12 Ancient History - Mark Royters
Pompeii and Herculaneum Assessment Task 1
Part 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
Part 2 - Plans and Streetscapes ........................................................................................................... 3
Part 3- The Economy ........................................................................................................................... 4
Part 4 - Social Structure ...................................................................................................................... 6
Part 5 – Political Life ............................................................................................................................ 8
Part 6 – Everyday Life and Leisure Activities .................................................................................... 11
Part 7 – Public Buildings .................................................................................................................... 13
Part 8 – Religion ................................................................................................................................ 15
Glossary of Terms.............................................................................................................................. 17
Map of Campania .............................................................................................................................. 18
Plan of Pompeii ................................................................................................................................. 19
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 20
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Part 1 - Introduction
Discussion
Although the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79AD occurred many years ago, it leaves behind it
a huge question – just why did so many people perish in Pompeii as a result of the eruption?
The answer is far from simple and lies within in the various primary and secondary sources regarding
the eruption. The major source concerning the eruption however exists in the form of two letters
written from Pliny the Younger to the great Roman historian Tacitus. Although written many years
after the eruption itself, a fact which must always be remembered when analysing them, the letters
contain a great deal of detail as Pliny was able to observe the eruption from his home in Misenum
just 32km away from Vesuvius.
One of the first clues as to why so many perished due to the eruption can be found in Pliny’s second
letter, when he is outlining the typical reaction to the pre-emptive volcanic activity. Pliny states
“There had been tremors for many days previously, a common occurrence in Campania and no cause
for panic”. This provides insight into why the citizens did not heed the early warning signs and hence
were trapped by the final eruption; it shows that the citizens did not view Mount Vesuvius with
reverence, and simply treated its volcanic activity as everyday occurrences.
Pliny’s great detail of the eruption, when it finally occurred, reveals more information as to why the
eruption was so deadly. Early on in his first letter, Pliny describes the eruption as being a giant cloud
filled with “white…and dark patches of dirt and ash” rising high into the sky like “a pine tree…
*supported+ on a very long trunk which spread some branches”. This description, as analysed in the
secondary sources written by Haraldur Sigurdsson, reveals that the eruption was not a standard
magmatic eruption but rather a much more deadly Plinian eruption (appropriately named after
Pliny). The categorisation of this eruption as Plinian, as well as the further descriptive detail of the
eruption by Pliny, reveals that the nearby residents of Pompeii would have been immobilised and
trapped by the giant cloud of ash and pumice that fell on their town less than half an hour after the
eruption hence rendering many of the residents unable to evacuate.
Sigurdsson’s work on the eruption of Vesuvius also reveals the different ways in which Pompeii and
Herculaneum were destroyed, and the reason for this. Sigurdsson breaks down the eruption into
eight key phases and, taking into account the combined written, scientific and geographical
evidence, outlines how each of these phases affected Pompeii and/or Herculaneum.
The first two phases of the eruption, the giant cloud of pumice and ash, only affected Pompeii as the
town was situated downwind of Vesuvius and as mentioned above would have trapped many of the
citizens in the doomed town. Herculaneum wasn’t affected till many hours when it was hit by the
first three surges and flows from Vesuvius. These surges completely covered the town however the
citizens were unaffected by the terrible cloud plaguing Pompeii so many would have been able to
leave before this stage. The forth to sixth flows made it to Pompeii as well as Herculaneum and
would have covered the many citizens trapped after the ash and pumice fall. It was these different
stages that reached both towns that led to the different ways in which they were destroyed.
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Research
Although often overlooked due to the giant eruption that followed it seventeen years later, the
earthquake of 62AD drastically changed the town of Pompeii for better or for worse. It not only did a
great deal of physical damage but also did a great deal of social damage and, according to the
excavator Amedeo Maiuri, caused a major social and economic transformation in the city.
In terms of evidence of the physical impact of the earthquake, the two major sources are the
archaeological finds of repair work on many buildings, and a letter written by Seneca the Elder, a
prolific Roman writer and philosopher. Physical evidence of repair work uncovered at Pompeii
reveals the great and widespread damage of the earthquake. Fiorelli was the first archaeologist to
properly reveal the damage of the earthquake as his systematic and stratigraphic approach
uncovered extensive repair work on the foundations of many buildings shaken down by the
earthquake. Further work carried out by Spinazolla and in particular Maiuri, who was trying to find
evidence to support his ‘Crisis Theory’, revealed even more extensive damage incurred on roads,
large public structures, housing roofs and statues by the earthquake. The extent of the physical
damage in Pompeii is best summarised by Seneca who states that the earthquake “lowered Pompeii
to the ground1”.
