dismissed the 1.5sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. Its universal applicability is seen as
doubtful.The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma
levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term
defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as
a "6 sigma process." The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual
normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been
a key cause of disagreement about how Six Sigma measures are defined. The fact that it is rarely
explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma
performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to expressthe opinion that Six Sigma is aconfidence trick.
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