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Imperial College LondonPage 1
Recent developments in axial design
of driven offshore piles
DGF Copenhagen
April 1st2014
Richard Jardine
Imperial College LondonPage 2
Themes:
Changed API, ISO axial capacity recommendations
for sands, including ICP-05
Research background leading to new methods
Applications, case histories, some surprising results
New research: ageing, cyclic and lateral loading
Next set of issues: clay methods & improving load-
displacement predictions
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Imperial College LondonPage 3
New rules for static axial capacity in silica
sand: 2011 API recommendations
Before: had = K vo tanfor shaft, qb= Nqvofor base.Limits to , qband values for , Nqdepend on D50and Dr
Now:modified to = K tan, no loose sand case
Recognises:API main text methods significant bias andpoor reliability:
Qcalculated/Qmeasuredratios = Qc/Qmsubject to CoV ~ 65%
Recommend:completely different CPT based methods,including ICP. Note need for different SI & specialist staff
Imperial College LondonPage 4
The axial capacity prize:
Feedback from one UK
wind-farm design team
Critical economies through
ICP-05 or UWA-05 sand
axial capacity methods
Also applied in onshore civil
engineering: Williams et al 1997
Derived from field ICP research
Lehane et al 1993
Chow 1997
Jardine et al 2005
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Imperial College LondonPage 5
Research background:
Critique of conventional approach &
how new CPT methods were derived
Imperial College LondonPage 6
MTD and ICP methods
First proposed in 1996,
extended in 2005 to cover:
Group action
Pile shape
Seismic effects
Special and problem soils
Factors of safetyRing shear test methodology
Ageing
Cyclic loading
Databases: mini-to-mega piles
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Imperial College LondonPage 7
Shaft capacities from 81 tests in sand; Jardine et al (2005)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative densi ty,Dr(%)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Qc
/Qm
DK
EU
EU EUEU
H
H
BD
GDK
EU EU EUEU
H
SP
SP
SP
Pile type & test direction
Steel, closed-ended, tension
Steel, closed-ended, compression
Concrete, closed-ended, tension
Concrete, closed-ended, compression
Steel, open-ended, tensionSteel, open-ended, compression
Concrete, open-ended, tension
0 20 40 60 80 100
L/D
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Qc/Qm
DK
EU
EU EUEU
H
H
BD
DK
HOEU EU EUEU
H
SP
SP
SP
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative densi ty,Dr(%)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Qc
/Qm
DKEU EU
EU
EUH
HBD
DK
EU
EU
EU
EUEUEU
DK
HSP
SP
SP
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
L/D
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Qc/Qm
DKEU EU
EU
EUHH BDEU
EU
EU
EUEUEU
DK
HSP
SP
SP
API: skewed for relative density, pile length and tension loading
APIAPI
ICP ICP
Pile failures atHound Point andSungai Perak BridgeWilliams et al (1997)
ICP shows no skewing (tension solid) Average pile age = 25 days
Imperial College LondonPage 8
Critical review of conventional theory
What controls shear () and normal stress rfat failure?
How does rf vary with v0and local Dr?
What controls the friction angle ?
Any missing key variables?
Is tension loading different to compression?
Does shallow foundation Nqapply to end-bearing?
Do any limits apply to and end bearing pressure qb?
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Imperial College LondonPage 9
Background IC
research with
instrumented piles
Closed-end, 102mm
OD; up to 20m long
SSTs measure local
rand
Bond, Jardine and
Dalton (1991)
Intensive testing at 2
sand and 4 clay sites0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Distancefrom
piletip,h(m)
surface stress transducer
pore pressure probe
axial load cell
leadinginstrumentcluster, h/R=8
followinginstrumentcluster, h/R=27
trailinginstrumentcluster, h/R=50
lagginginstrumentcluster, h/R=72
ICP Configuration for Labenne tests, SW FranceDefinition of stresses and tip parameter - h
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Geotechnical profile: Labenne, after Lehane (1992)
Loose dune sand, including thin organic layer
Labenne end bearingMeasured base resistance qb and CPT qc
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Page 15
Denser North Sea Marine sand Dunkerque France,
Chow (1997)
Borehole log
Very dense, light brown, uniform, fine tomedium, subrounded SAND withoccasional shell fragments (Hydraulic fill)
GWL
Dense with shell fragments(Flandrian Sand)
Organic layer
Dense, green-brown and grey-brown,uniform fine to medium, subroundedSAND with some shell fragments(Flandrian Sand)
Becoming very dense
Depth(m)
CPT q (MPa) CPT f (kPa)C C
0 10 20 30 40 0 100 200 300 4000
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Imperial College LondonPage 16
Influence of CPT qcand pile tip position on r
Dunkerque, after Chow (1997)
API
For fixed depth r falls with h/R
rvaries with qc
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Imperial College LondonPage 17
Possible
causes for h/R
influence onlocal stresses
along pile
length;
Chow (1997)
After Chow (1997)
Heave
Whip
Extreme
driving
cycles
Relaxation as
tip stress
concentration
moves away
Friction fatigue?
