Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 9
Motivation
Motivation is a need or desire that
energizes behavior and directs it
towards a goal.
Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock
that pinned him down.
AP
Photo/ R
ocky Mountain N
ews, Judy W
algren
Perspectives on Motivation
Four perspectives used to explain motivation include the following:
1. Instinct Theory (replaced by the evolutionary perspective)
2. Drive-Reduction Theory3. Arousal Theory4. Hierarchy of Motives
Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology
Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species
and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951).
Where the woman builds different kinds of housesthe bird builds only one kind of nest.
© A
riel Skelley/ M
asterfile
Tony B
randenburg/ Bruce C
oleman, Inc.
Drive Reduction Theory
When the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by the drive-
reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the
need.
Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our
drives.
A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.
Arousal Theory
Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it.
Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the
absence of a need-based drive.
Harlow
Prim
ate Laboratory, U
niversity of Wisconsin
Randy F
aris/ Corbis
A Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that
certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs
like breathing, thirst, and hunger come
before psychological needs such as
achievement, self-esteem, and the need
for recognition.
Hierarchy of Needs
Hunger
When are we hungry?
When do we eat?
When there is no food in our stomach.
When we are hungry.
How do we know when our stomach is empty?Our stomach growls. These are also called hunger pangs.
The Physiology of Hunger
Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.
Stomachs Removed
Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small
intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).
Body Chemistry & the Brain
Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by
receptors (neurons) in the stomach,
liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in
the brain.
Hypothalamic Centers
The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The
reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat
ravenously.
Hypothalamic Centers
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the
VMH, and the animal eats excessively.
Richard H
oward
Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.
Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase
Hypothalamus
Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase
StomachIncreases hunger
Insulin increase
PancreasIncreases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cellsDecreases hunger
PPY increaseDigestive tract
Decreases hunger
Set Point
Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.” Heredity influences set
point and body type.
If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is
gained, the opposite takes place.
The Psychology of Hunger
Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia
patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998).
Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?
Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger
but what we feel hungry for!
Richard O
lsenius/ Black S
tar
Victor E
nglebert
Hot Cultures like Hot Spices
Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an
adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight.
Reprinted by perm
ission of The N
ew E
ngland Journal of M
edicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.
Lisa O
’Connor/ Z
uma/ C
orbis
Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-
calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.
Reasons for Eating Disorders
1. Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders.
2. Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern.
3. Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.
Obesity and Weight Control
Fat is an ideal form of stored energy and is readily available.
In times of famine, an overweight body was a sign of affluence.
Obesity
http
://ww
w.cyb
erd
iet.co
m
A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases
the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back
problems.
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Obesity in children increases their risk
of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease,
gallstones, arthritis, and
certain types of cancer, thus
shortening their life-expectancy.
Obesity and Mortality
The death rate is high among very overweight men.
Social Effects of Obesity
When women applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing
to hire them.
Physiology of Obesity
Fat Cells: There are 30-40 billion fat cells in the body. These cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an
obese individual (Sjöstrum, 1980).
Set Point and Metabolism
When reduced from 3,500 calories to 450 calories, weight loss was a minimal 6% and
the metabolic rate a mere 15%.
The obese defend their weight by conserving energy.
The Genetic Factor
Identical twin studies reveal that body weight has a genetic basis.
The obese mouse on the left has a defective gene for the hormone leptin. The mouse on the right sheds 40% of its
weight when injected with leptin.
Courtesy of John S
oltis, The R
ockefeller University, N
ew Y
ork, NY
Activity
Lack of exercise is a major contributor to obesity. Just watching TV for two hours
resulted in a 23% increase of weight when other factors were controlled (Hu &
others, 2003).
Food Consumption
Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased. Health professionals
are pleading with US citizens to limit their food intake.
Losing Weight
In the US, two-thirds of the women and half of the men say they want to lose
weight. The majority of them lose money on diet programs.
Plan to Lose Weight
When you are motivated to lose weight, begin a weight-loss program, minimize
your exposure to tempting foods, exercise, and forgive yourself for lapses.
Joe R. L
iuzzo
The Need to Belong
“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our
need to belong.
“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffersfrom social starvation.
20th C
entury Fox/ D
reamw
orks/ The K
obal Collection
Aiding Survival
Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the
following:
1. Protecting against predators, especially for the young.
2. Procuring food.3. Reproducing the next offspring.
Belongingness
1. Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions.
2. Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it.
3. Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.
4. Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.
Emotion
Emotions are our body’s adaptive response.
Theories of Emotion
Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and
3) conscious experience.
Controversy
1) Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?
2) Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion (feeling)?
