Aboriginal Malays (Proto-Malays), 164,165, 166, 169, 179n
Aboriginal Peoples Act, (1974), 173–4,176
Aboriginal Peoples Ordinance (1954),179n
Abra, 106access to resources
communal land, 11–12, 29–30, 110,171, 198
open access, 8–9, 11–12, 20, 29–30see also customary rights; private
ownershipAcemoglu, Daron, 5, 9Acheh/Aceh, 191, 192agrarian economies, 11, 84, 206, 210agriculture, 2, 19–32
effect of overexploitation onvegetation see vegetation
intensification, 24–6, 84, 88–9, 218,219–20
irrigation see irrigationlivestock see livestockNew World plants see exotic cropsrice see ricerice in China see Chinashifting cultivation see shifting
cultivationslash and burn, swidden farming see
swidden farmingsoil fertility see soilssustainability, 19–32
agricultural expansion, 7–8, 32China, 219–20South India, 88–90, 92–4Lower Chindwin, 227–41
Agricultural Involution (Geertz), 21, 199Agricultural Treatise (Nongshu) (Wang
Zhen), 211, 212, 213–14
Agrodiversity, 7Agroforestry, 22, 27, 156Ahern, George, 103Akkeringa Drill (Bangka Drill), 66Alaunghpaya, King, 230Albay, 105, 117nalien crops see exotic cropsalienation from land see
displaced/dispossessed peoplealientation of land, 109–110alluvial minerals, 62, 72alluvial soils, 84, 231–2Alon, 231, 234, 237American Bureau of Forestry, 103American colonialism, 103–4, 116Americas (The), 3, 6, 7, 9, 20, 135, 207Amoy, 67ancestral lands see land rightsAndaman Islands, 84Andaman Sea, 179nAndaya, Barbara, 170Andaya, Leonard, 170Andreas, Julian, 113Angkor, 200nAnglo-Burmese Wars, 148–9animals, 7, 8, 13, 253
for eating, 166, 186, 236hunting, 23, 44, 47, 93, 155,
165, 171livestock see livestockmanure, 234reserves and sanctuaries, 172, 228,
237, 238wild see wild animalsworking, 113, 189, 192–3, 232,
233, 238anthropogenic areas, 82, 83, 86, 93,
166, 169anti-Communist Emergency, 173
Index
appropriated land, 169, 175see also displaced/dispossessed people
“appropriated” v. “unappropriated”land, 4–5, 171–2
aquaculture see fishingArakan, 186, 195, 230, 232arboriculture, 21–2, 26–7, 32
see also specific treesareca palm, 46, 48, 86aristocracy, 30, 31, 189, 193, 210, 234
see also elitesArroyo, Manuel, 112artificial materials, 125, 126–7, 129,
134, 137ASEAN, 151Assam, 229, 230Aung San Suu Kyi, 151Aung-Thwin, Michael A., 227Australia, 66, 150, 151, 250autarky, 43, 49, 150Ava, 227, 229, 230Ayutthaya, 41–52
Ba Lat River, 252Ba Vui, 257Babel, 61Bac Ninh, 253Bach Thai Buoi, 251Bagac, 113Balabac, 106, 113Bali, 21, 26, 186, 195bamboo, 104, 105, 167, 256bandits, 152, 238Bang Pakong Delta, 44Bang Pakong River, 46Bangka-Belitung (tin mining)
Belitung (Billiton), 62, 68–9, 70Chinese labor dominance, 63–70, 75Chinese merchants, 63, 76Chinese population, 69, 70, 71, 73colonial administration, 65, 68, 70, 75control of resources, 61, 64, 65, 68,
73–4coolie recruitment, 64–71deforestation, 71, 75demographic changes, 70depletion, 65, 69, 72environmental degradation, 66, 71,
74, 75Europeanization of mining, 65–9
exports to China, 62infrastructure, 71, 75kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nlabor shortage, 66–7landscape transformation, 70–1payment of wages, 67, 71, 73, 76npiracy and smuggling, 64, 74, 77nprices, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74,
76, 77nproduction, 63, 65, 69, 76nprofits, 61, 65, 67, 68, 71, 73–4, 76nsettlements, 70slash-and-burn, 62, 64, 76ntechnology, 63–9, 74–5tribute, 62, 63, 64, 72
Bangka Tinwinning, 67–8, 71Bangkok, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53Bangladesh, 185, 186, 194Bangplasoi, 54Bangplasoi port, 52Banpakong, 52, 54, 56nBankoff, Greg, 83Banten, 191, 192Bantheay Meas (Ponthiamas), 52Bao, Dai, 251Barbier, Edward, 3Barbosa, Duarte, 186barges, 48, 217bartering, 42, 50Bataan, 106, 107Batak Uplands, 191Batangas, 106, 107Batavia, 49
mining, 62–3, 64, 65, 68, 73rice-growing, 192–3, 196–7see also Jakarta
beans, 54, 220, 233beeswax, 47, 167, 169Beihei port, 67Belinyu, 66Belitung (Billiton), 62, 68–9, 70Bellary, district, 91Bengal, 186, 195Besemah, 191Bhadra River, 95Bikol province, 10Billiton Maatschappij, 68–9Binondo, 113biodiversity, 7, 8, 19, 22, 23, 27Blaikie, Piers, 20
Index266
“blood” resources, 143, 157–8boat- and ship-building, 2, 14n
Burma, 143, 145, 232, 256Japan, 132for the navy see naval vesselsPhilippines, 103, 105–6, 111, 114,
116, 117nSiam, 42, 49
boats as transport for goods, 113, 189, 217
Siam, 42, 43, 45–6, 48, 50, 51, 57nBodawhpaya, King, 231, 236Bogor, 26Bohol, 106Bombay Burmah Trading Corp Ltd
(BBTCL), 146, 149Boomgaard, Peter, 83, 205Borneo, 76n, 163, 165, 180n
forest-clearing, 23gold, 72–3land ownership, 29rice-growing, 188, 192, 194Sabah, 76n, 163, 180nSarawak, 76n, 163, 180n
Boserup, Ester, 26boundary v. transboundary resources, 14Bowring Treaty (1855), 48Bradley, D.B., 50Brantas Delta, 190Bray, Francesca, 63, 196, 197breadfruit, 13, 46bricks, 48, 49, 50, 126, 129, 133British colonialism
Burma, 146, 148–50, 152–6India, 81–2, 90, 91, 96n, 147Indonesia, 65Malaysia, 168–74
British industrialization, 125–6, 128,170, 209, 222n
bronze, 12Brookfield, Harold, 20Browne, Horace A., 239Budalin, 233, 237Buddhism, 55, 189, 210, 228,
235–40, 241nBugis, 62, 63building companies, 138, 139buildings see constructionBukit Barisan, 190, 191Bukit Seruk, 190
Bulacan, 106, 117nbunds, 22, 46, 48, 214Buol, 30Burma, Lower Chindwin see Lower
ChindwinBurma (teak forestry), 143–58
alienation of Burmese State, 148,150–1
Anglo-Burmese Wars, 148–9army (tatmadaw) control, 151, 153–4British colonial rule, 146–7, 149–50,
154–7Burmese State control, 153–5competing interests, 143–58deforestation, 148, 149exports, 146, 150fire prevention campaign, 155–6forest resources, 146Four Cuts anti-insurgency campaign
(Pya Ley Pya), 154geopolitics, 147–51identity as “land of teak”, 143,
145, 146illegal extraction, 145Karen shifting cultivators, 143, 149,
152–8labor, 145merits of teak, 145military junta (SLORC), 150–1political economy, 144, 145regulatory control, 154–7“resource curse”, 144–5, 146, 150,