Page 18
Load cyclesdegrade shaft
capacity
Can recover with time
Not true fatigue
See recent keynotes
on cyclic design:
Jardine et al (2012)
Andersen et al (2013)
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Qaverage/ Qmax static
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Qcyclic
/Qmaxstatic
First failureCyclic failure after previous cyclic or static failureAged pile, no previous failureAged pile, after previous failure
13
31
345
24
27221
>200
1241
10
20
50
100
200
400
1
Nf
>1000
2069
Datapoint number = Nf> indicates unfailed by cycling
Field tests on 457mm OD,
19m long steel pipe piles, Dunkerque
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Imperial College LondonPage 19
Delft University photoelastic particulate test rig
Tip installation stress focus and bearing failure
Imperial College LondonPage 20
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Dunkerque: loading response & ICP effective
stress paths, similar patterns to Labenne
Base qb qc not relatedlinearly to v0
rvaries under load
Tension compression
rd= 2G r/R
Draffects responsethrough G
cvnot affected by Dr
cvangles: sand-on-steel interface ring-shear tests
Ho et al (2010)Steel interface
Crushed sand
Intact sand
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Interface shear cv: silt-to-fine gravel,
Interfaces with roughness of industrial piles
Direct & ring shear: Barmpopoulos et al (2009), Ho et al (2010)
Direct shear trend
Ring shear
Imperial College LondonPage 24
Full ICP design principles: closed ended piles Radial shaft stresses r= A qc(v0)
a(h/R)b
Loading to failure alters r by factor that varies with 1/R
Differences in tension and compression responses
At failure f /r= tan cv with cv from interface lab tests
Base capacity qblinked to CPT qcdiameter dependent
No upper limits to f or qb- care needed in variable profiles
How to deal with open ended piles?
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Imperial College LondonPage 25
Generalisation of ICP
shaft expressions toopen ended piles
Choices considered by
Chow (1997)
B2: R* = (R2oR2i)
0.5
Imperial College LondonPage 26
Assessment by Chow (1997)
Five hypotheses checked
with instrumented open-
ended (325mm)
Dunkerque pile
B2 choice considered
most practical
Re-checked against full
scale data base, adopted
for MTD-96
Later UWA-05 follow
alternative A2 route
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Peak shear stress (kPa)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Depth(m)
Pile CST'89aC'89aPrediction
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Peak shear stress (kPa)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Depth(m)
Pile CST'89a
C'89aPrediction
A2Scalar reduction based on IFR
B2h/R term revised with R*
defined by solid area of pipe pile
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Imperial College LondonPage 27
Full ICP: checks for possible wall thickness ratio bias
Shaft capacity of open piles in sand: IC data base
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
D/t
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Qc/Qm
Pile type & test direction
Steel, open-ended, tension
Steel, open-ended, compression
Concrete, open-ended, tension
Imperial College LondonPage 28
Pile plugs and open-end bearing: diameter dependence
Plug qb falls with
diameter D
ICP qb/qc= f(D)
IFR rises
sharply with D
Because of
interface shear
scale effect
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Imperial College LondonPage 29
Debate over new API/ISO recommendations
Agreement: CPT based methods offer great potential
Debate over how to scale up from closed ended
model piles to full scale
API (2011) cites four approaches: ICP, Fugro, NGI
and UWA
What are the differences? Practical evidence that thefull ICP and other methods work?
