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PASSIVE COMPONENTS
by
R. P. Deshpande
B. Tech. Hon. Elec. (I.I.T., Bom.)
Fellow, The Institution of Engineers (India)
Technical Consultant
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Active Passive Electro-mechanical
GeneratorTransistor
Amplifier
Thyristor
Vacuum tubeRectifier
Battery
Fuel cells
ResistorCapacitor
Inductor / choke
Transformer
HeaterOven
Lamp
RLC network
Fans / motorSwitch
contactor
Relay
FuseCircuit breaker
Connector
Cable
Strict physics definition treats passive components as ones that
cannot supply energy by themselves, whereas a battery would be
an active component since it truly acts as a source of energy.
Passive components cannot introduce net energy into the circuit.
They also cannot rely on a source of power, except for what is
available from the circuit they are connected to.
Components of electr ical / electronic systems
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PASSIVE COMPONENTS
ResistorPower loss
component
Resists all
currents AC / DC
Represents workbeing done / heat
produced
InductorAssociated with
magnetic field
Resists change in
current
Offer lagging power
factor
Dampens surge
current
Short-circuit in DC
CapacitorAssociated with
Electric field
Resists change in
voltage
Offer leading
power factor
Dampens surge
voltage
Open-circuit in DC
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
International Ampere
Unvarying current that would deposit 0.001118 000 grams
of silver per second from a solution of silver nitrate in water.
Ampere is a basic SI unit- the current produced in aconductor with a 1-ohm resistance when there is a potential
difference of 1 volt between its ends.
One ampere is the current in a conductor when a chargeof one coulomb (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers) passes
through a cross section of the conductor each second.
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Convention: Current flows from relatively positive points
to relatively negative points. VOLT ( V ): Voltage, or electromotive force, is a
quantitative expression of the potential dif ference in
charges between two points in an electrical field
Unit of electric potential or electromotive force is Volt.
One volt appears across a resistance of one ohm
when a current of one ampere flows through it .
One volt will drive one coulomb charge carriers, suchas electrons, through a resistance of one ohm in one
second. One joule of work is done in doing so.
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Entity Unit Symbol SI Derivation
Electric Charge Coulomb C A .s
Resistance Ohm V / A
Capacitance Farad F A.s / V
Inductance Henry H V. s / A
Voltage Volt V W / A
Energy Joule J N. m
Power Watt W J / s
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb V . s
Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T Wb / m
Frequency Hertz Hz Cycles /s
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Dimension L/R s, (L/R= Time constant of R-L circuit)
R.C
s, ( RC = Time constant of C-R combination)
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RESISTANCE Resists all currents AC / DC.
Represents heat generation or rate of work done.
Can be fixed, variable, voltage or temperature dependent.
Inseparable part of most electronic circuits.
Ohm Symbol , is standard unit of electrical resistance in theInternational System of Units (SI).
Ohm, multiplied by imaginary no. j= -1, represents reactance (X) ofcapacitor or inductor, in AC circuits.
In SI Units, 1 Ohm is equivalent to 1 Kg. m2. S-3. A-2
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Stray and unwanted Resistance
In practice, a very high resistance exists betweenterminals, considered open circuited (through air, vacuum,
or insulation) etc.
A low resistance is present between points considered
short-circuited or continuous, due to resistivity of
connecting wires, contacts, joints etc.
Both these factors create difficulties in accurate
measurement of respective resistances.
There is no perfect conductor of current with zero
resistance, nor is there a perfect insulator with infinite
insulation resistance.
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Unavoidable Resistance Examples Cable / wire resistance
Resistance of Inductor/ transformer wires (Copper Loss)
Switch contact resistance
Insulation Resistance between adjacent live parts
Dielectric Insulation Resistance of Capacitors
Earth/ grounding Resistance
Loss equivalent of core loss in inductors/ transformers
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HUMAN BODY RESISTANCE
AND SHOCK
Electric shock due to current through body (Not voltage)
Body resistance variable
Shock severity depends on body condition
200 A bearing limit
Shock may be sensed even at 24-30V
Let go threshold: 1 mA (rms) AC at 50 Hz / 5 mA DC.