154, 157–8resource militarization, 152–4role of elites, 143, 144, 145role of foreign firms, 146–7, 148–9ship-building industry, 143,
145–6, 148tax, 145teak as an imperial resource, 145–6use of profits, 147use of revenue, 147, 150
Burmese Way to Socialism, 150burning off see swidden farmingBurzynski, Joseph, 110
cacao, 6, 7, 74, 194, 198Cagayan, 106, 108, 111, 117nCalifornia, 66, 136Calle Lacoste, 113
Index 267
Camarines, 105, 106Cambodia, 43, 46, 52, 186, 249camphor, 167, 169canals, 45, 59, 86, 88, 89–90, 92,
197, 217Canton, 52, 53, 219, 220capital see labor; machinery; technology
natural resources, 3capitalism, 2, 3, 4, 11
forestry in Peninsular Malaysia,163–80
forestry in the Spanish Philippines,103–18
wood in Japan, 123–39Cardona, 114–15cash crops, 27, 29, 71, 73, 75, 177, 221
see also specific cropscassava, 6, 7, 74, 194, 198Catbalogan, 111cattle, see livestockCavite, 105, 106, 107Cawang, 175Cebu, 105, 106, 108, 117Centre for Orang Asli Concerns
(COAC), 178cereals see grain; riceCeylon, 187, 196, 197Chachoengsao, 46, 52, 54Chainat, 43, 56nChakri, dynasty, 41Champa, 251Chanthaburi, 45, 46, 47, 54Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] basin, 41,
43, 45Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] Delta, 43–4,
47, 56n, 57n, 196, 197Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] River, 44,
48, 49, 50, 51, 187charcoal, 50, 64, 66, 71, 87, 92, 93,
113, 124, 129, 130Chattip Nartsupha, 42–3, 48, 49, 50,
54–5Chayanov, 208chemicals, 12, 74, 129, 222n, 258Cheng-Guatco, Lorenzo, 113Chi River, 43, 44, 45, 47Chiangmai, 47Chiefs, 30, 31, 47Chin people, 229China (Late Imperial)
as agrarian state, 11, 210cotton, see cottondiversification, 218, 219, 222ndouble-cropping, 216–7elites, 207environmental pressure, 219–22exports, 207farming methods, 211–13, 215, 216,
219–20fishing, 249, 250, 251, 254gender roles, 213–14imports, 207intensification, 205, 208, 214, 219–20irrigation, 206, 212Jiangnan region, 211–12, 214–17, 221landless people, 220landscape transformation, 212,
219–20manufacturing and production,
208–9, 217–19merchants, 207, 218, 221non-rice crops, 208, 214, 217,
220, 221population pressure, 205, 206–7,
218, 219, 220protection of resources, 220–1rice-growing, 212–17, 219rulers’ goals, 206, 207, 209–12, 221sericulture and cotton, 214specialization, 205, 209, 217–18, 221taxes, 207–8, 210, 214, 217, 221technology, 211–16, 221–2textiles, 211, 213–16, 217–18trade, 11, 207, 217–18, 221welfare, 209–11
Chindwin, Lower see Lower ChindwinChindwin River, 149, 228, 230,
232, 240nChinese fishermen, 249–54Chinese immigrant laborers
agriculture, 42, 52–4, 56, 168, 191, 192
forestry, 115mining, 63–72, 76n, 77n, 168
Chinese merchants and entrepreneurs,5, 10–11
fishing, 249–50foresty, 112–13, 169–70mining, 51–4, 63, 71rice, 193, 199
Index268
Chola Empire, 84Chonburi, 43, 46Christianity, 4, 73, 177, 195, 211Ch’ung Ning She, 113churches and temples
Buddhist, 238construction, 49, 89, 103, 105,
115, 116South India, 88, 89, 90, 95use of bonded labour, 189
cinchona, 6cities, 5, 190–3, 199
in Burmese states, 229in China, 208, 217, 220in Indonesia, 190–3in Japan, 135–6in Malaysia, 163in South India, 89, 96nsee also specific cities
climate change, 7, 82, 91, 96n, 108,245–6
cloth and clothingChina, 208, 214, 215, 217, 218Japan, 130, 131Siam, 51see also cotton; silk; textiles
coal, 2, 68, 124, 125–6, 129, 130coastal areas
Burma, 148fishing in Vietnam see VietnamMalaysia, 165–6, 169Philippines, 104Siam, 43–4, 49–50
Cochinchina, 251, 196cocoa, 22coconuts, 12, 22, 26, 27
Siam, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53South India, 86, 92, 93
coffee, 6, 7, 22, 54, 65, 76n, 195, 197collective ownership, 21, 29–31,
254–6, 259Collins, Thomas, 113, 114colonialism, 4, 5, 9–10, 11, 26, 81–2
American, 103–4, 116British see British colonialismChinese, 207, 221Dutch, 62–77, 179n, 192–3, 194French, 149, 249–54Spanish, 103–18
“Columbian exchange”, 6, 194–5, 199
commercialization of resourcesagriculture, 31–2exports see exportsfishing see Vietnamforestry see Burma; Japan; Malaysia;
Philippinessee also specific resources; trade
communal land and resources, 11–12,29–30, 109–10, 171, 198
Communism, 173, 176competition for resources, 11, 12, 28,
48, 61fisheries, 246–7, 250, 258forest resources, 104, 110, 114–16,
134, 169–70labor, 66, 75, 76n
Complete Treatise on AgriculturalAdministration [Nongzhengquanshu] (Xu Guangqi), 211, 217
conservationfish, 258forests, 19, 32, 114, 166, 172, 174soils, 19, 20
constructionboats and ships see boat- and
ship-buildinghouses, 104–5, 111, 133, 135–9,
145, 167railways, 130temples and churches, 49, 89, 103,
105, 115, 116“contested spaces”, 12contratistas (contractors), 110, 112, 114cooperatives
fishing in Vietnam, 254–6mining in Indonesia, 53, 56, 68
copper, 8, 12, 129, 228copra, 27coral reefs, 258corn see maizeCoromandel Coast, 51, 186, 187, 195Corruption, 13, 113, 115, 144, 255corte de Madera, 106corvee, 9, 42, 47, 52, 189, 231Cossay, 231Cotabato, 108cotton, 6, 42, 51, 53–4, 84, 89, 234
in China, 207, 208, 214–19, 220, 221Crawfurd, J., 53–4crocodiles, 44, 48, 56
Index 269
crops, see specific cropsculture, 4customary rights, 11, 29
Burma, 143–58Malaysia, 163–80Philippines, 109–16
Dai Viet, 251Dampier, William, 186dams, 28, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97n, 174,
175, 176Daroji Reservoir, 83, 94, 97nDaroji Valley, 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 95Day River, 252Dayaks, 27, 72, 73, 75, 192de Ibarra, José, 113de Foresta, Hubert, 26de Vries, Jan, 209, 218, 222ndeer and deerskins, 23, 24, 45, 47,
48, 51deforestation, 7, 8, 22, 24, 28,
32, 125–6Burma, 146, 149China, 219, 220Indonesia, 66, 71, 73, 75Japan, 134–6, 139Malaysia, 171, 174, 176nPhilippines, 104, 106–8South India, 82–3, 85, 87, 92, 93,
96, 96nVietnam, 245
degradation of resources seeenvironmental degradation
