Pompeii and Herculaneum - Pearson - Home

HeinemannAncient and Medieval History

Pompeii and Herculaneum

Louise Zarmati

hi.com.au/ancient

III

ContentsIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

Outcomes and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

Chapter 1 Geographical setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2 A brief history of Pompeii and Herculaneum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Chapter 3 Written sources for the 79 AD eruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Chapter 4 Scientific analysis of the 79 AD eruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Chapter 5 Discovery and early excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Chapter 6 Australian researchers at Pompeii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Chapter 7 Evidence of life and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

Chapter 8 Public spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Chapter 9 Private houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

Chapter 10 Aspects of social life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

Chapter 11 Ancient wonders: modern problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and HerculaneumIV

IntroductionPompeii and Herculaneum is a part of the Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History series and was written to address therequirements of the new Core Study in the 2004 New South Wales Ancient History syllabus. The topic is alsorelevant to the new Ancient History syllabus in Queensland.

To the student

• Each chapter begins with a summary of the content covered, followed by a list of key terms and conceptsintroduced within the chapter. Definitions are placed close to relevant text so that you can quickly absorbthem and apply your understanding to the context of the general discussion. References to selected websitesat hi.com will lead you to further investigations.

• ‘Review and revise’ questions at key places in the text will help you compile factual answers in your notes,which will help with revision for examinations.

• Critical inquiry questions and activities are designed to lead you into an examination of historical evidencethat produces conflicting, and sometimes controversial, interpretations of the past. You are invited toexamine the evidence and evaluate your findings. You will also be prompted to make judgements aboutwhich source is the most reliable, as well as develop your own theories and interpretations.

• ‘Dig deeper’ activities at the end of the chapter consolidate your learning and challenge you to evaluateinformation and apply your knowledge to wider contexts.

• Further reading and general references invite you to undertake additional research on current issues relatingto Pompeii and Herculaneum that appear in the media, books and journals and on the Internet. A summaryof the knowledge and skills addressed is provided at the end of each chapter.

• Additional classroom activities and quizzes can be found on the companion CD-ROM.

The German literary genius Goethe wrote: ‘Many a calamity has happened in the world, but never one thathas caused so much entertainment to posterity as this one.’ May this book entertain, as well as educate.

Louise ZarmatiSydney 2005

V

Outcomes and objectivesNew South WalesThe following Knowledge and Skills Outcomes specific to the Core Study of the Ancient History Stage 6syllabus are provided at the end of each chapter. The Principal Focus of the Core Study is for students to‘investigate the range and nature of archaeological and written sources available for the study of the cities ofPompeii and Herculaneum through an exploration of issues relating to reconstruction, ownership andcustodianship of the past.’

H1.1 describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context

H2.1 explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient world

H3.1 locate, select and organise relevant information from a variety of sourcesH3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the pastH3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliabilityH3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the pastH3.6 plan and present the findings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising information from

a range of sourcesH4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriatelyH4.2 communicate knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using appropriate oral and

written formsBoard of Studies NSW Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus 2004, p. 11.

NSW syllabus topics covered in this book:Chapter/s

stages of occupation 2brief historical overview up to and including the eruption of 79 AD 2early discoveries and brief history of the excavations 5representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time 5physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii 1and Herculaneum plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum 8range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers 3limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10eruption 4economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations 9, 10social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves 9, 10local political life 8everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing 9, 10health 7, 8baths, water supply and sanitation 8, 9public buildings: basilicas, temples, forums, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres 8private buildings: villas, houses, shops 9influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion 10religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs 10changing methods and contributions of nineteenth-, twentieth- and twenty-first-century 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneumchanging interpretations: impact of new research and technologies 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and 11responsibilities, impact of tourismethical issues: study and display of human remains 11

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and HerculaneumVI

QueenslandThe following Themes of the Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Senior Syllabus are addressed in each of the 11 chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Themes

1 Studies of archaeology4 Studies of the everyday lives of people in ancient societies7 Studies of religion8 Studies of the arts

10 Studies of technologies, innovations and inventions22 School-based theme – Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum

General objectivesPlanning and using a historical research process• identify issues or problems for investigation• locate and use a variety of primary and secondary sources• maintain a coherent record of research