In terms of social damage, the majority of evidence comes from Maiuri’s secondary source
publications in which he argues his ‘Crisis Theory’, a hypothesis that the earthquake created a critical
period of social and economic reform. Maiuri believed that the earthquake created a kind of social
vacuum in which wealthy patricians left the town leaving behind “a motley crowd of enriched
merchants, second hand dealers, bakers, fullers, decayed patricians and thrusting industrialists
dabbling in politics”.2 If this reshuffling of class is to be believed, some critics believe Maiuri’s long
and lavish work to be lacking in detail and scientific evidence, than it would have completely
changed the social backbone of Pompeii.
1 Paraphrased translation from Quaestiones Naturales, VI
2 Maiuri A (1942). L'ultima fase edilizia di Pompei
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Part 2 - Plans and Streetscapes
Discussion
In its first years of operation, the organization of the Pompeii site was confusing, convoluted and
downright impractical. It wasn’t until the appointment of Giuseppe Fiorelli as inspector of
excavations in 1860 that this system was given a complete overhaul. In tune with his vision of a
systematic digging approach, Fiorelli came up with and implemented a consistent numbering and
naming system to be used all over the Pompeii site. This new system divided the topography of the
entire site (including areas that still had to be excavated) into nine regions (regiones), each of which
contained 22 town blocks (insulae), which themselves contained numbered entrances to houses and
shops. This new grid system was immediately beneficial, as it made site plans much simpler and
easier to draw up and made the location of individual sites far simpler.
By far the most important characteristic of the system however was its impact on the approach to
excavation carried out at Pompeii. Until Fiorelli and his grid system, excavation was random and
unstructured, with digs being made wherever archaeologists believed they would find something of
interest. The implementation of Fiorelli’s grid system heralded in a new era of systematic excavation
in which specific teams of archaeologists worked along the lines of the roads.
Without Fiorelli’s grid system it may have been many years before proper, logical excavations began
at Pompeii and as a result it remains one of the most important archaeological advancements to
take place at the site. A true testament to its importance is the fact that it is still used today.
Research
The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were very public places and hence roads and streetscapes
became an integral part of everyday life. The cleverly planned streets of Pompeii and Herculaneum
connected all of the different sections of town together and would have allowed residents easy
access to and from the various public buildings located all over town, such as the amphitheatre,
baths, temples and most importantly the forum. Streets also played a large commercial role as all of
the major streets were lined on either side by various tabernae (shops) such as bakeries, taverns and
brothels.
The construction of the various roads in Pompeii and Herculaneum was carefully thought out and
represents the ingenious town planning that took place in Roman towns. All of the major streets
were intricately paved and were flanked on either side by raised sidewalks for wealthy residents to
walk along, as the middles of the streets were usually filled with mucky water and garbage. Streets
also featured pedestrian crossing areas were stepping stones were strategically placed to allow
wealthy residents to cross without stepping in the street muck. Many streets also contained small
white stones mixed in with the larger stones to enable people to see the road in darker conditions.
Due to the popularity of the streets public fountains were built at most of the street intersections,
complete with intricately sculptured headstones, to provide residents with water. The width of the
different streets also varied depending on the relative volume of pedestrian and wheeled traffic that
they were expected to accommodate.
All of these intricacies of the streets reveal the highly important role they played in everyday life for
a Pompeian or Herculaneum resident.
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Part 3- The Economy
What have excavations revealed?
Excavations of wine bars and taverns (cauponae) in Pompeii and Herculaneum have revealed that
the high regard in which they were held in Pompeian and Herculaneum as well as broad Roman
society. Although they could be found all over town, the majority of wine bars and taverns were
found near the entrance gates assumedly so visitors and merchants could have easy access to
Pompeii’s wine (which was held in high regard). Taverns were also clustered around the
amphitheatre, showing the large role wine played in the entertainment and enjoyment of people.
Graffiti found nearby the taverns, for example “Cheers! We drink like wineskins” and “Suavis
demands full wine jars” further emphasize this idea.