deltas, 186, 187, 195–6, 197Burma, 232, 240China, 211, 217, 218, 222nJava, 190, 195Siam, 43–8, 56n, 57nSouth India, 84Vietnam, 190, 252, 253see also specific deltas
demography see populations anddemographic expansion
Denmark, 158Dentan, Robert, 4, 175, 177Department of Orang Asli Affairs
(Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli)(JHEOA), 173, 174, 175, 178
depletion of resources, 3, 55, 168forest resources, 167, 170, 175, 176
minerals, 65, 69, 72wildlife, 7, 8, 175, 176, 238see also deforestation
Dhanayakanakere, 89, 90Diamond, Jared, 13dikes, 196, 210, 212, 245, 252, 258disease, 42, 64, 65, 66, 165, 173,
193–4, 206, 232, 233, 239Malaria, 51, 71, 165
displaced/dispossessed people, 23, 24China, 220Burma, 143, 152–8, 235, 238Malaysia see Orang Asliresettlement, 41–2, 173–6, 228–30
diversification, 41, 42, 50, 74, 185, 194China, 218–20, 222nLower Chindwin, 232–3Malaysia, 164–5, 166
Doab region, 81, 96ndomesticated animals see livestockdrainage, 48, 71, 89, 190, 196, 197drought, 193, 194, 197, 232dry rice see ricedry zone crops/dry farming, 84, 86, 88,
89, 91, 232–3, 240Dunn, F.L., 166, 167Durian, 46, 49, 166, 168Dutch colonialism, 62–77, 179n,
192–3, 194Dutch East India Company [Vereenigde
Oostindische Compagnie] (VOC), 2,48, 62, 64, 188, 192, 194, 196,197, 199, 200n
Dutch traders, 48, 50, 51, 62–77duties, 42, 46, 48
Early Historic period, 85, 86–7, 93Early Modern period
Imperial China, 205–22Lower Chindwin, 227–41Siam (Central Thai region), 41–58
earthquakes, 105, 111, 135, 136, 138East India Company (EIC), 188,
197, 199Echague, 112ecological adaptation, 164–5, 167ecological change, 7–8, 11–12
Lower Chindwin, 227–40ecological damage see environmental
degradation
Index270
“ecological footprint”, 190, 199“ecological release”, 6economic performance of resource-rich
countries, 8–14economies of scale, 25, 198, 251ecosystems, 19, 22–3, 219
forests, 22, 27, 139, 168, 237, 240seas, 248, 250
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO),193, 194, 253
elites, 9, 10, 30, 56, 84, 114, 137Burma, 143–5, 147, 158China, 207, 221, 231, 234
Elvin, Mark, 208, 210, 218, 219, 221–2Endicott, Kirk, 165, 168, 169, 173,
177, 179nEngerman, Stanley, 9, 10engineers, 28, 57n, 66, 67, 68, 109,
125–39“environment”, meaning, 5environmental degradation, 1–32, 81–2
and commercial decline, 28forests, 108, 112, 175, 176, 179nland see erosionmining, 66, 71, 74, 75seas, 245–6, 247, 258soils, 21–6, 62, 96, 166specific countries see specific countriessee also deforestation; vegetation
epidemics, 193–4, 206Ermita, 105erosion, 7, 11, 19, 20, 21–3, 29, 32
China, 219, 220Malaysia, 171, 175South India, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90,
93–5, 96see also soils
European companies and firms, 67–8,75, 146–7, 148–9, 197
East India Company (EIC), 188, 197, 199
see also Dutch East India Company(VOC)
European colonialism, 4, 9–10see also specific administrationsenvironmental effects, 220
“exotic” crops, 5–8, 95, 96, 194–5, 199
and ecological change, 7–8and population growth, 7
types, 5–7see also specific crops
exploitation of indigenous peoples, 9,64, 154–7
explosives, 85, 97n, 258exports, 1, 5–6, 8–9, 27–8, 62, 65
Burma, 143, 145–7, 149, 150, 241nChina, 207, 218, 219, 220, 220nIndonesia, 62, 65, 73, 75–6, 191, 192Japan, 130, 131Malaysia, 163, 167, 169, 171, 174Philippines, 103, 112, 114, 116Siam, 45, 47, 48–50, 53–4, 55, 57nSouth India, 95Vietnam, 247, 249, 251, 253–4
extraction of resources, 1, 2, 3, 9–10,11, 24
fishing see Vietnamminerals see miningtrees see Burma; Malaysia; Philippines
factories, 54, 131, 136, 138China, 208, 214, 217, 218Vietnam, 254, 257
failed crops and harvests, 10, 51, 193–5,200n, 217, 232, 241n
fallow land, 22–32, 190, 232famine, 13, 30, 82, 96, 193, 194, 195,
200n, 208, 209, 211farming practices, 19–32
agroforestry, 22, 27, 156irrigation see irrigationlivestock see livestockrotational farming see swidden
farmingshifting cultivation see shifting
cultivationslash-and-burn farming see swidden
farmingwet rice see rice
Farming and Weaving Illustrated[Gengzhi Tu] (Lou Chou), 206,212–14
Federation of Malaya, 174, 180nFederation of Malaysia, 163, 180n
Peninsula Malaysia see Malaysia(Peninsular)
see also Borneofees and fines, 47, 65, 67, 74, 112, 145,
149, 156, 175, 254
Index 271
Felize Esperanza, 106fertility of soils see soilsfertility (humans), 186, 195, 200nfertilizers, 166, 211, 214, 215, 216,
219, 220, 221, 234fire, 23, 24–5, 107
slash-and-burn farming, 62, 64, 76n, 192
see also swidden farmingfire protection/prevention, 30, 155–6firewood, 27, 49, 57n, 86, 112, 115First Taung-ngu Dynasty, 227fish products, 254, 257fishing
Chinese entrepreneurs, 249–50Chinese fishermen, 249, 250,
251, 254industry in Vietnam see VietnamSiam, 44, 48, 50
flooding, 7, 11, 22, 26, 28, 188Burma, 232China, 209, 210Malaysia, 175, 176Philippines, 108, 114Siam, 44, 46, 54South India, 94Vietnam, 245, 252–3, 257–8
floodplains, 43, 44, 48flora and fauna, 7–8, 13, 23, 24, 253
see also wild animals; vegetationfood
aboriculture, 26–7agroforestry, 22, 27, 156availability, 13, 19, 21, 24, 52cultural value, 84exotic crops, 5–8famine see faminefield crops, 22, 26foraging, 164, 176, 177forest products, 166–7, 168fruit see fruitgrain see grain; riceimported, 21, 24, 27, 28loss through dispossession, 176meat, 166, 186, 235–40nonrice crops, 194, 198as payment, 165plant parts, 166rice see ricestaple foods, 26, 28, 48
vegetables see vegetableswild food, 166–7, 168, 194see also specific crops
Foot, R. Bruce, 95foothills, 43, 47, 52, 53–4, 86, 165forests, 27, 31–2
agroforestry, 22, 27, 156Burma see Burmaconservation, 19, 32, 114, 172, 174customary rights of Orang Asli,
163–80deforestation see deforestationecosystems, 22, 27, 139, 168,
237, 240extraction see loggingJapan, 123–5, 127, 139Malaysia see MalaysiaPhilippines see Philippinesreforestation, 135replanting, 134, 135reserved areas, 30, 86, 155, 172, 174shifting cultivators, 143, 149, 156–7