Around 10 mA AC current through arm can cause powerful
muscle contractions; the victim is unable to release the wire. Above 30 mA of AC or 300 500 mA of DC, it can cause
ventricular fibrillation, leading to cardiac arrest.
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RESISTORS IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
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1. Carbon composition resistors
2. Carbon film resistors
3. Metal Film Resistors (usually coated with NiCr.)
4. Metal Oxide resistors5. Wire wound Resistors
Other types:
Cermet composites of ceramics & metals as
Mo, Co, Ni
Water Resistor- Salt water tube / bath for resistance.
Temperature dependent resistors
Types of resistors
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WIRE WOUND RESISTORS
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Number Colour
0 black
1 brown
2 red
3 orange
4 yellow
5 green
6 blue
7 violet
8 grey
9 white
Tol. Colour
1% brown
2% red
5% gold
10% silver
Resistor Colour Coding- 2 ways to remember
Bill Brown Realized Only Yesterday Good Boys Value Good Work
Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey, White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(No. of
zeroes)
B. B. R O Y G B V Gr W
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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CARBON POTENTIOMETERS
PRESETS
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Wire wound potentiometers
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RHEOSTATS
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INDUCTANCE Resists change in current
Result of magnetic properties of materials and coils
Stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
Offers lagging power factor
Al l transformers, chokes, motors use inductiveproperties of coils and materials
Used in tuning circuits, oscillators, filters and ripplesmoothing circuits
Offers high impedance path to high frequencycurrents, when used in a current path
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Applications of Inductors:Used in surge current dampening
Eddy current Induction heating, including melting of metals
Magnetic measurement
Control systems
SI Dimensions of Inductance
C= coulomb, Wb= Weber, F= Farad
Henry x Farads= LC sq. sec
1/ LC has dimension of 1/ sec (freq.).
1/ LC is resonant frequency of LC combination
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Equivalent impedance in AC circuits ZL of an ideal
inductance is given by:
(omega)
Where XL is the inductive reactance,
is the angular frequency,L is the inductance,
f is the frequency, andj is the imaginary unit.[Sqrt(-1)]
Ideal inductor offers short circuit path to stabilized
DC currents
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Around a magnet there is a magnetic field, and
a f low of magnetic energy. This flow is called
magnetic flux (). By convention it flows from
north pole to south pole. Flux flowing from thenorth pole is same as that entering south pole.
At B there are a smaller number of magnetic
field lines passing through the loop than there
is when it is in position A
Amount of flux passing through a unit area at right angles to the magnetic
field lines is called flux density (B) at that point.
Flux density is measured in Tesla (T) where 1 T = 1 Wbm-2
Flux () = Flux density (B) x area through which flux passes (A) = BAFlux linkage = N = NBA
Magnetic field it is a vector field. The term is used for two closely related
fields denoted by the symbols B and H, measured in units of Tesla and
amp per meter respectively in the SI. B is most commonly defined in
terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.
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Weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn would
produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero
at a uniform rate in 1 second.
Weber is commonly expressed in terms of other derived units as
Tesla-sq. m. (Tm2), volt-seconds (Vs), or joules per ampere (J/A)
Electrons moving through an inductor tend to stay
in motion; electrons at rest in an inductor tend tostay at rest. Ideally, an inductor left short-circuited
will maintain a constant current through it:
Energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the
amount of work required to establish the current through the inductor,and therefore the magnetic field.
An ideal closed loop inductor will continue to carry a current forever- it
opposes any change in current- and will store energy till disturbed. This
is nearly possible only in superconductors.
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An electric current I flowing around a circuit produces a magnetic
field and hence a magnetic flux through the circuit.
The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the
inductance, or more accurately self-inductance of the circuit.
The symbolL is used for inductance.
The quantitative definition of inductance (webers per ampere)
L= / I being magnetic flux density
In honour of Joseph Henry, the unit of inductance has been given thename Henry (H):
1H = 1Wb/A. di / dt = V / L
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A current-carrying wire bent into a loop with
area r2 and current i , would create a
magnetic field, similar to one created by a
permanent magnet.