Like the excavation of taverns, the excavation of brothels has revealed the importance of
prostitution also in typical Pompeian life. The major brothels found in Pompeii are located in the so
called ‘public area’ of Pompeii in the vicinity of the Forum and other buildings such as the
Commitium, Market and Temple of Jupiter. This prime location is perfect evidence of the existence
of brothels as a major part of Pompeian society. Other primary evidence however suggests that
some wealthier classes of people were disapproving of brothels. A sign found at the front of the
House of Julia Felix (a wealthy landowner) gives the letters “S. Q. D. L. E. N. C” which is an acronym
for “i quis domi lenocinium exerceat ne conducito”. In English, this sentence translates to “Let no
one apply who keeps a brothel”
The excavation of mills and bakeries have revealed that bread was one of the major food sources for
Pompeian and Herculaneum citizens. There have been approximately 30 bakeries (pistrina)
identified in Pompeii alone, which shows the great demand for bread in Pompeii. Each bakery had
three or four lava stone mills for refining the grain, a hard table for kneading the dough and a brick
oven for cooking the final loaf. A few bakeries also had adjoining stores so they could sell a variety of
different baked goods rather than just bread. A baker named Sextus Felix for example specialized in
different sized cake making, as revealed in a piece of promotional graffiti found in Herculaneum,
“*Felix makes cakes for] twenty five bronze baking pans of various sizes”
Discussion
There were two different markets in Pompeii, both located on either side of the Forum. The bigger
of the two was the Macellum which specialized in the sale of fish and meat as well as fruit and
vegetables. It was located on the north-eastern side of the Forum so that its high levels of walking
traffic would not directly walk through and interfere with the proceedings at the Forum. The
Macellum was made up of a large arcaded courtyard and was surrounded by a series of small shops.
In the centre of the courtyard was a large covered market area (a tholos) and it contained a pool for
live fish. The main activities that would have taken place here were the cleaning, filleting and selling
of fish as well as the making of garum and the sale of a variety of meats such as lamb, beef, veal,
pork and poultry. Other activities that would have taken place here would have been the eating of
sacrificial banquets, the auction of products and the exchange of money.
The market on the other side of the forum was much smaller and served as a market for the sale of
dried cereals and pulses (olitorium) to both individuals and bakeries.
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Archaeologists have found Indices Nundinarii (market calendars) which reveal that market days were
held in Pompeii on every Saturday. At these market days, peddlers and local farmers would have set
up temporary stalls from which to sell their products.
Research
Coinage was a very important part of the Pompeian and Herculaneum economies as they were
highly commercial towns and hence needed large amounts of currency. Due to the wide variety of
different products and prices bought by citizens, Campanian towns had six different types of coins
each worth different values in order to pay for different products. The coins used, in order from least
expensive to most expensive, were quadrans, asses, dupondii, sestertii, denarii and aureus. Because
most Pompeian and Herculaneum shops were ‘market style’ establishments, barter was a key
characteristic of nearly all purchases. Pompeii was also renowned for its large amount of commercial
transactions, most of which were run through the Basilica. These commercial transactions also
featured large amounts of bartering and haggling as both parties tried to secure the best possible
deal for themselves. As found inscribed onto a wall in Pompeii, “Profit is joy”.
Fishing was another important part of the towns’ economies due to their close proximity to the
Campanian coastline. Although unprocessed fish was sold to citizens of both towns, mainly in
markets, the most popular use for fish was the manufacture of Garum (fish sauce), which was a vital
ingredient in ancient Roman cooking. Garum became a major part of Pompeii’s exports and over
time the town became renowned for its garum. As stated by Pliny, “no other liquid apart from
unguents has come to be more highly valued”. Because of the high profit in garum exporting, fishing
in both towns became a large part of the economy and was a highly profitable profession.
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Part 4 - Social Structure
Role of Eumachia
Although born female into a humble family, Eumachia is remembered as one of the most prominent
figures of Pompeii and is a testament to the social mobility that was possible at Pompeii. Originally
born into a relatively unknown family, Eumachia inherited a small fortune from her father Lucius
Eumachius who became wealthy through his manufacturing of bricks. She used this new found
wealth to marry a successful vintner and hence became a part of one of Pompeii’s oldest families,
the Numistrii Frontones.
Using her high social status, Eumachia was able to attain the position of a public priestess to the Cult
of Venus (the patron goddess of Pompeii) and the patroness of the Fuller’s guild (one of Pompeii’s
most significant industries). Eumachia, with the help of her son Marcus Numistrius Fronto, also
funded the construction of an impressive building next to the forum, assumedly to be used as the
headquarters for the Fuller’s guild. An inscription uncovered on the side door of the building leading
out onto the Street of Abundance reads, “Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, a public priestess, in her
own name, and in the name of her son, Murcus Numistrius Fronto, made the chalcidicum, the crypta
and the porticus with her own money and dedicated the same to Concordia Augusta and to Pietas.”
Because of her kind deeds, Eumachia was held in very high regard by the people of Pompeii, a fact
which was emphasized through the discovery of a grand statue of Eumachia. Found at the rear
ambulatory of her building, the statue depicts Eumachia in the veiled form of a priestess and
features an inscription that roughly translates to “Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess of
Pompeian Venus”. The statue is a fantastic visual representation of the role that Eumachia played in
Pompeii and the social mobility she was able to achieve”.
Discussion
Whilst social division wasn’t as extreme as at many other Roman towns, it still occurred at Pompeii
with different classes living very different day-to-day lives. Pompeii’s population was divided into
three very broad categories, slaves, freed slaves and freeborn, with different social hierarchies
occurring in each of these categories.