Forming historical knowledge through critical inquiry• understand the explicit content of sources• understand the nature of historical sources of evidence, assumptions about the problematic character of historical

sources, and the tentative and interpretive qualities of historical knowledge• analyse what is explicit and implicit in a wide variety of sources, including themes, values and interrelationships within

and among sources• evaluate the worth of sources. This will involve students in assessing the reliability, authenticity, representativeness,

relevance and accuracy of the sources and in identifying value positions, perspectives and standpoints in their historic context

• make decisions, i.e. making a judgment about a question or hypothesis, based on the interpretation and analysis and on the evaluation of sources. This will involve students in: • synthesising evidence into a coherent whole• reaching a conclusion or proposing a solution that is consistent with the interpretation and analysis and with the

evaluation of the sources• justifying the conclusion by providing sound reasoning and logical argument in support

• demonstrate an attitude of reflection on and revision of judgments made.

Communicating historical knowledgeUsing both written and non-written communication:

• recalling significant information, defining and describing key concepts, events, development and people• providing explanations of and justifications for the finding/results of research, including the problematic nature of

historical sources, the interpretive nature of historical inquiry and the tentative nature of historical judgment• producing written and non-written responses in a variety of genres • incorporate accurate definitions, abstractions and concepts, and relationships between key concepts, events and historic

developments• substantiate claims by reference to sources of evidence.

Adapted from Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus, 2004, pp. 7–8.

Chapter 1

Geographical setting

Chapter focus

Terms/Concepts

basilica page 8cardines page 8collegium page 10fullones page 10fullonicae page 10garum page 9lararium page 7lares page 7topography page 2via page 4

Pompeii and Herculaneum were once thriving citiesin southern Italy until they were destroyed by theeruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The eruptionhad a devastating effect upon the economy, societyand topography of the surrounding area, destroyingtowns, villages, villas and farms. The landscape,including the coastline and the course of the SarnusRiver, was changed dramatically.

In this chapter you will examine the geographicalsetting of Pompeii and Herculaneum in order tounderstand their environments before the eruption.You will look at the resources of the Vesuvius areato understand why the area was occupied for sucha long time. You will also assess the impact of thiskey historical event on the geography and economyof the region.

Important dates

c.15 000 BC Vesuvius forms in collapsed cone ofMount Somma.

1800 BC ‘Avellino pumice’ eruption destroysvillages around Nola.

700s BC Oscans establish a village atHerculaneum.

500s BC Greeks settle around the Bay ofNaples and establish trading posts atHerculaneum and Pompeii. Etruscansarrive and compete with Greeks for control.

474 BC Greeks defeat Etruscans at navalbattle of Cumae.

424 BC Samnites move from the mountainsto the coast and become thedominant ethnic group.

79 AD First recorded eruption of Vesuvius.

Focus questions

1 What was the Vesuvius area like before theeruption?

2 Who were the early settlers?3 What were the main geographical features and

resources?4 What do sources reveal about changes over time

to the Vesuvius area?

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum2

The writer Statius was about 34 years old whenMount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD and may havewitnessed the eruption. The landscape was alreadyunrecognisable when he wrote, ‘Will futuregenerations believe, when crops and these nowdeserted places once more thrive again, that cities and peoples are buried below and that ancestral landshave disappeared, having shared in the same fate? Notyet does the mountain-top cease to threaten death.’(Silvae 4.4.78–85)

During the 79 AD eruption the mouth of the SarnusRiver and the shallow bay to the south were filled inby volcanic deposits, which pushed the coastline ofPompeii outwards by more than one kilometre.

‘Cities and peoples areburied below’Today it is difficult to imagine what the Vesuvius area looked like before the eruption of 79 AD as thetopography of the area has changed substantially. This is the result of the devastation caused by the 79 AD eruption and many others that followed overthe centuries. The Roman historian Tacitus tells us,‘Capri used to look out over a very beautiful bay,before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius changed theregion’s appearance.’ (Annals 4.67)

Tyrrhenian Sea

Adriatic Sea

Ionian Sea

Romeme

CAMPANIAMPANIAANIA

0 200 km

ALYITTAALY

CAMPANIA

MisenummPuteooli

Neapolis

HerculaneuHerculaneum

PompeiieiiStabiaeae

NuceriaNuNu

R Volturnus

R Sarnus

Mt Vesuvius

Bay ofNaples

Figure 1.1

Italy as it is today. Inset: the region of Campania.

topography Surface features of a place or region, such as hills,mountains and rivers.

Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c.56–c.117 AD), Roman historian. Hissurviving works are Life of Agricola, Germania, Histories andAnnals. Tacitus wrote about the eruption of Vesuvius and the deathof Pliny the Elder about 25 years after the event. He wrote to hisfriend, Pliny the Younger, asking for an accurate description ofevents: ‘Thank you for asking me to write to you about my uncle’sdeath, so that you can pass on a more accurate account to futuregenerations.’ See Chapter 3, page 21.

Gaius Plinius Secundus (23–79 AD), known as Pliny the Elder, wasborn in Como, northern Italy, to a noble Roman family. He waseducated in Rome by his father’s friend, the poet and militarycommander, P. Pomponius Secundus, who inspired him with alifelong love of learning. At 23 he began his military career andserved in Germany, rising to the rank of cavalry commander. Of hiswritings only the Natural History survives. At the time of theeruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pliny was commander of the imperialfleet at the naval base of Misenum, one of two Roman naval basesprotecting Italy.

Publius Papinius Statius (c.45–c.96 AD), writer born in Naples. He is best known for his collection of poems called Silvae, meaning‘forests’ or ‘groves’ in Latin.

The formation of Mount VesuviusToday Mount Vesuvius sits inside a much larger andolder eroded cone called Mount Somma; half of which is still visible on Vesuvius’ east side. The oldestdated rock indicates that Mount Somma formed about300 000 years ago. About 17 000 years ago it collapsedand Vesuvius formed in its centre.

Very little information about Pompeii andHerculaneum is recorded before the eruption in 79 AD. Written sources rarely mention the settlements

3Geographical setting

before the time of the emperor Augustus. The ancient writer Strabo was one of the first to realisethat Vesuvius was a volcano. Either he, or his source of information, climbed to the summit andobserved its interior. He incorrectly concluded that it was inactive.

Review and revise

1 Briefly describe what the Vesuvius area lookedlike before the 79 AD eruption.

2 List the ancient historians who were alive whenVesuvius erupted.

3 Explain why the ancient Romans did not knowVesuvius was an active volcano.

Augustus (63 BC–14 AD), Roman emperor from 27 BC, rose to power as Octavian, great-nephew and adopted son of JuliusCaesar. He was named Augustus in 27 BC by the senate inrecognition of his restoration of peace and stability in the Roman Empire (see Figure 2.2).

Strabo of Pontus (c.62 BC–c.24 AD), Greek geographer and historian,wrote Geographia in 17 books.

Vesuvius as it might have been prior to the eruption in 79 AD.

Vesuvius after the eruption in 79 AD.

Vesuvius today showing the two peaks.Mount Somma appears as a crater on the eastern side.

Figure 1.2

Mount Vesuvius has changed much over time.

Figure 1.3

The Campanian coast today looking south towardsStabiae. Over the years the coastline has been pushedwestward into the sea and has increased in height by at least 20 metres in some places.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum4

Early settlements in theVesuvius area

Destruction of Bronze AgesettlementsArchaeological excavation has revealed that acatastrophic eruption preceded that of 79 AD andwiped out the densely populated settlements of theVesuvius area. Evidence of the earlier eruption wasdiscovered during the construction of a shoppingcentre in 2001. Italian archaeologists discovered aBronze Age village near Nola, a few kilometres fromVesuvius. The eruption occurred between 1800 and1750 BC, and is known as the ‘Avellino pumice’. Itdestroyed several settlements. The remains of huts,pots and pans, and even livestock are in a remarkablestate of preservation. By the time the Romans settledin this area, there was no longer any evidence of theseearlier settlements.

Early inhabitantsAccording to legend, Herculaneum was founded by the Greek hero Hercules and took its name from him. This legendary connection to the ancientGreeks has led some scholars to suggest that the areawas first settled by Greek traders during the sixthcentury BC. They either came from Cumae, the firstGreek colony in Italy, or from Parthenope, Cumae’ssub-colony, which later became known as Neapolis(Naples).