forest products (non-timber), 2, 12, 27,44, 47, 109, 112, 146, 155, 166–8
forest-dwelling monks, 228, 235–40forestry departments, 108–15, 146,
148–9, 152, 153, 172Frank, André Gunder, 209French colonialism, 149, 249–54French Indochina, 249–54Friedel, Robert, 125fruit, 4, 12–13, 26, 27, 186, 192
Malaysia, 166, 168, 174, 175Siam, 46, 48, 49, 50, 57nsee also specific fruits
fuelscharcoal, 50, 64, 66, 71, 87, 92, 93,
113, 124, 129, 130wood, 125–6, 129, 130, 135, 168
Fujian, 208, 217furnaces, 66, 87
gender, 213–14, 218Gharib Newaz, 236Giao Lam, 255, 256, 257Giao Phong, 257Giao Thuy, 253gold, 3, 10, 49, 51, 61, 72–5, 116n,
103, 129, 165, 191Gourou, Pierre, 26, 250, 251
Index272
governments, 10, 11, 28, 185, 196–7Burma, 150, 153, 154–5China, 11, 205–10, 220–1Indonesia, 61, 65–9, 73–4, 77n,
194–5, 196–7Japan, 124, 128, 137, 139Malaysia, 165, 169, 171–8, 179nPhilippines, 103–4, 109–12,
114–15, 116Siam, 47, 52, 55Vietnam, 247, 254, 256, 259–60
grainChina, 210, 213–14, 217, 218,
220, 221South India, 86–7, 89
Grand Canal, 217grass, 23, 24, 66, 86, 92, 93, 95, 233grasslands, 23–5, 28, 30, 48, 50, 104,
112, 220Great Fish Race, 250Great Kantp Earthquake (1923),
135“green deserts”, 123“green gold”, 143Green Revolution, 186, 210Gresik-Joratan, 190Guinayangan, 112Gulf of Bac Bo, 247, 253Gulf of Thailand, 46, 50, 52, 56n, 251Gulf of Tonkin, 249–50, 255gutta percha, 170
Ha Long islands, 253Ha Tien, 52, 250Hai Hau district, 252, 253, 256, 257Hai Nan, 250Hai Phong, 253Haikou port, 67Hakka, 64, 76nHamilton, G., 209, 218Hampi-Daroji Hills, 85, 87, 92, 93, 96Han dynasty, 216, 220Hangzhou, 211Hanoi, 252, 258Harbors, 190, 191, 246, 256, 257Hardin, Garrett, 29Hau Hau, 257Hayami Akira, 218, 222nHayter, Roger, 11Heeck, Gijsbert, 48–9, 51, 55
Heita Kawakatsu, 11Hindle, Brooke, 126, 139Hinduism, 189, 235, 236hinterlands, 45, 191, 192–3, 197, 199,
207, 217, 222n, 232Ho Chi Minh, 251Holland-China Handels Compagnie
(HCHC), 67Home Islands, 134Hong Kong, 66, 67, 247, 249Horn, 51, 57n, 167horses, 7, 232–4, 240Horsfield, Thomas, 64, 65Hospet, 83, 91, 97nhousing construction, 104–5, 111, 133,
135–9, 167human capital see laborHunan, 217, 220hunting, 23, 44, 47, 93, 155,
165, 171hydraulic systems, 71, 189, 212, 221–2Hsaya San rebellion, 152Huang, Philip, 208, 218Hubei, 217, 220
Ifugao, 28–9Ilocos region, 106Iloilo, 117nimmigrants, 64, 167, 169
Chinese laborers see Chinese laborersimperial resources
China see China (Late Imperial)teak see Burma
imports, 21China, 52, 219, 220Indonesia, 8, 191Japan, 134, 135, 138–9Malaysia, 191Philippines, 8, 12Siam, 48, 51Vietnam, 251
India, 1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14n, 54, 82, 251
colonial administration in Burma,147–9, 152, 196
cotton, 51, 219rice, 185, 186, 187, 194see also South India
indigo, 48, 53, 192, 217, 220Indios, 109, 110, 115
Index 273
individual ownership see privateownership
Indochina War, 251Indonesia
gold in West Kalimantan, 72–5rice see ricestate management of resources, 68, 69tin mining see Bangka-Belitungsee also Sumatra; Borneo
Indonesian Centre for Soil andAgroclimate Research, 26
Indonesian Constitution (1945), 68, 73Infanta, 106Inocencio, Doroteo, 113industrial raw materials, 169, 170industrial revolution, 125–6, 128,
209, 222nindustrialization, 2–3, 12, 170, 199
Britain, 125–6, 128, 170, 209, 222nJapan, 11, 14n, 123–39Philippines, 10Siam, 10, 41United States, 126–8, 133–4
“industrious” v. “industrial”, 2, 209,218, 222n
infrastructure development, 10, 25, 26see also roads; transport
“insatiable appetite” for resources, 2,14n, 32
Inspección general de Montes (forestrydepartment), 109, 115, 116
investment, 3, 14ncrops, 21fishing, 247–8, 257forest products, 170–1land, 9, 25–6, 29mining, 61, 67, 68, 75timber, 138, 147see also merchants and entrepreneurs
Iron Age, 85, 86–7, 93, 125iron sources, 8, 28, 47, 48, 62, 85, 92,
94–5, 126, 129iron trade, 12, 28, 54, 62, 84, 85, 87,
116, 131, 132, 207Irrawaddy Delta, 154, 196Irrawaddy River, 187, 197, 228, 232Irrawaddy valley, 148, 229irrigation, 21–32
Burma, 232, 234China, 200n, 206, 209, 212
Indonesia, 26, 63, 192Philippines, 26South India, 84, 85–7, 88, 89–91,
93, 97nVietnam, 245wet rice see ricesee also canals; dams; reservoirs
Isabela, 106Isla de Corregidor, 106Islam, 62, 70, 73, 175, 177, 195
Jakarta, 73–4, 192Japan, 11
carpenters, daiku, 127, 129–30, 131,136–9
colonialism, 196, 205–6deforestation and war, 134–6fish comsumption, 249foreign oyatoi, 128–9forest resources, 123–5, 127, 139housing construction, 133, 135–9imported lumber, 138–9“industrial revolution” context,
125–9industrialization, 11, 14n, 123–39logging, 134–5“Japanese-ness” of wood, 127, 133Meiji period, 11, 125–39mining, 129–30, 207rebuilding of Tokyo, 135, 139role of wood in industrialization,
123–39silk, 130symbolic value of wood, 125, 126–7,
132–3technological innovation, 130–2trade, 1, 5, 11trawling in Gulf of Tonkin, 249–50wood: as fuel, 129, 130, 135; material
culture, 125–9, 133–4, 139; v.other materials, 126–7, 129,130–1, 133; railroad-building,130;in ship-building, 132; inwar, 134–6
wooden machines, 127, 131–4zairai-koho (“the way we build”),
136, 137, 138Java, 2, 8, 26, 29, 54, 117n, 186–99
mining, 65, 69, 72, 73, 77nJava-China-Japan Line, 67
Index274
Jepara, 190Jesuits, 211Jiangnan region, 211–12, 214–17,
222nJiangxi, 208Johor, 170, 176Jordana y Morera, Ramón, 106, 115Julia, 112junks, 48, 49, 53, 170, 250, 251, 254
Kabinburi, 43, 46Kachin people, 229Kadebakele, 87Kaempfer, Engelbert, 49, 55–60Kalimantan, West, 30, 72–5, 76n,
188, 194see also Borneo
Kamalapuram, 88, 92, 94, 97nKapuas River basin, 76nKaren people, 143, 149, 152–8Karen National Union (KNU), 153Karim, W., 175Karnataka (Northern), 82–97Kerinci, 187, 191King George V National Park, 172Kingdom of Pagan, 227Klabat Bay, 76nKlaeng, 47Kobayashi Ushisaburo, 124, 135Koenig, J.G., 56Koloniaal Verslag, 71, 76nKòn-baung, 237Konbaung, 231kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nKorea, 135, 185, 196Kota Kapur stone, 62Kuala Lumpur International Airport, 176Kuiburi, 46Kwangtung, 186, 187, 195–6Kye-mon, 234