The everyday lives of slaves would have been the worse and they were treated with no respect and
had no control over their own lives; their only purpose was to serve their masters. (More detail
about the treatment of slaves in the next section).
The next social category was freed slaves and was comprised of former slaves who had been able to
achieve manumission either through the accumulation of enough wealth or the approval of their
masters. The number of freed slaves appeared to grow rapidly in the 1st century AD, with many of
them becoming wealthy and influential. The majority of freed slaves entered the professions of
crafts, trade and commerce and hence would have dominated their everyday lives. Many freed
slaves also ended up spending their lives running the small shops, workshops, bars and taverns that
were built into many of the rich citizens’ houses.
The highest social category was freeborn and the everyday lives of people in this category would
have been the greatest. Like the majority of freed slaves, many freeborns were engaged in some
form of commerce. As stated by historian Michael Grant, “commerce served as a leveller in
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society3”. The higher classes of freedmen had a network of social ties and relationships, the most
important of which was the patron/client relationship. In this relationship a client was supported
politically, socially, economically and legally by a patron, in return for political support.
The discrepancies between the rich and the poor freedmen were greater in some aspects of life than
others. The public baths for example had no form of class system, with the rich and the poor sharing
the facilities together, whilst the theatre had a rigid class system, where the seating was divided into
different sections for different social classes.
In the last few years of Pompeii, the boundaries between the different social classes seemed to
loosen, allow for easier social mobility and movement.
Research
Although often overlooked, slavery was a large part of Pompeian and Herculaneum society and
slaves, although they wouldn’t have known it, played a big role in the two towns. Evidence found in
both towns has revealed the many different types of slaves that existed and this in turn shows the
heavy reliance on slaves in nearly all parts of Pompeian and Herculaneum life. The major categories
of slave were; domestic (urban) slaves, agricultural slaves, public slaves, business slaves and religious
slaves (though only in certain religions). Various pieces of evidence found at Pompeii and
Herculaneum show that the treatment of slaves varied greatly within each category. Excavations in
Pompeii have revealed that some rural villas and wine/oil presses had relatively nice living quarters
for slaves and yet excavators also found a agricultural slave chained by both legs at the Villa of the
Mosaic , showing that no one had bothered to release him at the time of the eruption. The only
slaves that appeared to have been treated fairly on the whole are those in the business category, as
they were the smartest of the slaves. Tablets found at Murecine just outside Pompeii depict records
that were written through the collaboration of a slave and his master, showing the close relationship
that was necessary between a business slave and his master.
Social hierarchy also existed within slave groups, with educated male slaves being the most
privileged. If a slave reached a high enough social position, they could afford for themselves to be
manumitted (or alternatively manumitted by their masters). Manumitted slaves were able to
assume their masters named and they became known as a freedman or libertinus. A libertinus was
completely free, however many liked to retain a link with their former master in a relationship of
gratitude and loyalty. Many freedmen went on to become successful business owners in Pompeii
and Herculaneum.
3 Grant. M (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press.
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Part 5 – Political Life
Main Features of the Constitution
Because both Pompeii and Herculaneum were under Roman influence, their basic laws were heavily
influenced by the main features of the Roman system of government and its constitution. The major
political features of Pompeii and Herculaneum were:
Voting – although voting was considered to be a major part of Pompeian and Herculaneum
society, only freeborn male citizens over the age of 25 could be a part of the people’s
assembly vote. Women and freedmen were not allowed to be a part of the assembly and
hence were not allowed to vote (although women were allowed to support political
candidates)
Elections - Elections for the various councils were held in March each year, with the
representatives beginning their year long term in July
Census – A census was held every five years and presided over by the two elected
Quinquennales
Odro Decurionum – There was a council known as the Decurion Council or Odro Decurionum
(the senate) made up of 100 magistrates from the wealthy classes, the most distinguished
citizens. They controlled public finances, construction and religion.
Decurions – Four officials were elected to run the town. Two of them were senior
magistrates (duumvi) and presided over elections, were in charge of finance and the law and
represented the Decurion council. The other two officials were junior magistrates (Aediles)
and managed the basic running of the towns (looked after public buildings, water supply,
sanitation, street markets etc)
These political features of the towns are identical to the features of the Roman constitution detailed
in Polybius’ The Histories (under the section The Constitution of the Mid Republic), which shows that
the legal systems of both towns were based almost entirely on the Roman constitution.
Discussion
All of the primary sources documenting political life reveal the great role that politics played in
Pompeian and Herculaneum society and the high regard in which it was held. Because of this great
importance and value placed on politics, the senate became one of the key parts of Pompeian and
Herculaneum politics as it was the political council of the town, the one and only body that acted for
and on behalf of the town. This great importance of the senate meant that its 100 members must
truly be the most distinguished and worthy citizens in the town.