Imperial College LondonPage 30
2011 API commentary methods: NGI-05
Sliding triangle approach to capture h/R effects, z = depth
= z/ztipPatmosphericFDFsFtFl Fm
z/ztipterm not normalised by D or affected by Length L
F factors depend on: Dr; v0; loading sense; pile type
Base qbdoes not vary with D, unaffected by L/D
Terms fitted from NGI data base, checked against 28 high
quality load tests
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Imperial College LondonPage 33
UWA-05 & ICP-05 end bearing for plugged piles vary with D
UWA qb/qc depends on Final IFR, which varies with D
Open ended piles in sand, taking D/t = 30
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Outside diameter, m
qb/qc
ICP-05
UWA-05
Imperial College LondonPage 34
UWA data base study: Lehane et al (2005)
74 high quality tests after 30 days, silica sands, CPT profiles
New CPT methods greatly reduce bias and scatter (CoVs)
Overall: Mean Qc/QmCoV
API-93 0.81 0.67
NGI-05 1.11 0.37
Fugro-04 1.11 0.38
(full) ICP-05 0.95 0.30
(full) UWA-05 0.97 0.27 (measured IFRs)
Similar data-base results to Jardine et al (2005)
New studies in hand: IC & ZJU, UWA and new NGI JIP
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Imperial College LondonPage 35
Applications:
all with full ICP approach
Imperial College LondonPage 36
Sungai Perak, Western Malaysia;Williams et al 1997
Pile tests
1&2 3 4
Balanced cantilever bridge on 1.5m OD driven steel piles
API design 33m penetration had to be doubled after tests
Medium-dense
gravelly sands
Average results
API: Qc/Qm= 1.99
ICP: Qc/Qm= 1.10
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Imperial College LondonPage 37
760mm OD heavilyinstrumented steel
tubulars
Average results:
API: Qc/Qm= 0.58
ICP: Qc/Qm= 0.97
ICP predictions (thicklines) fit tests at 3 L/D
values, no skew or bias
with L/D
Dense North Sea sand
EURIPIDES - HollandKolk et al (2005)
Page 38
Now widespread wind energy applications
Piled tripods for Borkum West II
German N. Sea Merritt et al 2012
Overy 2007
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Imperial College LondonPage 39
North Sea track record since 1996
13 installations of ICP designed foundations reported
Overy (2007)
Encouraging correlations with driving SRDs and stress
wave matches in sand, clay and mixed profiles
Substantial variations from conventional API, depending
on soil profile, pile details etc
Engineering potentialfacilitated new low-cost marginal
field options: Sayer & Overy (2007)
Borkum West II wind-turbine tripods: see Merritt et al 2012
Imperial College LondonPage 40
If conventional API is so unreliable, why areoffshore failures rarely reported?
Almost no offshore static testing, limited driving monitoring
Problems revealed by tests performed for near-shoreprojects: Hound Point, Sungai Perak, Jamuna Bridge etc
Systematic conservative bias in some conditionssuch as
very dense marine sands
Unrecognised positive factors: shaft ageing characteristicsin sand
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Page 41
Dunkerque
programme:
Dense marine sand
Eight steel pipe piles
457mm OD, 19m
Static & cyclic loading
9 days to 1 year after
driving
Jardine et al 2006
Jardine & Standing
2012
1sttime tension tests at Dunkerque
235 days
81 days
9 days
Creep importantat Q > 1MN
ICP capacity after 9 days
EoD shaft 0.63 ICP
Low driving base capacity
Ageing disrupted by pre-testing
Pile age after driving: a missing parameter
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Imperial College LondonPage 43
New and ongoing research
Pile installation and stress system it creates
Ageing in laboratory and field
Cyclic axial loading
Layering and base capacity
Lateral loading response
Extending the field database
Imperial College LondonPage 44
Long term calibration chamber tests in Grenoblewith new 36mm OD mini-ICP: Jardine et al (2009)
1.2 m ID, 1.5 m deep chamber
On pile stress measurements
Multiple soil stress cells installed in sand mass
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Experiments on NE34 Fontainebleu sand:
Yang et al (2010)
CPT cone resistance, qc
Critical depth
Shear zone
Crushing zone
Shear zone developed around the pile shaft,Yang et al (2010)
Plan view Side aspect
Zone 1 material 0.5 to 1.5mm adheres to pile shaft
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Schematic
development of
Zones 1 to 3
Related to stress
regime in:
Crushing area
beneath tip
Degradation overshaft length
1
2
3
Microscope images: progressive grain crushing
(a) Fresh sand (b) Zone 1 sand
(c) Zone 2 sand (d) Zone 3 sand
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Stresses in soil
mass during
penetration(and at rest)
rnormalised
by CPT qc, %
Similar plots for
and z
Jardine et al (2013)
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.75
1.0
0.50
1.5
2.0
3.04.06.0
14
0.50
0.25
0 5 10 15 20-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
r /R
h/
R
0
4.0
8.0
12
16
20
0.500.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
3.0
1.0
4.0
6.01012
16
0 5 10
-10
-5
0
5
10
r /R
h/
R
0
4.0
8.0
12
16
20
30
Local stress paths at Leading pile instrumentOne cycle towards end of installation
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
o
2nd
P.T.
end point
S
hearstress(kPa)
Radial stress (kPa)
start point
1stP.T.