Strength of this hypothetical magnet is
mentioned in terms of a magnetic moment
m. In a loop of radius r and current i, a
magnetic fieldH, produced at the center of
the loop given by
H = i/2r [Amperes/meter, A/m]
The current loop has a magnetic moment, m = i x Area [Am2]
The intensity of magnetization,MorJ, is magnetic moment per unit
volume M=m / v [A/m] Note that M and H have the same units.
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B field is the sum of the H field and the magnetization M of the medium.
According to Faraday's Law, any change in this magnetic flux linkage
produces a self-induced voltage in a coil:
where N is the no. of turns, A- cross-sectional Area in m2,
is flux in Webers, -permeability of core material,l is the Length of the coil in meters di/dt in amps/second.
To store more energy in inductor, the current must be increased.
This means its magnetic field must increase in strength, and any
change in field strength produces corresponding voltage (principle
of electromagnetic self-induction).
Conversely, to release energy from an inductor, the current through
it must be decreased.
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Emf= -Nt =
-NAB/t
V=IR+LI/t
(emf opposes applied voltage)
From definition of inductance, EMF = -LI/t
We can deduce, L = N2A/l
Self-inductance and mutual inductance
Self-inductance is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current
causes a change in voltage in the same circuit.
When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it isknown as mutual-inductance.
When AC current flows through of wire electromagnetic field produced is
correspondingly changing due to the constantly changing current. This
induces current in another wire or circuit closer to it. This current will also
be AC and of the same nature as the current flowing in the first wire.
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Electric Bell
Relay
Horseshoe electromagnet
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Time Constant T = L/R
When a battery is connected to a series resistor and inductor, inductorresists the change in current and the current therefore builds up slowly.
The rate of this buildup is characterized by the time constant L/R.
Establishing a current in an inductor stores energy in the magnetic field
formed by the coils of the inductor.
The Inductor charging curve
is similar to Capacitor
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mutual inductance
N1 is the number of turns in coil 1,
N2 is the number of turns in coil 2,
P21 is the permeance of the space occupied by the flux.
kis thecoupling coefficientand 0 k 1,L1 ,L2 the inductance of the first and second coil.
Is ,Ip the current through the secondary & primary inductor,
Ns ,Np the number of turns in the secondary & primary inductor,
This is the principle of transformer
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An example of a gyrator simulatinginductance, with an approximate equivalent
circuit.
The two input impedances have similar
values in typical applications.
Simulated inductors do not have inherent
energy storing properties of real inductors.
This limits the possible power applications.
The gyrator is an electric circuit which inverts an impedance. It can be used to
transform a load capacitance into an inductance. At low frequencies and low
powers, behaviour of the gyrator can be reproduced by a small op-amp circuit.
NPL, U.K. maintains two primary self-inductors whose values are establishedfrom capacitance standards using two special transfer inductance standards.
The primary inductors are used to establish a range of secondary inductors.
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Q - FACTOR An ideal inductor will be lossless irrespective of the amount of
current flowing through the winding.
Inductors have winding resistance from the metal wire forming the
coils. This resistance and core loss appear as a resistance in series
with the inductor, called theseries resistance.
The quality factor (or Q) of an inductor is the ratio of its
inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, and is
a measure of its efficiency.
Higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches thebehavior of an ideal, lossless, inductor.
The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the following
formula, whereR is its internal electrical resistance:
Q=L/R
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Stray and unwanted Inductance
Any wire carrying current generates magnetic field, and has an
inductance value. Inductance exists between two given wires in
a circuit or from different circuits, however low it may be.
A magnetic field associated with the instrument interacting
significantly with inductor, affects measurement of inductance.
Errors in measurement also arises from the interaction of
magnetic field of an inductor with rest of the measuring circuit.
Capacitance to other parts or surroundings of an inductor dueto electric field also affects the impedance or apparent
inductance of an inductor. Capacitive currents interference in
the measuring circuit need to be nullified / compensated,
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Induction Coils & Cores
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INDUCTORSTube light
choke
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Motors & Transformers
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Power line reactors
Induction heating
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Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey, White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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Resistor current waveform
Inductor current waveform Capacitor current waveform
AC Waveforms
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C = C1 + C2 + C3
Ls = L1 + L2 + + Ln
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
RTotal =R1+R2+R3+...