Although not considered to be the lowest of people, certain professions such as actors, gladiators
and innkeepers were viewed as inferior compared to the wealthy members of society, they were
viewed as inferior. Actors and gladiators were viewed as simply being cheap entertainers, people
who worked to provide the rich with entertainment. They had a lack of public honour, they were
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infamia4. Likewise innkeepers were viewed as inferior members of society who worked simply to
provide comfort for wealthy members of society.
Public statues uncovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum provide insight into the types of people that
were highly regarded and coveted in these ancient societies. The majority of statues found were of
religious figures such as the statues of Apollo in the Temple of Apollo, however archaeologists have
also uncovered statues of great emperors, political leaders and other high class figures. The best
example of this can be found in the Herculaneum Basilica, where archaeologists found grand statues
of Augustus and Claudius as well as other members of the imperial family such as Livia, Antonia
(mother of Claudius), Flavia and Domitia Longina (Empress and wife of Domitian). Another notable
statue in Herculaneum is that of politician Marcus Nonius Balbus. The inscription under the statue
reads “To Marcus Nonius Balbus, praetor, proconsul, patron, from the entire Council of the people
of Herculaneum in recognition of his merits”. These statues show that the citizens of both towns
viewed great politicians and leaders in the same regard as religious figures. This idea is further
supported by the Imperial Cult, a religion entirely built around worshipping the ‘genius of the
Emperor’.
Actors, gladiators and innkeepers were infamia, never seen in such high regard as these political
figures and hence weren’t considered worthy to represent the town at the Senate, as they were not
seen as being a part of the 100 most distinguished citizens in the town. Their status as infamia
excluded not only from Senate membership but also many of the other legal benefits of being a
Roman citizen.
Research
As outlined above, politics played a huge role in Pompeian and Herculaneum life and because of this
there a huge number of primary sources found at Pompeii and Herculaneum that document political
life. The most revealing of these sources however are graffito and frescoes as they provide a more
personal insight into political life in the towns.
Running for candidacy was a major part of political life in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and political
propaganda was a big part of an electoral campaign. In Pompeii alone, archaeologists have found
more than three thousand electoral inscriptions, most of which are dated from the final year of
Pompeii meaning that old inscriptions were constantly erased and replaced with new ones. All of
these inscriptions are propaganda messages, urging Pompeii’s citizens to vote for a particular
candidate. The inscriptions are written in variety of different ways, some from a personal
perspective; “I ask you to elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He gets good bread” and “I ask you elect
Epidius Sabinus…he is worthy” and others from groups of people; “The worshippers of Isis
unanimously urge the election of Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus” “The petty visitors thieves support Vatia”.
Some of the inscriptions also seem to make a mockery of all the propaganda, suggesting that not all
citizens supported the great emphasis placed on electoral campaigns, for example “I wonder, O,
wall, that you have not fallen in ruins from supporting the stupidities of so many scribblers”.
Although historians cannot be entirely sure, many frescoes that have been uncovered also appear to
be electoral propaganda. Many of the frescoes appear to depict politicians in the act of performing
good deeds or socializing with everyday citizens of Pompeii. One fresco found in a bakery seems to
4 Hallet. J & Skinner. M (1997). Roman Sexualities
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depict a politician giving bread to average citizens. This could very likely be the politician Gaius
Polybius who was mentioned above as getting “good bread”.
Although a very different primary source to graffito and frescoes, the public buildings in Pompeii and
Herculaneum can also be used to document political life. The immense size and intricacy of the Fora
in both towns, as well as their positioning in the ‘social centres’ of both towns further emphasize the
great extent to which political life permeated Pompeian and Herculaneum life.
Another primary source used to document political life are the grand statues of politicians and
leaders found in both towns. As outlined in the previous section, the uncovering of public statues of
politicians mixed in with statues of religious figures show the high regard in which politicians were
viewed by the general public.
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Part 6 – Everyday Life and Leisure Activities
Research
Spectacle was a great part of Pompeian society and as a result of this Pompeii was renowned for its
gladiatorial shows, so much that they attracted great publicity and had very high attendance rates by
not only Pompeian citizens but also citizens from neighboring towns. Tensions in the Campania
region were high however after the Social War (91-88BC) and as a result of this brawls and riots
often broke out at big events. The biggest riot to occur in the amphitheatre took place in 59AD
between Pompeian and Nucerian citizens and this prompted Emperor Nero to close it for ten years.