La Loubère, Simon de, 44, 56nLa Union, 106labor, 3, 7, 9, 14n, 24–6, 28, 32
Chinese see Chinese laborcorte de Madera, 106dangerous work, 154, 156division of labour, 44, 49, 221exploitation of indigenous people,
9, 64, 154, 175
kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nlabor-intensive work, 26, 50, 188,
195, 218labor raids, 228, 230migration, of, 28, 52, 198, 256mining, 63–73, 75–6organization, 63, 65, 68–9, 72, 76n,
113, 137paqueao, 113shortages, 63, 66–7, 75, 109, 111,
228–9, 247skill, 14n, 28, 145, 164, 165, 212,
220, 222n, 231, 247slavery see slaveryspecialization, 42, 49, 50, 69,
131, 208ladangs (dry rice cultivation), 70, 71,
188, 190, 198Laguna, 106lakes, 71, 91, 92land
erosion see erosionsoil fertility see soilssustainable use, 19–32
land rights, 164, 169, 171–4, 176, 198collective ownership, 21, 29–31,
254–6, 259communal land and resources, 11–12,
29–30, 110, 171, 198customary rights see customary rights
land-clearingfor agriculture, 21–32, 104, 149for coastal development, 246for settlement purposes, 104forests see deforestation; loggingsee also shifting cultivation; swidden
farminglandscape transformation, 7, 23, 81
and agriculture see specific farmingpractices
China, 212, 219–20, 222development schemes, 174–5and forestry see deforestation; loggingman-made constructs see canals; dams;
reservoirsand mining see miningand urbanization see urbanizationsee also vegetation
Lasan, Antonio, 111Lattimore, Owen, 216, 222n
Index 275
laws, 4, 29, 68fishing, 256forestry, 109–12, 115, 116, 145,
155–6, 172mining, 65, 73, 74, 77nversus customary rights, 109–10, 168,
173, 179nLaws of Johore, 4Leidi hsayadaw, 235–40Lepanto, 106Leyte, 106Le-zin, 234Li Bozhong, 218, 222nLibrada, 112Lieberman, Victor B., 227, 230, 240nLinggiu Dam, 176Little Ice Age, 91, 194livestock, 7, 20, 23, 24, 189
Burma, 155, 227–8, 232–41nhorses, 7, 232–4, 240Siam, 49, 50South India, 84, 86, 89, 94water buffaloes, 23, 24, 55–6, 189,
192, 193, 232, 238–41nlogging, 31–2
Burma, 143Japan, 134–5Malaysia, 174, 175, 177, 179nPhilippines, 107–8, 110–13see also deforestation
Lombok, 186, 195Lopez de Legazpi, Miguel, 104, 117nLorenzo Cheng-Guatco, 113Lou Chou, 206, 212–14, 215Lower Chindwin
agricultural expansion, 227–41army and elites, 231, 234Buddhism, 228, 235–40demographic expansion, 230–40ecology, 227–8, 231–2, 235–40forest-dwelling monks and
anti-beef-eating, 235–40frontier raids, 228–9, 230, 232, 236labor shortage, 228–9Leidi hsayadaw, 235–40livestock, 232–41nmovement to dry zones, 232, 233, 240population mobility, 228–30resources, 228royal state, 228–31, 237
soils and cultivation, 228, 231–4trade, 231war captives, 229–30
lowlands, 8, 46see also rice
Luat Hop Tac Xa [law on cooperatives],256
Lubeigt, Guy, 237–8lumber see timber; woodLuzon, 10, 21, 28–9, 106, 107
Mac Cuu, 52Macassar, 186, 191, 192, 200nmachinery, 14n, 55, 131
logging, 175mining, 67–8, 69, 71, 74, 75,
76n, 129textiles, 42, 131, 214, 215wooden, 127, 131–4
Mae Khlong Fan, 44Mahachai canal, 45, 56nMaize, 6, 7, 26, 194, 198, 219,
220, 228Makino Fumio, 131Malacca, 168, 179n, 187, 191, 196malaria, 51, 71, 165Malay Reservation Enactment (1913),
171Malaysia (Peninsular), 10, 30, 52, 62,
66, 186Aboriginal Malays (Proto-Malays),
164, 165, 166, 169, 179ncolonial control and development,
168–74conservation areas, 172, 174deforestation, 171, 174forest products, 165–7, 169–70immigrants, 168–9land development schemes, 175–6logging, 174, 175, 177, 179nmanufacturing, 163, 174Orang Asli see Orang Asli peopleresources, 163–7, 174standard of living, 163–4Straits Settlements, 168, 172Westernization of trade, 169–71
Maldonado, Juan Pacheco, 105Malloch, D., 53Manchukuo, 134Manchuria, 206, 220
Index276
manganese, 84, 85, 92, 95mangroves, 27, 44, 50, 57n, 170, 247,
252, 258Manila, 104, 105, 106, 108, 111, 113,
114, 116Manipur, 229, 230, 232, 235, 236Mann, M., 81, 96nmanufacturing, 10, 14n, 48
electrical goods, 174imperial manufactures, 208iron products, 54, 207factories, 54, 131, 136, 138, 208,
214, 217, 218, 254, 257Fujian region, China, 217–19textiles see textileswood products, 123–39
Marinduque, 105marine resources see fishing; Vietnammarket demand, 2market forces, 110–11, 199, 259marketing, 71, 74, 131, 191, 207, 238markets, 1–2, 3, 5, 10–11, 26–8
exports see exportslocal (village) markets, 27, 47, 48, 51,
71, 89, 90, 217, 254world markets, 1, 10–11, 71, 76,
77n, 143–51, 198–9, 218, 247, 249
see also specific products; tradeMarx, Karl, 3Masbate, 105, 106, 111Mataram, 191material culture
textiles see textilestimber/wood, 116, 125, 126, 128–9,
133–4, 139Maungdaung, 235, 237Maxwell, W., 4Means, G., 171meat-eating, 166, 186, 235–40Meiji period, 11, 125–39Meiktila, 230Mekong Delta, 186, 196, 197Mekong River, 44, 51, 187Memoria sobre el Ramo de Montes
(Vidal y Soler), 107Memoria sobre la Producción de los
Montes Públicos de Filipinas(Jordana y Morera), 106
Mentok, 76
merchants and entrepreneurs, 42fishing, 250, 251, 254forestry, 109, 110, 112–14, 116mining, 51–4, 63, 71within China, 207, 217–19, 221wood industry, 126, 129see also Chinese merchants and
entrepreneursMetal Ages, 12metals, 10–11, 12
mining see miningsee also specific metals
Meysig, 105Michon, Geneviève, 27migration, 28, 52, 198–9
Burma, 149, 154China, 215, 218, 220Lower Chindwin, 228, 240nVietnam, 253, 256see also displaced/dispossessed people
military control, 84, 112, 116, 143–4,145–54, 158
millet, 86, 88, 233milling, 193, 197, 217Minahasa, 192Minami Ryoshin, 131Minangkabau, 191Minayeff, Ivan, 239Mindanao, 27, 64, 106, 108Mindon, King, 237Mindoro, 106, 112minerals, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 20, 22
Burma, 148, 149, 150Indonesia, 28, 61–77Japan, 124, 129Malaysia, 163, 164, 166Philippines, 103–4South India, 84–5, 87, 95smelting, 62, 63–6, 68, 71, 85, 87see also specific metals
