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A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Nine:
Language Development
John W. Santrock
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What is Language?
• Defining language– Form of communication, whether spoken, written,
or signed, based on system of symbols• Infinite generativity: ability to produce an endless
number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
– Genie, Wild Boy of Aveyron: raise questions about determinants of language
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Language’s Rule Systems
Phonology Sound system of language; how the sounds are used, combined — phoneme: smallest unit of sound
Morphology Morphemes: units of meaning in word formation
Syntax Ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
Semantics Meanings of words and sentences
Pragmatics Appropriate use of language in context; can be cery complex
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How Language Develops
• Infancy– Babbling, gestures, and other vocalizations
• Crying present at birth• Cooing: occurs at 2 to 4 months of age• Babbling: begins at about 6 months of age• Gestures: begin 8 to 12 months of age
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How Language Develops
• Infants recognizing language sounds– “Citizens of the world”– Newborns recognize sound changes– Recognize own language sounds at 6 months
• First words– Receptive exceeds spoken vocabulary– Timing of first word, vocabulary spurt varies
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How Language Develops
• Infants recognizing language sounds– Asian child learns verbs earlier than child learning
English– Referential and expressive styles– Overextension and underextension of words– Two-word utterances (18-24 months of age)– Telegraphic speech
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Variation in Language Milestones
Fig. 9.3
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How Language Develops
• Early childhood– Complex sentences at 2 to 3 years of age– Become more sensitive to language sounds;
morphology rules, some overgeneralizations– Learn and apply syntax rules; auxillary-inversion
rule takes longer
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How Language Develops
• Early childhood– Vocabulary development is dramatic to age 6– Fast mapping
• Many hypotheses why this occurs– Give novel labels to novel objects– Use of mutual exclusivity– Benefit from hearing mature speakers
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How Language Develops
• SES is linked to language development– Welfare parents talk less to their children
• Provide less elaboration• Talk less about past events
– Maternal language and literacy skills positively related to child’s vocabulary; not talkativeness
• Frequent pointing, gestures• Use of diverse vocabulary
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Language Input and Young Children’s Vocabulary Development
Fig. 9.6
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Language Input and Young Children’s Vocabulary Development
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How Language Develops
• Advances in pragmatics– 6-year-old is better conversationalist– Young children start using extended discourse
• Learn cultural rules, politeness, and become sensitive to adapting their speech to the setting
– Age 4 to 5: can change speech style at will• More polite, formal when with adults
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How Language Develops
• Middle and late childhood– New skills learned when entering school
• Alphabetic principle• Learning diverse uses of language, sounds
– Vocabulary and grammar• Process of categorizing becomes easier• From age 6 to 11 — 14,000 to 40,000 words• Improved logical reasoning, analytic skills
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How Language Develops
• Middle and late childhood– Development of metalingusitic awareness
• Knowledge about language; improves considerably during elementary school years
– In adolescence: most know rules for appropriate language use
– Child with large vocabulary learns to read easier– Vocabulary development linked to comprehension
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How Language Develops
• Middle and late childhood– Whole language approach
• Instruction to parallel child’s natural language• Learning; reading should be whole, meaningful
– Basic-skills-and-phonics approach• Instruction should teach phonics and its basic rules • Reading should involve simplified materials
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How Language Develops
• Middle and late childhood– Writing
• 2- to 3-year-olds emerge from scribbling to begin printing letters
• Most 4-year-olds can print their names; most 5-year-olds can reproduce letters, words
– Reversed letters are normal – Adults should encourage early writing
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How Language Develops
• Middle and late childhood– Years of practice needed for good writing
• Linked to cognitive and language skills
– Concerns about students’ writing competence• Grades 4 to 12: about 70% are low-achieving• High school grads: 50% not ready for college-level
writing• Good writing results from good teaching efforts
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How Language Develops
• Bilingualism and second language learning– Sensitive periods vary across different language
systems• Native-like accent best learned before age 12• Adults learn faster than children, attainment not as high
as children’s• U.S. students lag behind students in developed countries
in learning a second language• United States: many miss out on benefits of bilingualism
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How Language Develops
• Adolescence– Increased use and understanding of
• Sophisticated words• Analysis and abstract thinking• Metaphors: implied comparison of unlike things• Satire: use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or
wickedness
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How Language Develops
• Adolescence– Much better at organizing ideas and writing
• Dialect: variety of language distinguished by vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation
– Adolescent dialect with peers often uses jargon or slang
– Usually used to indicate group membership
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How Language Develops
• Adulthood and aging– Distinct personal linguistic style is part of identity– Vocabulary often continues to increase throughout
adult years until late adulthood• Most common complaint: retrieving words, hard to hear
in less than ideal listening conditions• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
– Non-language factors may be cause of decline in language skills in older adults
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• Biological influences– Evolution and the brain’s role in language
• Human language acquired 100,000 years ago• Specific brain regions predisposed to language• Wernicke’s area: in brain’s left hemisphere involved in
language comprehension
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• Biological influences– Broca’s area: in brain’s left frontal lobe involved in
speech production• If damaged — fluent incomprehensible speech produced
– Aphasia: language disorder resulting from brain damage; loss of ability to use words
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Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas of the Brain
Fig. 9.7
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• Chomsky– Humans biologically prewired for language– Language acquisition device (LAD): biological
endowment to detect features, rules of language– Theoretical, not physical part of brain– Evidence of uniformity in language milestones
across languages and cultures
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• Environmental influences– Behavioral View
• Language is reinforced chain of responses; a complex skill that is learned
– Criticisms• Cannot explain creation of novel sentences• Children learn syntax of native language without
reinforcement
– No longer considered a viable explanation
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• Environmental influences– Interaction view
• Children interested in their social world• Child-directed speech: higher pitch for attention• Parents, older children modify their speech• Other strategies:
– Recasting, Expanding, Labeling
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• An interactionist view of language– Language has strong biological foundations– Acquisition influenced by experiences; enriched
environments have more positive effect– Worldwide: language milestones reached about
the same time– Children acquire native language without explicit
teaching; some without encouragement
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Biological and Environmental Influences
• An interactionist view of language– Bruner: stresses roles of parents and teachers
help construct language acquisition support system (LASS)
• Sociocultural context is extremely important in understanding children’s language development
• Resembles Vygotsky’s ZPD
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The End