The best source of information on the closing of the amphitheatre comes from Tacitus’s Annals, a
secondary source, in which he states “About this time [AD 59] there was a serious fight between the
inhabitants of two Roman settlements, Nuceria and Pompeii. It arose out of a trifling incident at a
gladiatorial show....During an exchange of taunts—characteristic of these disorderly country
towns—abuse led to stone-throwing, and then swords were drawn. The people of Pompeii, where
the show was held, came off best. Many wounded and mutilated Nucerians were taken to the
capital. Many bereavements, too, were suffered by parents and children. The emperor instructed
the senate to investigate the affair. The senate passed it to the consuls. When they reported back,
the senate debarred Pompeii from holding any similar gathering for ten years. Illegal associations in
the town were dissolved; and the sponsor of the show and his fellow-instigators of the disorders
were exiled."
The riot was celebrated by many Pompeian citizens as a sign of strength and power and used it to
assert their town’s dominance. A piece of graffiti bragging about the riot was found in the House of
the Dioscuri and reads “Campanians, you perished with the Nucerians in our victory”
Types of Sport and Entertainment
The main types of sport available to the citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum were; the various
different ‘Ludi’ games held in the palaestra (for example the Ludi Iuventus – Youth Games), athletics,
swimming, wrestling, javelin, discuss throwing, gladiatorial contests, wild animal hunts and circus
games (the most popular being chariot racing). The importance of sport to the citizens of Pompeii
and Herculaneum is emphasizes through the enormous size of the main palaestras in both towns, as
well as the discovery of various bronze statues of athletes with physically impressive bodies.
The main types of entertainment apart from watching many of the sports mentioned above were;
theatrical performances such as traditional dramas, oscan farces, mimes and pantomimes, public
executions and the recreation of sea battles. The grand size and design of the Pompeian and
Herculanuem amphitheatres and theatres are greatly indicative of the large emphasis placed on
entertainment by the citizens of both towns. As mentioned above, the entertainment in Pompeii
was so spectacular that residents from neighboring towns travelled to Pompeii to watch.
Public Baths in Pompeii
Bathing was a popular activity in Pompeii as they were an enjoyable social activity as well as an
“opportunity to satisfy not only the well-being of the body, but also of the spirit”5. Four bath
complexes (thermae) have been uncovered at Pompeii so far: The Stabian Baths, the Forum Baths,
5 Grant. M (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press.
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the Central Baths and the Sarno Baths. Males and females bathed separately either in different
sections or at different times of the day if there was no room for the latter. Excavations of the
thermae at Pompeii have revealed that all four were made up of the following elements; a vestibule
(exercise yard), an apodyterium (changing and waiting room), a frigidarium (room with a circular
cold bath), tepidarium (warm room), a laconicum (sweating room) and a caldarium (hot room with a
rectangular heated bath and a large circular basin).
As well as simply taking a bath, visitors to the thermae could engage in sport and other physical
exercise, listen to musical and poetic performances, arrange business deals, and visit the attached
gardens and libraries. Some historians such as Michael Grant also believe that sexual activities took
place at the baths, despite the attempted gender segregation, and they cite graffiti such as “*the
masseur is+ accused of taking liberties with women+” and “pimps and prostitutes began to make a
nuisance of themselves” as evidence.
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Part 7 – Public Buildings
List of Temples
The main temples in Pompeii, along with their significant features are:
Temple of Apollo – Located on the western side of the forum, frequently remodeled, stands
on a high podium
Temple of Venus – Located behind the Basilica and near the Marine Gate, built twice and
destroyed twice, in the process of its third reconstruction in 79AD
Doric Temple – located in the southern part of the Triangular Forum, reconstructed several
times during Samnite Period but abandoned during Roman Age, foundation built up in a
series of broad, high steps
Temple of Vespasian /Sanctuary of the Genius of Augustus - Located on the eastern side of
the Forum, in the process of being rebuilt in 79AD,magnificent marble altar
Temple of Isis – Entrance located on the southern side of the Via del Tempio d’lside, built in
2nd century BC, reconstruction after earthquake financed by freedman Numerius Popidius
Ampliatus after his son Celsinus
Temple of Fortuna Augusta – Located at the corner of the Via del Foro and Via della Fortuna,
built by duumvir Marcus Tullius and dedicated to Fortuna Augusta, had no portico
(assumedly destroyed in earthquake and not replaced)
Temple of the Lares Publici – Located on the eastern side of the forum, argument over when
it was built, large open and central court
Temple of Asclepius/Temple of Jupiter Meilichius- Located at the junction of the Via del
Tempio di Iside and the Via Stabina, built 2nd century BC, impressive tufa altar in centre of
courtyard
Temple of Jupiter – Located on and forms a major part of the northern side of the Forum,
built in a prostyle form, large podium 37x17m standing 3m high built in opus incertum style,
The only two possible temples in Herculaneum are located in the Sacred Area, a large area built over
vaulted boat houses and located to the west of the Terrace of M.Nonius Balbus. The two temples
and their significant features are:
Temple dedicated to Venus – Located towards the centre of the Sacred Area, complete
restoration after earthquake, cella raised on a podium and fronted by a pronaos
Temple dedicated to Vulcan, Neptune, Mercury and Minerva – Located towards the left
hand end of the Sacred Area, complete restoration after earthquake, also had its cella raised
on a podium and fronted by a pronaous
Other building remains (possibly temples) found in Sacred Area, purpose not yet determined
Research
Although technically Pompeii and Herculaneum were Roman towns, they were both greatly
influenced by Egyptian culture and especially Greek culture. Whilst Greek influence can be found in
many different parts of Pompeian and Herculaneum society, the biggest influences can be found in
the public buildings of the towns. All of the public buildings are at least partially built in Greek
architectural styles and contained Greek decorations such as frescoes and statues as well as
traditional Roman decorations.