o
peak load
(c)Peak load
Start of push
Unloading
End Point
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Imperial College LondonPage 51
Interim conclusions from field & laboratory
Driving analyses highly variable. Base capacity well belowstatic estimates
Shaft capacities build over time from low EoD values to farexceed full ICP or UWA Qsestimates
Installation stress regime promotes ageing, as may interfacecrust and physiochemical effects
Base resistance very sensitive to local variationstake lowerbound CPT profile for qbdesign
Limit qcto 100 MPa in North Sea sands, beware tip buckling
Address cyclic loading in design & consider ICP clay method
Imperial College LondonPage 52
ICP effective-stress clay approach:
= rftan , analogous to sand: rf/v0= f (YSR, St, h/R*)
Good predictions for ICP data base, reduces CoV and bias
Applied since 1996, particularly in North Sea
Needs different SI approach. Key issues, including low IPclays, debated at OSIG 2007
Micro-fabric in shear zones is crucial, as in landslides. Alteredby driving, promotes progressive failure
Ring shear tests to measure ; qbrelated directly to CPT qc
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Imperial College LondonPage 53
Microscope thin section
through clay around piles at
Pentre; Chow (1997)
Residual shearing mode,
unusually low for given Ip
More common with plastic clays
Pile shaft
Principal displacement shears
Reidel shears
Imperial College LondonPage 54
Interface friction angles for piles driven in clayMeasure max, min in ring shear interface tests, can be surprising!
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Load-displacement behaviour
Axial, lateral and moment monitoring of Magnus and HuttonTLP foundations: errors of 400% in conventional T-z, P-y
predictive approaches
Far better fit with (Class A) non-linear small strain FE
predictions; Jardine and Potts (1988), (1993)
Central role in new DONG-led PISA lateral loading JIP
Widely used in onshore Civil Engineering: many conferencesand case histories
Imperial College LondonPage 56
Advanced soil testing & non-linear modelling:Six TC-29/101 conferences since 1994
Lyon 2003 Atlanta 2008 Seoul 2011
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200 x 100mm samples
Accurate cyclic loading
Longer term creep tests
Interactions with cycling
Higher resolution strain gauges
Multi-axial BE systems
Advanced stress-path
triaxial equipment
Jardine 2013
Page 58
Or, IC Resonant column HCA
Static mode
1, 2, 3 and control
Dynamic mode
Torsional resonant column
38/71 mm hollow cylinder
71/101 mm hollow cylinder
Static loading ram
torque system
and hydraulic
pressures
Oscillator (RC)
Specimen sizes
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Imperial College LondonPage 59
Predictive tools
FE code ICFEP, fully coupled includes range of possible
elastic-plastic soil models, can model progressive failure
Simulate small-strain behaviour by tangent stiffness
functions between (Y1) elastic and outer (Y3) yield surfaces
G/p= f(D)
K/p= g(vol)
Fitted from lab tests, applied in 100s of projects
Illustrate with simulations of tension tests on 19m long,
456mm OD Dunkerque steel piles driven in dense sand
Page 60
Dunkerque anisotropic stiffness profiles: lab and field
Anisotropic Y1stiffness profiles: Dunkerque0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700Elastic stiffness, MPa
0
5
10
15
20
25
Depth,m
Legend:Eu from TXC testsE`v from TXC testsE`h from TX testsGvh from TX BE testsGhh from TX BE testsGvh from field seism. CPT tests
Elastic stiffness MPa
Depthm
Field seismic & lab Gvhmeasurements agree within 10%
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Page 61 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
e s, %
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
G/p'
Legend:Curve used for FE analysisTC test curve OCR=1TE test curve OCR=1TS test curve for OCR=1
Dense sand non-linear secant shear stiffness data
OCR=1, other tests at different OCRs
Non-linear ICFEP predictions for tension test
19m, 457mm OD, steel pipe pile at Dunkerque
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Pile cap displacement, (mm)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Pileresistance,
Q
(MN)
Legend:
predicted - ICFEP
observed
Shaft rcfrom ICP-05
CPT approach
Estimates for other
soil components
Non-linear stiffness
and interface shear
from lab tests
Jardine et al 2005b
Pileheadload,
Q
(MN)
Pile head displacements, (mm)
Good for capacity &
working load stiffness
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Imperial College LondonPage 63
Conclusions
Need for improved capacity methods highlighted
Background instrumented pile & data base researchreviewed
New API/ISO sand methods and practical applicationdiscussed
Case histories demonstrate full ICP is fit for purpose
New factors highlighted, including strong time effects, basecapacity in variable strata & cyclic loading
Imperial College LondonPage 64
Conclusions
Recent research outlined and interim conclusions noted
Focus on stress regime and soil fabric around shaft
Greatest practical impact with sands
Key aspects of ICP clay effective stress approach outlined
Way to improve pile-soil deformation analysis reviewed andillustrated
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Imperial College LondonPage 65
Acknowledgments
Sponsors & partners: BP,BRE, IFP, EPSRC, Exxon
HSE, Shell, INPG 3S-R
group, Total and others
Current and former co-
workers: Andrew Bond,
Fiona Chow, Reiko
Kuwano, Barry Lehane,
Siya Rimoy, Jamie
Standing, ZhongxuanYang, Bitang Zhu and
many othersPierre Foray
1949-2014