Commonsense View
When you become happy, your heart starts beating faster. First comes conscious
awareness, then comes physiological activity.B
ob
Sach
a
James-Lange Theory
William James and Carl Lange proposed
an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense
view. The James-Lange Theory proposes that
physiological activity precedes the
emotional experience.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard
questioned the James-Lange Theory and proposed that
an emotion-triggering stimulus
and the body's arousal take place
simultaneously.
Two-Factor Theory
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
proposed yet another theory
which suggests our physiology and
cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal
and cognitive label.
Embodied Emotion
We know that emotions involve bodily responses. Some of these responses are very noticeable (butterflies in our stomach when fear arises), but others are more difficult to
discern (neurons activated in the brain).
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System
During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us.
Arousal and Performance
Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal,
but optimal performance varies with task difficulty.
Physiological Similarities
Physiological responses related to the emotions of fear, anger, love, and
boredom are very similar.
Excitement and fear involve a similarphysiological arousal.
M. G
recco/ Stock Boston
Physiological Differences
Physical responses, like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear,
rage, and joy.
The amygdala shows differences in activation during the emotions of anger and rage. Activity of the left hemisphere (happy) is different from
the right (depressed) for emotions.
Cognition and Emotion
What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)?
Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking?
Cognition Can Define Emotion
An arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.
Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which may lead to rioting.
AP Photo/ N
ati Harnik
Reuters/ C
orbis
Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion
A subliminally presented happy face can encourage subjects to drink more than when
presented with an angry face (Berridge & Winkeilman, 2003).
Emotions are felt directly through the amygdala (a) or through the cortex (b) for
analysis.
Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion
When fearful eyes were subliminally presented to subjects, fMRI scans revealed
higher levels of activity in the amygdala (Whalen et al. 2004).
Courtesy of P
aul J. Whalen, P
hD, D
artmouth
College, w
ww
.whalenlab.info
Two Routes to Emotion
Zajonc and LeDoux emphasize that some emotions are immediate, without conscious appraisal.
Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions.
Expressed Emotion
Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this nonverbal language of emotion universal?
Detecting Emotion
Most of us are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal
communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than
a single happy face (Fox et al, 2000).
Detecting Emotion
Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal. A feigned
smile may continue for more than 4-5 seconds while a genuine smile will have faded by then.
Which of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine?
Dr. P
aul Elkm
an, University of C
alifornia at San F
rancisco
Hindu Dance
In classical Hindu dance, the body is trained to effectively convey 10 different
emotions.
Netw
ork Photographers/ Alam
y
Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior
Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. When shown
sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men.
Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at
recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).
Elkm
an & M
atsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian F
acial Expression of E
motion
Analyzing Emotion
Analysis of emotions are carried on different levels.
Experienced Emotion
Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most ofthem are present in infancy, except for contempt,
shame, and guilt.
Lew
Merrim
/ Photo R
esearchers, Inc.
Nancy B
rown/ T
he Image B
ankT
om M
cCarthy/ R
ainbow
Patrick Donehue/ P
hoto Researchers, Inc.
Marc G
rimberg/ T
he Image B
ank
Bob D
aemm
rich/ The Im
age Works
Michael N
ewm
an/ PhotoE
dit
Anger
Anger “carries the mind away,” (Virgil, 70-19 B.C.), but “makes any coward
brave,” (Cato 234-149 B.C.).
Causes of Anger
1. People generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.
2. People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches and pains.
Catharsis Hypothesis
Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or
“catharsis.”
Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming.
Happiness
People who are happy perceive the
world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more
cooperative, rate job applicants more
favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied
lives.
Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon
When we feel happy we are more willing to help others.
Subjective Well-Being
Subjective well-being is the self-perceived feeling of happiness or satisfaction with life. Research on
new positive psychology is on the rise.http://w
eb.fineliving.com
Emotional Ups and Downs
Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative
moods stay more or less the same throughout the day.
Emotional Ups and Downs
Over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance. Although grave
diseases can bring individuals emotionally down, most people adapt.
Courtesy of A
nna Putt
Wealth and Well-being
Many people in the West believe that if they were wealthier, they would be
happier. However, data suggests that they would only be happy temporarily.
Wealth and Well-being
1. In affluent societies, people with more money are happier than people who struggle for their basic needs.
2. People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries.
3. A sudden rise in financial conditions makes people happy.
However, people who live in poverty or in slums are also satisfied with their life.
Does Money Buy Happiness?
Wealth is like health: Its utter
absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of
happiness.
Happiness & Satisfaction
Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries shows Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer
countries) at the top of the list.
Values & Life Satisfaction
Students who value love more than money report higher life satisfaction.
Happiness & Prior Experience
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels. “Satisfaction
has a short half-life” (Ryan, 1999).
Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with.
Happiness & Others’ Attainments
Predictors of Happiness
Why are some people generally more happy than others?