It is difficult to say who controlled the settlementsbetween the seventh and early fifth centuries BC, but ancient writers, like Strabo (Geography 5.4.8) and Pliny the Elder (Natural History 3.60–2), tell us the population was a mixture of Greeks, Oscans,Etruscans, Pelasgians and other groups. Etruscanpresence is confirmed by artefacts dating from theseventh to the fifth centuries BC. They were eventuallydefeated by the Greeks at the naval battle of Cumaein 474 BC and from then onwards Pompeii slowlydeclined as a trading port.

Hercules, Roman version of Herakles, was the greatest of all Greekheroes. He was the son of the god Zeus and the mortal Alcmene.Hercules was most famous for his 12 labours, which he had toperform as a punishment for killing his wife and children. He waslater adopted by the Romans who portrayed him as a bearded,middle-aged prize-fighter.

The Oscans were one of various ethnic groups occupying thesouthern part of the Italian peninsula not settled by Greeks. Oscan speakers adopted the Etruscan alphabet around the seventhcentury BC, but the first evidence of the Oscan alphabet did notappear until the fifth century BC in the form of inscriptions on coins.Such inscriptions were found at Pompeii, which indicates that theystill retained their own language, even though they had integratedwith the original locals.

The Etruscans were one of the most important indigenous peopleliving in Italy before the Romans. They occupied the area north andwest of the Tiber River up to the Arnus River. During the seventhcentury BC they expanded south into Campania. They thrived in thisarea during the sixth century BC.

Pelasgians is a name given by Greek writers to an ancient seafaringpeople they thought had lived in various Greek lands.

Influence of the GreeksThe influence of the Greeks is evident in the layout of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Parts of bothwere designed according to the principles of townplanning developed by the Greek architectHippodamos.

Roads and buildings in Pompeii were set into aregular geometric grid. Gates on the north, south, eastand west sides linked the town to nearby towns andports (see Source 6.8 on page 59). There were twomain longitudinal streets;Via dell’Abbondanza (Streetof Abundance) and Via di Nola, crossed at right anglesby Via Stabiana. These street names are not theoriginal ones; all names used today are modern. The Greeks also constructed the Temple of Apollo,near the area that later became the Forum, and ashrine dedicated to Minerva and Hercules in theTriangular Forum.

Hippodamos, a Greek architect of the fifth century BC from Miletusin Asia Minor. He introduced order and regularity into the planningof cities by designing a series of broad, straight streets that cutone another at right angles. He also planned the harbour town ofPiraeus in Athens during the time of Pericles.

Minerva, Roman goddess of handicrafts, was widely revered andregularly identified with the Greek goddess Athena. She was oftenworshipped in the same temples with Jupiter and Juno.

via Latin word for ‘street’.

5Geographical setting

Florus (Epitome 1.16) tells us that the region ofCampania was very beautiful and was famous for its temperate climate (see Source 1.2). The Bay ofNaples was located 220 kilometres south of thecapital, Rome – roughly the same distance betweenSydney and Newcastle. The bay measured 16 kilometres wide and 32 kilometres long. BothPompeii and Herculaneum were linked to Rome bysea and land routes, and Pompeii was an importanttrading post for goods supplied to Rome.

Domination by the SamnitesRegardless of who established and controlled the area in earlier periods, recent excavations show thatby about 475 BC the peaceful situation had changedand there was a renewed threat from the outside:defensive walls were built around Pompeii.

In 424 BC the Samnites swept down from themountains of Campania and settled in the coastaltowns. They appear to have dominated the previousethnic population in all settlements except Neapolis,which remained essentially Greek. They becameknown as the Campani, and the area as Campania.

The presence of the Samnites is evident in the Samnite-style houses in both Pompeii andHerculaneum that were already over 300 years oldwhen the eruption occurred. Inscriptions in osco, thelanguage of the Samnites, were found at both Pompeiiand Herculaneum, and indicate that the language wasstill being spoken and written alongside Latin at thetime of the eruption.

The Samnites were a warlike, Latin people who, like the Romans,occupied central Italy during the fifth century BC. The Romansfought three wars with the Samnites, finally defeating them in 290 BC. The Samnites spoke the Oscan language.

Campania was also known as Campania felix, meaning ‘luckycountry’ in Latin. It refers to the crescent-shaped volcanic plainthat extends from the area between the ancient Volturnus River in the north and the Sorrento peninsula in the south. Today,Campania is a much larger region.