Series parallel
combinationsof R, L, & C
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CAPACITORS
Resist change in voltage.
Uses electric field for working.
Offers leading power factor.
surge voltage dampening.
Resistance path to high frequency voltages.
Filter applications.
Power factor improvement on electrical installations.
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Polar CapacitorsVariableCapacitor
GeneralSymbol
d
C= 0 k A / d
Charge Q = C V
Energy stored:E= C V2 = Q V
CAPACITOR
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Gravitational Field Electric Field
Force is between Objects with mass Objects with charge
Constant of proportionalityGSame for all materials
depends on the medium
in which the field exists
Field strength in a radial fieldNkg-1 or ms-2
VectorNC--1 or Vm-1
Vector
Definition of Field Strength Force per unit mass Force per unit charge
Force in a radial fieldAlways attractive,Vector
Attractive or repulsive,Vector
Potential in a radial field
Jkg-1 Scalar
Always less than zero.
JC-1 Scalar
Sign depends on charges
Definition of PotentialWork done in bringing aunit mass from infinity tothe point in the field.
Work done in bringing unitpositive charge frominfinity to point in the field.
Potential Energy Ep = Fm W=VQ
COMPARISON OF ELECTRIC & GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
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Parameter CAPACITOR INDUCTOR
Working medium Electric field Magnetic field
V/I property Resists voltage change Resists current change
V-I relationship I = C dv/dt V = - L di/dt
Energy stored E = CV2 E = L I2
SI Dimension C = A.s/V =F L= V.s/A = s2/F
Time constant CR L / R
AC Reactance Xc = -1 /jC XL =jL
Reactive power I2
Xc leading I2
XL laggingI-V phase relation Current leads voltage Current lags voltage
Power factor Leading Lagging
Watt loss component D= RC = 1/Q Q = L/R
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Thisimagecannot currently bedisplayed.
The energy density of the electric field is
u= (E) 2 /2
= permittivity of the medium is = r 0r is the relative permittivity of the materialE is the electric field vector.
may vary with the medium, frequency of thefield applied, humidity, temp., and other
parameters.
The magnetic permeability and the electric permittivity of space
are related by
C = 1/ (0
0)
c 3 x 108 m/s, Speed of light0 = 4 x 10-7 N / A2
magnetic permeability of free space (Exact value)
0= 8.854187817 x 10-12 F/m
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Device No. of capacitorsper unit
Mobile phone 260
Digital camera 310
Game console 315
Computer 700
Car 1700
CAPACITORS IN MODERN DAY APPLICATIONS
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SIZES VARY WIDELY DEPENDING ON TYPE & APPLICATION
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10 million capacitor bank at Dresden , Capable of
storing 50 MJ of energy and used to drive magnetic coils
with very high and super-short energy pulses.
WORLDS LARGEST & MOST ADVANCED CAPACITOR BANK
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ELECTRODE MATERIALS ALUMINIUM
Plain Aluminium Foil
Etched & Formed Al. Foil
Mechanically Formed Al. Plates or Shapes
Containers as one electrode
Thin Film Coatings/ Metallization of
ZINCCoatings
Metallization of Zinc or Zn/Al alloy
SILVER
Coating
TITANIUM
Powder form
ELECTROLYTE
This works as conductor, while also serving for replenishment of
oxide layer of dielectric
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For circuits with a constant DC voltage source, and consistingof only resistors and capacitors, the voltage across capacitor
cannot exceed voltage of the source.
An equilibrium is reached where voltage across the capacitor is
constant and the current through the capacitor is zero.
Hence it is commonly said that capacitors block DC.
A change in voltage is necessary for a capacitor to carry
current. In AC, voltage is always changing, so the current is
also changing to oppose the change in voltage- voltage beingsinusoidal, current is also sinusoidal.
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Electrons within dielectric molecules
are influenced by electric field,
causing molecules to rotate slightly
from their equilibrium positions.
The air gap is shown for clarity; in a
real capacitor, the dielectric is in
direct contact with the plates.
Capacitors also allow AC current to
flow and block DC current.