Ming dynasty, 5, 10, 211, 214, 217, 218
mining, 2Bangka-Belitung, West Kalimantan,
61–77Japan, 124, 126, 128, 129–30Malaysia, 168, 171, 175South India, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93,
95, 97nVietnam, 249
Index 277
Misawa Homes, 138Mitsui Homes, 138Mncak, 175Moluccas, 187, 191–2, 196Mon, 229–30monarchs, 143, 148–9, 153, 193,
196–7, 199money, 110, 165, 189, 197, 208money economy, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50–51Mong Cai, 257monks, 235–40monocrops, 22, 199monopolies, 10, 72, 76, 114, 145, 196,
198, 221monsoons, 85, 91, 96n, 105, 193Monywa, 228, 232, 234, 237Monywe, 234Moore, Elizabeth, 228Moron, 113Morong, 106, 114–15Mosk, Carl, 131, 132mountains, 26, 28–9
China, 220, 233Bangka, 64Japan, 124Malaysia, 165, 174, 190Philippines, 104, 107–8, 116nSiam, 43, 44, 47Sumatra, 190
Mu valley, 230Mu River, 231, 240nmulberries, 214, 217Mun River, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47mung boats, 256, 257Musi River, 62Myin Gyan (Hermit of Gado), 233Myingyan, 230Myinsaing, 229
Nakhon Nayok, 46Nakhon Ratchasima, 46Nakhonchaisi, 54Nam Bo, 247Nam Dinh, 246, 252–4“natural capital”, 3“natural” resources v. “unnatural”, 2–8natural resources, defined, 2–8, 12, 84,
123, 125, 164naval vessels, 105, 106, 112, 114, 134,
146, 148, 246, 251, 256
Navotas, 113Nayaka period, 91Ne Win, General, 150Nef, John U., 125–6, 139Negros province, 10, 106Neolithic, 8, 86, 91, 228Netherlands Indies, 61, 116n, 117n,
192, 194New World
crops see exotic cropsgold and silver, 10, 103weeds, 93, 95
Nghia Hau, 253Nghia Hung, 252Nguyen, 251, 253Nguyen, The Anh, 248Nias, 27–8, 187, 191, 195, 199Ninh Binh province, 252Ninh Co Fishing Enterprise, 256Ninh Co River, 252nipa palm, 44, 57n, 104, 105Noi-Lopburi floodplains, 44nomads, 23, 164nonrenewable resources
coal, 2, 68, 124, 125–6, 129, 130minerals see minerals; miningoil, 2, 12
Noone, H.D., 179nNueva Ecija, 106, 107, 117nNueva Vizcaya, 106nuts, 27, 48, 54, 170NV Gemeenschappelijke
Mijnbouwmaatschappij Billiton, 69Nwa-meitta-sa (Leidi hsayadaw), 238
oil, 2, 12oil palm, 6, 22, 174, 175, 176Ong Hean Chooi, 175, 177Operation Aung Soe Moe, 154“Operation Teak”, 153opium, 47, 54, 64, 76n,Opium Wars, 14n, 205Ora, Luis, 114Orang Asli people, 163–80, 179n
assimilation, 174–5characteristics, groups, 164–5customary rights, 164–78dispossession, 163–4, 168, 169,
171–2, 173–6forest legislation, 172
Index278
forest products, use, 165, 166–7,170–1, 176
forest reserves, 171–2, 176Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli
(JHEOA), 173, 174, 175, 178land rights, 167–8, 171–2,
173–7, 178livelihood, 163–77mixed horticulture, 164–5population, 164, 169poverty and deprivation, 165resettlement, 173, 174–5, 176responses to losses, 177–8Semang (Negritos), 164–5, 166, 168,
172, 177, 179nSenoi, 164–5, 168, 171, 179nshifting cultivation, 164–5, 171, 172,
176, 179nstate treatment, 174–7trade, 165, 167
Orang Asli Assistance Fund, 178Orang Asli Association of Peninsular
Malaysia (POASM), 178Orang Laut, 64oranges, 48, 49, 217Orchard, John, 132–3orchards, 46, 98Organization of Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD), 5Orion, 113Oton, 105overexploitation
fishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nforests see deforestationsoils see 21–6, 62, 96, 166see also erosion
ownership of resourcescollective or communal, 11–12, 21,
29–31, 109–10, 171, 198,254–6, 259
customary rights see customary rightsprivate see private ownership
oyatoi (foreign experts), 128–9
Pacific War, 134Pagan, 229Pahang, 165, 177palace-building, 8Palawan, 113Palembang, 62, 64–5, 76n, 190
Paluan, 112palm sugar, 47, 50Pampa, 87Pampanga, 106, 108Panay, 106Pangasinan, 106Pangkalpinang, 76nPangyi, 229, 231Panya, 229paqueao (labor gangs), 113Parang-Parang River, 108Pasak River, 44, 46Pasig River, 108Pattani, 49, 186Patthaya, 52Pearl River Delta, 218Pegu, 186, 192Pegu Yoma range, 148, 152, 154, 156Peninsula Malaysia see Malaysia
(Peninsular)Penrose, E.F., 124Pepper, David, 4pepper, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 71,
75, 191Perak, 169, 175, 179nPests, 6, 21, 28, 104, 145, 216Phetburi, 45, 46Phetchaburi, 50Philadelphia Universal Exposition, 108Philip II, 104, 105Philippines (forestry and timber),
103–22alienation of “wastelands”, 109–10Chinese merchants, 112–13colonial attitudes, 103–4, 116colonial state verus farmers, 109–10contratistas (contractors), 110,
112, 114customary rights, 109–16deforestation, 104, 106–8earthquakes, 111emergence of timber market, 110–11,
114, 116entrepreneurs and merchants, 110,
112–13, 114, 116environmental degradation, 108, 112fires, 105forest cover statistics, 106, 107, 108forest law enforcement, 109–15, 116illegal extraction, 111–12, 115
Index 279
Philippines—continuedlicenses, 109–15logging, 107–8, 110–13main timber-producing areas, 106Manila, 104, 105, 106, 108, 111,
113, 114, 116population growth, 104, 109, 111prices, 111, 114revenue, 110, 111, 116state control, 109–10, 112, 114–16tax, 111, 112, 114, 115timber for construction, 104–5timber for ships, 105–6
Philippines Commission (1899), 112Phitsanulok Sukhotai, 47physical capital, 3, 14n
see also machinery; toolspig iron, 124, 130pigs, 71, 232, 236Pinchot, Clifford, 117n, 118npineapples, 46, 49Pires, Tomé, 186plains, 28, 48, 86, 220, 252
floodplains, 43, 44, 48rice plains, 186, 187, 191, 192, 194,
195, 199plants, 2, 4, 8
exotic crops see exotic cropssustainable cultivation, 19–32vegetation see vegetation
plantations, 9, 22, 187, 208forests, 135, 156–8, 168–9fruit, 46–54rice, 197–8use of labor, 9, 66, 69, 71, 75,
76n, 256see also specific crops e.g. rubber
plateaus, 85, 190politics and resource use
teak in Burma see Burmapoll tax, 53pollen, 82, 91–3, 94, 97nPollok, 108pollution, 3, 246, 258Polo, Marco, 211Pomeranz, Ken, 209, 218, 219, 221ponds, 21, 22, 26, 237populations and demographic
expansion, 5, 7, 8, 9, 19–32Burma, 228–32, 239–40
China, 205–7, 208, 218, 219, 220, 222n