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The biggest Greek architectural influence found in the public buildings at Pompeii and Herculaneum
is the use of the Greek architectural orders – Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. All of the public buildings in
Pompeii and Herculaneum are built using columns with the characteristics of at least one of these
orders and some, such as Pompeii’s basilica, are built using the columns from all three of these
orders. Some of the other main examples of the different styles are the plain Doric columns used in
Pompeii’s Forum and the 28 Corinthian columns surrounding the Temple of Apollo.
The theatres in Pompeii and Herculaneum also represent the strong Greek influence in the towns, as
theatres were a key part of all Greek cities. Although the building date of Herculaneum’s theatre is
unknown, archaeologists believe Pompeii’s large theatre was originally built in the 2nd century BC in
a Hellenistic style6, meaning that it was of Greek origin. At this point in time, theatres weren’t yet a
large part of Roman culture, and few large fixed theatres (with the exception of Pompey’s Theatre)
existed in purely Roman towns. Pompeii’s theatre was remodeled in 65AD and remade into the
Greco-Roman style of theatre, suggesting that this could have been when theatres started to
become much more prominent in Roman culture.
Many of the decorations in Pompeii and Herculanuem’s public buildings were also very Greek in
style, further depicting the great influence of Greek culture in both towns. According to Pliny the
Elder, the mosaics and frescoes found the walls of Pompeian houses were simply imitations of
famous works by Greek artists.
Discussion
Fora played a huge role in Roman life and formed a big part of Roman society as they were “the
heart of commercial and political activities”7. Fora represented a marriage of two of the key
elements of Roman society, commerce/business and politics. Most Fora also had a Temple of Jupiter
located in its northern end (along with other smaller temples), meaning that the forum contained
the three key elements of Roman society- commerce/business, politics and religion, truly making it
the centre of Roman life. In his architectural treatise, Greek writer Vitruvius emphasises the great
importance of Fora to Roman towns when he describes in detail how they must be constructed and
how they should operate in all Roman towns; “The width must be two thirds of the length, the shape
thus being rectangular… *the transactions must be held+ under the porticos *using+ money-changers’
*stalls+…. *the overall size must be] proportionate to the size of the population, otherwise there will
be a shortage of space, or the forum, too scantily filled, will look empty”. This overly detailed
superlative description shows the importance of a forum in Roman life, as its construction and
operation had to almost perfectly follow this template.
The Forum in Pompeii was surrounded by the Municipal Offices, the Basilica, the Temple of Apollo,
the Temple of Jupiter, the Macellum, the Temple of the Lares Publici, the Temple of Vespasian, the
Building of Eumachia and the Comitium. This cluster of buildings means that on any day, the Forum
would be bustling with activity from shopkeepers, stall-holders, merchants, money changers,
customers, teachers and students, religious followers and anyone else who just wanted to pay a visit
to the town centre. 8
6 Chambers, M. et al. (1991). The Western Experience Volume I To 1715, Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
7 Grant. M (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press.
8 Paraphrased Grant. M (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press.
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Part 8 – Religion
Main Gods
Egyptian
o Ra
o Hathor
o Sekhmet
o Nut
o Geb
o Osiris
o Seth
o Horus
o Isis
o Anubis
o Ma’at
o Amun
o Bastet
Greek
o Zeus
o Hera
o Poseidon
o Hades
o Hestia
o Aphrodite
o Demeter
o Apollo
o Artemis
o Ares
o Athena
o Hermes
Roman
o Apollo
o Ceres
o Diana
o Juno
o Jupiter
o Mars
o Mercury
o Minerva
o Neptune
o Venus
o Vesta
o Vulcan
Discussion
Religion was of great importance in ancient Roman towns, as the Romans believed all aspects of life
were controlled by the gods. Pompeii and Herculaneum were no different and the citizens of both
towns prayed, gave offerings and made sacrifices in their various temples to win the favour of the
gods and avert disasters. Worship was a crucial aspect of life for both towns and hence the citizens
placed a great emphasis on the three main forms of religion – State/public religion, household
religion and foreign cults.