An electric field E is created in the region between plates that is
proportional to the amount of charge moved from one plate to the
other. This electric field creates a potential difference V = E x d
between the plates of the capacitor.
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Time 0 1 RC 2 RC 3 RC 4 RC 5 RC
Voltage 0 63% 86% 95% 98% 99%
Charging Voltage Variation with Time Constant
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COMMON DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
for ELECTROSTATIC CAPACITORS
Dielectric Material Dielectric Constant
Air 1.0059
Vacuum 1.000Pure Cellulose or Paper 5.9 6.0
Ceramic (CO6) 45
Glass (Silicon) 42
Poly propylene 2.25 2.3Polyester 3.2
Water (for comparison) 78.5
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Stored energy in Capacitor
o As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor
due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across
the capacitor due to the electric field of these charges.
o Ever-increasing work must be done against this increasing
electric field as more charge is separated.
o The energy (in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the
amount of work required to establish the voltage across the
capacitor. The energy stored is given by:
o Stored Energy E= C V2 = Q2 /C = VQ
where V is the voltage across the capacitor.
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AC current in capacitors The current through a capacitor due to an AC source reverses
direction every half cycle. Except for the instant that thecurrent changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at
all times during a cycle. For this reason, it is commonly said
that capacitors "pass" AC.
The voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the integralof the current, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits. This
results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current
leading the voltage phase angle.
The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of thecurrent divided by the product of the frequency of the current
with the capacitance, C.
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Current, voltage & Power
waveform of resistive circuitCurrent, voltage & Power waveform
of capacitive circuit with 90 shift
Power waveform is above zero, means
net active power is consumed
Power waveform is equal on both sides of
zero, means no real power is consumed
AC current through a capacitor reverses direction every half cycle. Except
for the instant the current changes direction, it is non-zero at all times
during a cycle. Hence it is commonly said that capacitors " pass" AC.
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Impedance of Capacitor
The ratio of the phasor voltage across a circuit element to
the phasor current through that element is called the
impedanceZ. For a capacitor, the impedance is given by
Zc = Vc / Ic = -j / 2 fC = - j Xc
( Xc = 1 / C)
= 2 f is called angular frequency
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Simple
EquivalentCircuit
The equation shows that
DF = watt loss / Reactive VA of a capacitor
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Dissipation factor / tan Capacitors have "Q" (quality) factor (and the inverse,
dissipation factor, D or tan-delta) which relates capacitanceat a certain frequency to the combined losses due to dielectric
leakage
Lower D means lesser loss in the capacitor. Aluminum
Electrolytic types have typically high D factors. Low Dcapacitors tend to exhibit low DC leakage currents and low
losses in AC.
Tan-delta is the tangent of the phase angle between voltage
and current in the capacitor. This angle is also called the lossangle. It is related to the power factor which is zero for an ideal
capacitor.
Tan delta (Tg ) is same as power factor in most capacitors.
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DC / AC CAPACITORS
Thisimagecannot currently bedisplayed.
Capacitors
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Capacitors:
SMD ceramic at top left;
SMD tantalum at bottom left;
through-hole tantalum at top right;
through-hole electrolytic at bottom
right. Major scale divisions are cm.
A 12 pF 20 kV fixedvacuum capacitor
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CAPACITOR COLOUR CODE TABLE
ColourDigit
A
Digit
B
Multiplie
r
D
Tolerance
T > 10pf
Tolerance
T < 10pf
Temp.
Coeff.
TC
Working
voltage
V
Black 0 0 x1 20% 2.0pF
Brown 1 1 x10 1% 0.1pF -33x10-6
Red 2 2 x100 2% 0.25pF -75x10-6 250v
Orange 3 3 x1000 3% -150x10-6
Yellow 4 4 x10k +100%,-0% -220x10-6 400v
Green 5 5 x100k 5% 0.5pF -330x10-6 100v
Blue 6 6 x1m -470x10-6 630v
Violet 7 7 -750x10-6
Grey 8 8 x0.01 +80%,-20%
White 9 9 x0.1 10%
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A ceramic disc type capacitor with the code 473Jprinted onto its body.