Review and revise

1 List the different groups that inhabited theVesuvius region from the seventh to the fifthcenturies BC.

2 What evidence is there of the influence of theancient Greeks on Pompeii?

3 How do we know that the Samnites became thedominant group in Pompeii?

The Roman author Publius Annius Florus (second century BC)published a brief work on the history of the Roman empire duringthe reign of the emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD).

The Bay of Naples was called Sinus Cumanus in Roman times.

Home away from RomeBy the first century AD the Campanian coast hadbecome a retreat for wealthy Romans, includingemperors, who wished to escape the fast pace of thecapital. Strabo commented that the large number ofvillas lining the coast of the Bay of Naples gave theimpression of one continuous town.

Although Pompeii was politically independent because of its status as a province, it still had a closepolitical relationship with Rome. In the hot summermonths the government of Rome virtually moved tothe Bay of Naples. The weather was probably muchlike it is today; long springs and autumns and briefwinters. Coastal breezes made the summers temperate.The bay was so suited to boat travel and anchoragethat the Roman fleet was stationed at the north of the bay at Misenum.

At the time of the eruption the area around the bay was booming. The coastal plain was well watered and the minerals in the volcanic ash deposits made it one of the most fertile regions of the Italian peninsula. The economy of Pompeii and Herculaneum was primarily based on agricultureand fishing. The waters were full of fish and a varietyof other seafood. Puteoli, located on the north of thebay, was one of the biggest ports of trade in theMediterranean. Much as it is today, it was a beautifulplace to live.The Bay of Naples

What was the area around Vesuvius like before theeruption, and why did so many people choose to livein the shadow of this ‘sleeping giant’?

7Geographical setting

Wall painting in the lararium of the House of the

Centenary, Pompeii. It shows Mount Vesuvius as a classic, cone-shaped mountain. Beside it standsBacchus, covered with grapes, and below him coils a bearded serpent, the ‘good god’ (agathodemone),protector of the household.

Source 1.3

The House of the Centenary was excavated in 1879 and named to commemorate the eighteenth centenary of the destruction ofPompeii. Painted messages on its street front suggest that theowner may have been A. Rustius Verus.

Bacchus is the Roman god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele.

lararium household shrine dedicated to the lares; their imageswere kept and worshipped there.

lares Roman guardian spirits of the house and fields.

Refer to Source 1.2.

1 List five reasons given by Florus to explain whypeople wanted to live in the Vesuvius area.

2 What does Florus mean when he says, ‘Liber andCeres try to outdo one another?’

3 Compare Florus’s description of Mount Vesuviusto Strabo’s in Source 1.1. List aspects mentionedby both writers.

Refer to Source 1.3.

1 What does the position of the wall painting in thelararium of the House of the Centenary tell usabout the importance of Mount Vesuvius to thelives of the owners of the house? Give possiblereasons why the painting was placed there.

2 Explain the presence of the god Bacchus in thewall painting. What does he represent?

3 In which industry might the family of the househave been involved? Support your conclusionwith evidence.

4 Refer to Sources 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. Which productof the region appears in all three sources?

Critical inquiry

Refer to Source 1.1.

1 What did the summit of Mount Vesuvius look likein Strabo’s time? How did it differ in appearanceto the slopes?

2 According to Strabo, why was the soil of theVesuvius region so fertile?

3 How reliable do you consider Strabo’s descriptionof Mount Vesuvius? Support your view withevidence.

Pompeii: trading town on the SarnusPompeii was located about nine kilometres south ofVesuvius on a low hill formed by a volcanic eruptionin prehistoric times. It was only a few days’ journeyfrom Rome by wheeled vehicle and also accessible by boat. By the first century AD it had become a commercial town relying on trade along the Sarnus River and the coastal road between Cumae and Campania. Strabo wrote, ‘Nola, Nuceria andAcherrae have as their port Pompeii on the RiverSarnus, which transports goods in both directions.’(Geography 5.4.8)

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum8

Population estimates Population estimates for Pompeii are difficult as nocensus records have survived – if they were ever taken.Various scholars have calculated the population ofPompeii to be anywhere between 6400 and 30 000,but most agree on a figure of around 20 000. Thecalculations are based on a comment by the ancienthistorian Dio Cassius that when Vesuvius erupted ‘the people were seated in the theatre.’ It is assumedthat by ‘theatre’ he meant ‘amphitheatre’.