Indonesia, 64, 70, 71, 73, 75Japan, 127, 130, 135–6Malaysia, 163, 164, 169, 176–7, 179Philippines, 26, 104, 105, 109–11Siam, 41–5, 52, 55South India, 82, 84, 85, 87–91, 95, 96urbanization, 5, 32, 41, 111, 163,
190, 198–9, 200n, 245Vietnam, 245, 247, 249, 252, 253,
258, 260nsustainability and demography, 24–26wet rice-growing areas, 186–7, 188,
190, 195, 196, 198–9population and the environment, 7–8,
24–6, 28, 32see also populations and demographic
expansionpoverty, 158, 163, 165, 176, 187, 199,
209, 247Prachin valley, 46, 47Prachinburi, 46prices, 13,
beef, 239fish, 250grain, 221labour, 69, 75, 169land, 20, 117nmanufactured goods, 48, 207minerals, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74,
76, 77nrice, 48, 130, 185, 186, 193, 196,
197, 198, 199timber, wood products, 49, 114, 126,
130, 132, 137, 138, 207private ownership, 9, 20, 21, 29, 31
Malaysia, 168, 171China, 220, 224Japan, 29, 124Vietnam, 245, 254, 259
privatization, 146–7, 245, 254, 259profits, 2–4, 32
mining, 61, 65, 67, 68, 71, 73–4, 76nrice, 196–7timber, 103, 109–13, 116, 144,
146–7, 157, 170see also revenue
PT Timah Co, 73–4pumps, 63, 65, 66, 67, 97n, 212
Index280
Qing dynasty, 206, 214, 220, 222nQinzhou, 219Qu Dajun, 219–20Quang Ninh, 253
Rach Gia port, 250Rachasongkhram, phra, 45Raffles, Lt. Governor Thomas Stamford,
65, 72Raichur district, 91raids, 64, 84, 169, 174, 177, 228–9,
230, 232, 236railways, 66, 95, 126, 128, 130, 147rainfall, 21, 85, 91, 108, 221,
232, 233rainforests see forestsRamathibodi II, 45Rambo, A., 166Rangoon, 145, 150, 153Ratburi, 43, 45, 46rattan, 30, 165, 167, 170Rayong, 46Reclining Buddha of Wat Pa Mok, 55Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias (forest
law), 109recycling, 3, 24, 29Red River, 252, 253Red River Delta, 187, 190, 195,
252, 253refugees, 52, 211, 216, 230regeneration, 2, 22–3, 71, 90, 93, 94–5registers, 45, 46, 47, 179n, 211, 229regulation of extraction, 11, 111, 148,
155, 256, 259see also laws
Reid, Anthony, 1, 194, 195religion, 4, 178, 185, 189, 190, 228,
240, 254Buddhism, 55, 189, 210, 228,
235–40, 241nChristianity, 4, 73, 177, 195, 211Hinduism, 189, 235, 236Islam, 62, 70, 73, 175, 177, 195
remote areas, 31, 32, 199, 220renewable resources, 2, 19–32, 166
see also animals; forests; plants; soils;vegetation
reservations, 171–4, 176, 179nreserves, parks and sanctuaries, 172,
228, 237, 238
reservoirs, 83, 85–97n, 175–6, 200nresettlement schemes, 41–2, 173–6,
228–30resin, 27, 167, 169, 170“resource curse”, 1, 8, 13, 139,
143–58, 186–7“resource peripheries”, 11–12Riau, 64, 71, 76n, 77nRiau Islands, 179nRicardo, David, 3rice, 7–8, 21–32, 185–6
dry rice, 70, 71, 187–90, 198, 200nexports, 187, 191–2, 195–6, 197,
199, 199n, 200nEuropean involvement, 196–7, 199ladangs, 70, 71, 188, 190, 198major producers, 185, 186–7mills, 193, 197origin, 187production, 185–99risks and threats in growing, 193–5,
198–9role of rulers, 189, 196–7, 198, 199surpluses, 47, 192, 195, 198–9, 207,
217, 222nsustainability, 21–32swidden-farming, 187–90, 194, 195technology, 197–8trade, 185–99urbanization and rice, 190–2,
198–9use of slaves, 186, 189, 191, 192,
194, 195, 198, 199, 200nwet rice, 13, 21–2, 23, 26, 27–8, 32:
in China see China; and cities,190–3, 197, 199; compared todry, 187–90, 194, 198; deep-water, 187, 188; labour, 188,195; and livestock, 189; inMalaysia, 165; and populationgrowth, 26, 32, 186–7, 188,190, 195–6, 198–9; and religion,189; sawah (artificially bunded),188–9, 192, 195, 198–9; inSouth India, 85, 88, 92, 93; andtrade, 189–90, 191
“rice bowls”, 191, 194, 196, 198–9, 205
“rice economy”, 185, 219Riggs, F.W., 227
Index 281
rights of indigenous people, 11, 29Karen, Burma, 143, 152–8Orang Asli, Malaysia, 164–80Philippines, 109–10, 111, 114, 116
rights regimes in Vietnam, 245–6rinderpest, 232, 239Rio Grande de Cagayan, 108Rio Grande del Sur, 108“rizification”, 185roads
Indonesia, 70, 71, 194–5Malaysia, 165, 175, 177, 178Philippines, 113Siam, 45–6South India, 88, 89, 95Vietnam, 258see also transport
Robequain, C., 250romanticism, 31, 42, 54–5, 56n, 143,
145, 158, 166, 172, 214–15Romblon, 106Rosenberg, Nathan, 126, 127, 132rotational farming see swidden farmingrubber, 6, 22, 27, 72–3, 165, 169, 170,
174, 176, 192runoff, 29, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93,
94, 97n
Sabah, 76n, 163, 180nsacred sites, 87, 90, 175Sagaing, 229sago, 13, 22, 26, 27, 30, 31, 192Sakhalin, 134, 135Sakhònburi, 45salinization, 57nsalt, 47, 49–50, 51, 208, 247, 253,
254, 258Sam Son, 253Samar, 106, 111Samrong canal, 45Samut Prakan, 45Samut Songkhram, 45San José, 105San Miguel, 105San Nicolás, 105Sandhur Hills, 83–97nSanta Cruz, 105, 112Santa Rosa, 105sappan wood, 45, 47, 48, 54, 55Saraburi, 46
Sarawak, 76n, 163, 180nsavanna, 23, 24, 25“sawahization”, 190, 196sawahs (wet rice), 188–9, 192, 195,
198–9Schatzberg, Eric, 125, 134sea
degradation, 245–6, 247, 258fishing see fishing; Vietnam
sedimentation, 91–2, 93–5, 97n, 175, 252
seeds, 166, 215, 231Sekisui House, 138self-sufficiency, 27, 42–3, 44, 49, 50–1,
197, 234Semai people, 169, 175, 177Semang people (Negritos), 164–5, 166,
168, 172, 177, 179nSenoi people, 164–5, 168, 171, 179nsericulture see silkSethakit Muban Thai nai Adit [The
Thai Village Economy in the Past](Nartsupha), 42
Settsu district, 132Shan States, 149, 229, 233Shanghai, 217, 218–9Shantidas, 236She people, 76shells as currency, 48, 51, 57nshifting cultivation, 22–32
Chinese in Malaysia, 168Karen in Burma, 143, 149, 156–7Orang Asli in Malaysia, 166, 171,
172, 176, 179nShin Nyana, 236Shin Nyeyya, 237ship-building see boat and ship-buildingshipping, 110–11, 132, 170, 189,
217, 251Showa period, 134, 139Siam (Central Thai region)
boat-building, 49canals and waterways, 45, 59Chinese laborers and traders, 42,
51–4, 55coastal zones, 43–4, 49–50diversification, 48–50exploitation system, 46–7floodplains, 43, 44, 48landscape transformation, 55–6
Index282
manufacturing, 48, 54money economy, 48, 49, 50–51plantations and orchards, 46–50,