47pF * 1,000 (3 zero's) = 47,000 pF , 47nF or 0.047 uF
J indicates a tolerance of +/- 5%
Capacitor Tolerance Letter Codes Table
Letter B C D F G J K M Z
ToleranceC 10pF % 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 +80-20
Capacitor
Colour CodeMarkings
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Energy Storage Photoflash, Timers, Vehicles
Resonant Circuits Oscillators, Tuning
Smoothing Power Supplies
H.F. Filters DC Supplies, R.F. Suppression
Phase Shifting Motors, Fans
Measurement & sensors Vacuum, Electrical &mechanical parameters
Capacitive Switching Touch Control
Transient Suppression Power Supplies
Peak Voltage Generation Auto Industry
Power Factor Improvement Power Supply & Industry
CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS
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1-PH. CAPACITOR RUN MOTORWINDING
1-PH. CAPACITOR START-CAPACITOR RUN MOTOR WINDING
1-PH. CAPACITOR STARTMOTOR WINDING
120 F230V
12 F440V
Note capacitor voltagesfor 230 V supply
Rotor
120 F230V
12 F440V
CAPACITORS IN
SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
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The capacitor is hidden inside the pistol's grip. Its rating is
about 800 F at 300V.
Pulling the trigger discharges the capacitor and creates amagnetic pulse which accelerates a small piece of metal.
The kinetic energy is about 0.10 Joule.
THE RAIL GUN
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STRAY CAPACITANCE
Unwanted capacitance arises on account of following:
HT overhead wires to Earth and between HT lines.
Between equipment and container housing / box.
Between wires/cables running parallel.
Occasionally lead to Static Electricity in machines.
These can affect the performance of HT Transformers and
equipment adversely and their effect has to consider while
designing.
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Capacitor types:
Electrostatic : Use insulating material between electrodesto act as dielectric. These are non-polar in nature.
Electrolytic: Use solid or liquid electrolytes and have
higher capacitance values. Dielectric layer is an oxide formedon metal plate surface.
They are inherently polar due to their construction.
Electrochemical(or EC capacitors): Dielectric layerforms naturally with applied voltage
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Fan, Motor & Lighting Capacitors
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A.C.Motor Start Electrolytic Capacitors
DC Electrolytic Capacitors
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Power Capacitors
&
Capacitor Banks
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Electronic Capacitors
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a) Working Voltage Stress in Capacitors
(A.C., Motors, Fan & Lighting) 55-65 KV/mm ACTest Voltage 110 -130 KV/mm
Peak Working Voltage 70-100 KV/mm
PP film used in 440 V AC rated capacitor is 6 to 9 m thick,which gives working dielectric stress as 55-65 V/ m AC.
This is the highest working stress used on anymaterial in industry.
b) PVC wire Thickness 0.5mm-500 V/mm
b) BDV of DRY AIR 3 KV/mm DC
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SELF HEALING CAPACITORS
MPP capacitors most widely used today are of
Self- healing type.
Metallizing thickness around .02 microns
Defective or weak spots causing heavy current transients inservice evaporates metal around it, restoring healthy working
of capacitors.
Capacitance drops infinitesimally with each self healing.
Long life span of capacitor
Used in most AC applications in electrical industry
C t ti
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Electrolytic
Capacitors
Construction
Electrostatic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
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Thick film capacitor electrodes are screen printed onto sheets of doped BariumTitanate ceramic using interleaved pattern. These sheets are stacked under
pressure, dried, cut to size and sintered at a temperature around 1300C.
Electrodes are of a metal with a melting point higher than the sintering
temperature, and platinum (1774C) or palladium (1552C) are normally used.
p
The type of chip
capacitor that
predominates
because of its useful
range is the multilayer
ceramic chip (MLC).
The basis of this
structure is shown
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Tuning Capacitor in radioVariable Capacitor Trimmer Capacitor
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H.T. Capacitor Bank at the Substation
C O C C C O S
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ALUMINIUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
Anode: Aluminium
Cathode:Aluminium
Electrolyte: solid / liquid /paste chemicals
Dielectric: Oxide layer film on Anode
Anode shape: Foil / formed
Cathode Shape: Foil / Can
Connection Leads: Tabs
Electrolytic Capacitors are essentially Polar.