State religion was very much a political affair, as priestly offices were political positions and each
citizen had a “political duty to scrupulously carry out the correct rituals to the gods (sacrifice and
prayer) to ensure prosperity, good luck and protection for the state and its people”9. This integration
of religion into politics demonstrates the great emphasis placed on it. The major gods worshipped
under state religion were The Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva), Hercules, Apollo, Venus
and ‘the genius of the emperor’. Public ritual was a big part of state religion, with sacrificiums
(offering of animals to gods) being carried out by flamens (specific priests) and Augustales on a
regular basis. This heavy integration of state religion into social and political life clearly conveys the
great emphasise placed on religion by the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Household religion or private worship also played a large role in the societies of both towns, with the
worship of the lares (protectors of the household), penates (protectors of the stores) and ‘genius of
the paterfamilias’ (generating force’ occurring in nearly all houses and stores in both towns. Cicero
outlined the significance of religion in the home when he said, “The most sacred, the most hallowed
place on earth is the home of each and every citizen. There are his sacred hearth and his household
9 Grant. M (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix Press.
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gods, there the very centre of his worship, religion and domestic ritual10”. This large role of religion
in the household further shows the great importance of religion.
The final form of religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum was the existence of foreign cults. The huge
number of foreign cults adopted in both towns, the most notable of which are the Cult of Isis and
the cult of Dionysus/Bacchus, is even more evidence of the great emphasis placed on religion in
Pompeii.
Research
The major aspect of Pompeian life revealed by its tombs is the great importance that was placed on
life. The tombs were a constant reminder of the brevity of life and urged the people to make the
most of what they had whilst they could. Although there were large amounts of graffiti and other
written texts that emphasised the shortness of life, for example “Man’s life, alas is but a span, so let
us live while we can”11, nothing sent as strong a message as the tombs the lined the streets leading
into Pompeii. The tombs were perfect examples of the unavoidable reality of death.
The tombs also emphasise another key aspect of Pompeian life, the great importance placed on
social class and wealth. Even after death these elements of Pompeian life were still greatly valued.
The detail of each tomb varied from person to person and was a great example of the wealth and
social status that had been able to obtain in life. According to historian Michael Grant, tombs varied
“from the plainest enclosure made of brick, to the most elaborate monument with sculptural
decoration”. The most impressive tombs constantly reminded passers-by of the achievements of
social status of the deceased. The tomb of famous Garum maker Umbricius Scarus for example was
designed with a “public games” theme to constantly remind people of his great sponsorship of the
games.
10
Cicero, De Domo Sua 41, 109 11
A speech from Petronius’ Satyricon
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Glossary of Terms Pumice A light and porous volcanic rock formed by the solidification of frothy lava Lapilli Small and solidified fragments of lava ejected from a volcano Mosaics Pictures or patterns created by the arrangement of small coloured pieces of
material Frescoes Paintings completed on wet plaster on walls or ceilings Fora The centre of political, economic, social, civic and religious life. Hellenistic Relating to a period of Ancient Greek society between the death of Alexander
the Great in 323BC and the takeover of the classical Greek heartlands by Rome in 146BC
Insulae Town blocks in Fiorelli’s grid system Garum A fermented fish sauce condiment that was widely manufactured in Pompeii
and essential in Ancient Roman cooking Fullers Clothmakers, dyers and clothing traders Patronus A protector, sponsor and benefactor of a client (patron/client relationship) Paterfamilias The male head of a household Salutatio The demonstration of a client’s loyalty to his patron Goldsmiths Metal workers who specialised in gold and other precious Municipium Roman towns Comitium The people’s assembly Duumvir Senior magistrates, presided over elections, carried out decrees of the Decurion
council and in charge of justice and finance Aediles Junior officials of the Decurion, in charge of managing the day-to-
day running of the town, the upkeep of public buildings, water supply, sanitation, street markets and maintaining general order
Decuriones Four officials elected to run the town Thermopolium A hot food bar Gustatio First light dishes served at a banquet Fercula Main three or four dishes served with wine at a banquet Mensae Secundae
Last dish, dessert, served at a banquet
Retarius Bareheaded gladiator who carried a fisherman’s trident, a dagger and a net Palaestra Large sporting area Cella Central room of a temple where the image of the deity was placed Cavea Different seating sections in a theatre or ampitheatre Scena Stage in a theatre for actors to perform on Lararium A small household shrine Augustales Order of 21 part-time priests to supervise and maintain the Imperial Cult Necropolis A large graveyard
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Map of Campania
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Plan of Pompeii
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