This source is not reliable for estimatingpopulation numbers because we know from otherwritten sources that the amphitheatre drew itsaudiences from surrounding towns as well. Likewise,similar methods of calculation have estimated thepopulation of Herculaneum at around 5000, but are equally unreliable.

Early in Herculaneum’s history its waterfront was fortified by a massive wall to protect it frominvaders as well as pounding waves. The wall was later dismantled when it was no longer required for defence, and the luxurious Suburban Baths and the Sacred Area were built on the waterfront.Archaeological evidence uncovered along thewaterfront in the 1980s indicates that the mainindustry of Herculaneum was fishing.

Dio Cassius or Cassius Dio Cocceianus (c.155–c.235 AD) was a Roman historian and senator. His great work was a history of Rome written in Greek covering the earliest times until Dio Cassius’ own period. Only 19 of the original 80 books survive in full.

Herculaneum: seasideresort for the wealthySpectacular viewsBy the first century AD, Herculaneum had become a holiday resort for rich Roman traders from nearbyNeapolis. Located on a hill with waves lapping at itsbase, the broad coastline of Herculaneum overlookedthe Bay of Naples to the west and gave easy access tothe sea. Mount Vesuvius stood about 7 kilometres tothe east. Via Antiniana, the main road connecting themajor cities around the bay, ran nearby. Houses werebuilt on terraces that extended to the edge of the cliffand vaulted passages led from the cardines to thewaterfront. The views from these houses across thebay must have been spectacular.

cardines (s. cardo) Roman surveying term for north–southstreets in a Roman town.

basilica In Roman times, this was a large rectangular buildingused as a meeting place and for the dispensing of justice. It hassince come to refer to Christian churches because they were often built over Roman basilicas and followed the same layout and design.

Figure 1.5

This was the ancient waterfront of Herculaneum. Thehouses to the left would have had a magnificent viewover the Bay of Naples and the beach below. Themodern town of Resina in the background was built on more than 20 metres of volcanic deposit.

The rich and famousWritten and archaeological evidence indicates thatHerculaneum was a desirable town in which to live.Many high-status Romans either had permanent orseasonal residences there. Nonius Balbus, one-timegovernor of Crete and Libya, owned a luxurious housein Herculaneum. Portraits of his whole family were found in the Basilica. Calpurnius Caesonius Piso,father-in-law of Julius Caesar, owned the Villa of thePapyri on the northern outskirts of town.

The emperor Tiberius may have owned a large villa near Herculaneum and the emperor Titus mayalso have visited Herculaneum shortly before theeruption. It is likely that his physician Apollinaris hadrecently been in the so-called ‘House of the Stags’,because a scribbled message on the wall of the toiletreads: Apollinaris medicus Titi imperatoris hic cacavavit bene[Apollinaris, physician of the emperor Titus, hereshitted well].

9Geographical setting

The Roman writer Suetonius says that Titus was so affected by the enormous loss of life and propertyduring the eruption that he ‘selected by lot somesenators of consular rank to regenerate Campania, and allocated the property of those who had died in the eruption and who had no surviving heirs to the renewal of the afflicted towns.’ (Titus 8.3)

Resources and produceof the areaApart from the mild climate and magnificent views,the Bay of Naples area was rich in the typical productsof a Mediterranean culture – olive oil, wine, and fish.Written and archaeological sources from Pompeii andHerculaneum show that significant numbers of peoplefrom these towns were involved in these and otherlocal industries.

Olive oil productionAt Pompeii there is evidence of a substantial olive oil industry. Oil presses for extracting oil from green olives were found in houses in Pompeii andHerculaneum, as well as in villas located in the fieldsaround Mount Vesuvius.

The whole Campanian region was also famous inantiquity for its perfume, the basic ingredient of whichwas olive oil. This would imply that an abundance offlowers were grown in the area and is supported by

Titus Flavius Vespasianus (39–81 AD) was a Roman general whobecame emperor shortly before the eruption in 79 AD on the death of his father, Vespasian.