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Applications of Electrolytic
Capacitors:
Blocking & DC Bypass
DC Filters
Energy Discharge ApplicationPhotoflash, Strobe, Military(Laser Radar)
Audio Systems
A.C.Motor Start
Power Supply filters/ Ripple control
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Dry Tantalum Capacitor:
Electrode1: Tantalum wire
Electrode2 Silver coating, graphite, solder
Electrolyte: Tantalum pentoxide, coated with MnO2
Advantages:
High volumetric efficiency
Easily mounted on PCB
Superior freq. Characterist icsHighly reliable- Do not lose capacitance with time.
Do not wear out
Wide temp. range 55 to +125 deg C, with no capacitance change
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Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum Chip Capacitors
Tantalum capacitors Applications
Cell phones
Laptops
Contributed to smaller sizes
Vehicular circuits
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So far we knew
ELECTROSTATIC AND ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITORS
There is third type of capacitor in the world today:
ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITORS(EC CAPACITORS)
Whose varieties are known as Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLC)
ULTRACAPACITORS, SUPERCAPACITORS,Gold Capacitors, etc.
FARAD IS NO LONGER TOO LARGE A UNIT
ULTRACAPACITORS ARE RATED IN FARADS OR KILOFARADS.
EC Capacitor (Ultracapacitor) principle
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EC Capacitor (Ultracapacitor) principle
No separate dielectric. Oxide layer of nanometer thickness naturally formed
throughout porous electrode surface with electrolyte contact
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Source: www.cap-xx.com
RAGONE CHART(Per Litre)
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Stackable 2200 F
3.8-2.2v 14 Wh
5.5 x 4 x 3.3
Ultracapacitor
Sizes & Shapes
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RACING CARS
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Toyota TS030 Hybrid (2012)
in 24 Hr. endurance test , Japan
IC Engine (Petrol) + U-cap (No battery)
Rear Motor: 225 KW (300HP)
Front motors used for regen. braking &
recharging of U-caps
Total Power 830 BHP
Formula Zero Karts
Fuel Cell Power 8.2 kW Ultracapacitor power (8 sec) 40 kW Total electric power 46 kW (66 HP) Emissions 6 min. of racing: 0.3 ml of water
RACING CARS
Major ity of 31 racing cars used U-caps
CAPABUS A/C - 41 SEATERSHANGHAI CHINA
Supercapacitor light metro train
G (G d ) Chi
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SHANGHAI, CHINA
Source: Sinautec Automobile technologies LLC
POWER SOURCE: Ultracapaci tors
A) 5.9 KWH EDLC (3.5 miles with A/C)
Charging by pantograph from O/H lines
at bus stops (Umbrella Stops)
B) 2.25 KWH EDLC +60 KWH Battery
(45 miles with A/C) for Intercity
Charging: EDLC-30-240 S, Battery- 6Hrs
China introducing 2-car metro
trains with U-cap power from 2014
with 320 passenger capacity.
Underfloor power pick-ups
charge U-cap unit at stations.(CSR Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive)
Plan to introduce in 100 cities
Guangzou (Guangdong),China
28F/ 450V / 910 Wh
U-cap pack for busSource: Railway Gazette
Light Rail Vehicles- Korea
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Light Rail Vehicles Korea
REGEN. BRAKING & STORAGE (KERS) AT SUBSTATIONSAVES 30% ENERGY
1500 KWh 1500 V DC system on 2 routes
(4896 EDLCs 2.7V / 5000F)
Regen: 20,155 KWh & 15464 KWh/day
Total Investment: $ 1.13 million
Payback period - 2.1 years
Siemens, Redox Engineering, LLC, Supercapacitor seminar, 2009
Ride through /Bridge PbA Battery Replacement
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Ride through /Bridge PbA Battery Replacement
Industrial UPS
Ride through /BridgePower
1 MW DISCHARGEMax. 15 seconds
~ 2000 Nos. x 2000F
Ucap vs PbA Battery1/3 vol 1/5 wt
ULTRACAPACITOR STANDARD RACK
Siemens, Redox Engineering, LLC, Supercapacitor seminar, 2009
Life: 15 yearsLow/No maintenance
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THANK YOU