Gaius SuetoniusTranquillus (c.69– c.160 AD) was a close friend ofPliny the Younger. He practised law for a short time and becamechief secretary to Roman emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD). His best-known biographical work is The Twelve Caesars.

Review and revise

1 What are the population estimates for Pompeiiand Herculaneum?

2 How reliable are these estimates? Explain why.3 In what way does the geographical position of

Pompeii differ from that of Herculaneum?

Florus’s comment in Source 1.2 that, ‘Spring comeswith its flowers twice a year.’

Wine productionIn ancient times Vesuvius was viewed as one largevineyard. The Campanian region was famous for its wine, which was exported to Rome, southernFrance, Spain and North Africa. The wine was knownfor its potency rather than its flavour. Pliny the Elderwrote that, ‘it has been observed that Pompeian winesare rather dangerous as they may cause a headachewhich lasts till noon on the following day’, (NaturalHistory XIV 70). Wine presses and fermentation roomswere found in the ruins of ancient houses in theVesuvius area.

Figure 1.6

Reconstructed wine-press found in the Villa of theMysteries, Pompeii.

Fishing industryFishing was an important industry in the area. Pompeii was famous for its strongly-flavoured fishsauce garum, an essential ingredient for many Romanrecipes. Archaeologists from the Anglo-AmericanProject in Pompeii recently discovered a housecontaining several possible fish tanks. In the residue of one of the tanks they found an intact fish skeleton,about the size of a sardine.

garum Fish sauce produced by taking the guts of the fish,soaking them in salt and draining off the rotten liquid.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum10

The find is important because, although hundredsof ancient fish bones have been found in theexcavations, it is the first intact fish to be discoveredin Pompeii and may support the theory that fish wereleft to rot in these tanks to make sauce. Tests are beingcarried out on the fish skeleton by Dr Andrew Jones,lecturer in archaeological sciences, in order to test thetheory. A large volume of fishing nets, hooks andother fishing gear were also found at Herculaneum.

Wool and textilesWool and textile production was another importantindustry of the Vesuvius area. Archaeological andwritten evidence shows that Pompeii was a regionalcentre for cloth making and dyeing. A buildingprovided by the priestess Eumachia was theheadquarters of the collegium of fullones, and therewere many fullonicae scattered around the town (see Chapter 10, page 105). Sheep were bred in theVesuvius area and Seneca mentions that a flock of 600 sheep was killed by the earthquake of 62 AD

(Natural Questions VI 3).

collegium Council made up of members of the same trade orindustry. Their aim is to protect the interests of the industry itselfand the members.

fullones Latin for ‘fullers’; washers and dyers of fabrics.

fullonicae (s. fullonica) Roman washing and dyeing workshops.One of the best known is the fullonica of Stephanus in Pompeii(see page 105).

Seneca Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c.4 BC–65 AD), a Romanphilosopher and also Nero’s minister. Best known for hisDialogues, he became interested in the natural world toward theend of his life. His Natural Questions was intended as a scientificencyclopaedia covering all natural phenomena. He describes theearthquake of 62 AD in this work.

Review and revise

1 Draw up a chart like this in your notebooks andfill in the details.

Resource/product Archaeological and/or

written evidence

Olive oil

Perfume

Wine

Fishing

Wool and textiles

Fruit and vegetables

2 Review the focus questions at the beginning ofthis chapter. Write your answers in your notebook.

Dig deeper

Imagine it is the year 60 AD. You are a wealthy Roman,living in a villa in Pompeii or Herculaneum. Write a one-page letter to a friend in Rome encouraging him or her to move to the Vesuvius area.

Summary of learning

In this chapter you have learned about:• the geographical setting, natural features and

resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum• changes to the physical environment of the

Vesuvius area over time.

You have also learned to:• analyse archaeological and written sources

relevant to Pompeii and Herculaneum• examine different representations of Pompeii

and Herculaneum over time.

Web linksFor a full list of relevant websites go tohi.com.au/ancient.

Fruit and vegetablesWritten sources tell us that the production of fruit and vegetables was an important part of the localeconomy. The fertile volcanic soils were especiallysuited to growing cabbage and onions. At Pompeii,election posters mention local market gardeners andgreengrocers who were running for public office.Archaeological evidence of market gardens has beenfound north of the amphitheatre.