52, 53–4population, 44–5registration system, 45, 46, 47resources, 47, 48, 49rice-growing, 44, 46, 48role of state, 42–8, 55, 56settlements, 44–5specialization, 48–9, 50suai (tax), 47, 55taxes, 44, 46–7, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55teak, 47, 49topography, 43–44trade and exports, 45, 47, 48–50,
53–4, 55, 57ntransport and transport routes, 45–6,
48, 49wild animals, 44, 47, 48, 55–6
Sichuan, 208sickness see diseasesilk, 6, 47, 124, 128, 130
in Late Imperial China, 207, 208,212, 214, 215, 217
silt, 22, 45, 90, 93, 94–5, 252silver, 3, 10, 14n, 129, 207Singapore, 67, 68, 69, 76n, 158, 168,
169–70, 179n, 180n, 249Sino-Japanese War, 134, 250Siquijor, 106Sitang River, 153Sitang valley, 148slash-and-burn farming, 24, 62, 64,
76n, 192see also swidden farming
slavery, 10, 186rice-growing, 186, 189, 191, 192,
198–9, 200nslave exports, 195slave raiding, 64, 169, 174, 177, 179nsurplus populations, 194, 195, 198–9
smallholders, 21, 22, 27, 28, 32, 71,72–3, 171, 188, 198
Smallholders, Householders (Netting), 21smelting, 62, 63–6, 68, 71, 85, 87Smith, Adam, 2, 3smuggling, 64, 74, 77n, 113, 256social deprivation, 8–9So-Tuico, Manuel, 113
soils, 19–32alluvial, 84, 231–2conservation, 19, 20, 32deltas see deltasfertile, 13, 26, 48, 186–7, 231–2fertility in China, 211, 216, 219fertilizers, 211, 214, 215, 216, 219,
220, 221, 234leaching and nutrient loss, 21–6, 62,
96, 166sustainability of land use, 19–32see also erosion
Sokoloff, Kenneth, 9Soledad 106Soler, Manuel, 112, 115Song dynasty, 207, 210–11, 214,
216, 219South China Sea, 247, 250South India (Northern Karnataka)
agriculture, 86–7, 87, 89–91canals, 86, 88, 89–90, 92climate change, 82, 91dams, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97ndeforestation, 82, 83, 85, 87, 92,
93, 96erosion, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90, 93–5, 96Hampi-Daroji Hills, 85, 87, 92, 93, 96hydrological patterns, 83, 89–90, 93irrigation, 84, 85–7, 88, 89–91,
93, 97nlandscape, 83, 85–6, 87minerals, 84, 85, 92, 94–5mining, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93, 95, 97npollen data, 82, 91–3, 94, 97npopulation expansion, 82, 84, 85,
87–91, 95, 96rainfall and monsoons, 85, 91, 96nreservoirs, 83, 85–97nresources, 84–5rice, 83, 85, 86roads, 88, 89, 95runoff, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97nSandhur Hills, 83–97nsettlement development, 86–90siltation, 90, 93, 94–5soils, 84, 93–5Tungabhadra River, 83–7, 91, 95vegetation change, 83, 84, 86, 87,
91–3, 94–5, 96Vijayanagara, 82, 84, 87–91
Index 283
soybeans, 54, 218, 220Spanish colonialism, 103–18specialization
China, 205, 209, 217, 218, 221iron production, 87labor, 42, 49, 50, 69, 131, 208rice see riceSiam, 48–9, 50timber trade, 110–11
Spice Islands, 166spices, 6, 27, 46, 47, 53, 207Sri Lanka, 187, 196, 197Srivijaya, 62, 190State Law and Order Restoration
Council/State Peace andDevelopment Council (SLORC),150–1, 154
State of Kawthoolei, 153states, 8–12, 29, 31
effect of colonization, 9–10governments see governmentslaws see lawsmanagement of resources and
trade, 8–12regulation see regulationresource richness and economic
development, 12–13taxes see taxessee also specific countries
steel, 84, 95, 116, 129, 131, 132, 136stone, 28–9, 105, 111, 130, 133,
212, 228Straits Settlements, 168, 172suai (tax), 47, 55subsistence, 6, 8, 22, 26–7, 187,
189–90, 191, 195, 199Burma, 154, 232China, 217, 219–20, 221Malaysia, 166, 167, 168Siam, 42South India, 81–2, 89, 90, 96, 96n
Suez Canal, 197sugar, 49, 52, 53–4, 86, 92–3,
95, 217–8Suharto administration, 73–4Sula Islands, 192, 199Sulawesi, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 62, 169,
186, 192Sultanate of Bijapur, 90Sulu Archipelago, 64
Sumatra, 10, 29, 169, 187, 190, 191mining, 61, 62, 64, 66, 69, 71, 74
Sumbawa, 186, 191Sunthorn Pu, 52Suphanburi floodplains, 44Suphanburi River, 44Surabaya, 190Surat, 51surpluses, 207, 217, 221, 222n
rice, 47, 192, 195, 198–9, 207, 217, 222n
sustainable development, defined, 3, 14n
sustainability, 3, 4, 13, 19–32and commerce (arboriculture), 26–8and demography, 24–6and institutions of resource
management, 28–32solutions, 21–32
swamps, 31, 43, 44, 48, 71, 187, 192sweet potatoes, 6, 7, 28, 53–4, 191,
194, 198, 211, 220swidden farming, 21–8, 187–90,
194, 195Burma, 143, 149, 156–7compared to wet rice farming, 187,
188–90, 192, 195Indonesia, 62, 64, 75, 76n, 192Malaysia, 164–5, 166, 171, 172, 176,
179n, 194sustainability, 22–8, 30, 32
symbolism of resources, 125, 132–4,139, 167–8, 215–6, 222n
Symes, Michael, 238
taik, 229, 231Taiping Museum, 179nTaisho period, 139Taiwan, 135, 185, 196, 206Takamatsu Toru, 131Taksin, King, 41, 56Taloub, 237Taman Negara, 172Tanduay, 112tatmadaw (army), 151, 153–4taungyas (hill clearings), 156–7tax, 10, 189, 196
Burma, 145, 156China, 207–8, 209, 210, 212, 214,
215, 216, 217, 221
Index284
Philippines, 111, 112, 114, 115Siam, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55South India, 84Vietnam, 251, 254, 256
taxa weed, 93, 94Tayabas, 106, 107, 112tea, 6, 7, 128, 207, 217, 218, 220teak, 2, 13, 14
politics of teak in Burma see BurmaSiam, 47, 49
technology, 55, 131agriculture, 211–16, 221–2canals, dams, reservoirs see canals;
dams; reservoirsforestry, 31–2, 104mining, 63–9, 71, 74–5, 85, 87native v. imported, 63–4, 75, 129,
131–3rice, 193, 197–8wood see Japansee also industrialization; machinery;
toolsTemenggor Dam, 175Temiar people, 168, 175, 177, 178temples and churches, 49, 71, 189, 238
South India, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95,Philippines, 103, 105, 115, 116
Temuan people, 176Tenasserim, 45, 46, 148terracing, 21, 25, 28–9, 43, 44, 89, 90,
93, 212Territorial User Rights In Fisheries
(TURF), 258textiles, 84, 89, 131, 174, 186
China, 208, 210, 211, 213–16, 219
Thachin River, 45, 49Thailand, 56, 61, 149, 151, 158, 179n,
186, 196Early Modern period see Siamfishing, 249, 250
Thanh Hoa province, 253Thebaw, King, 149Thinh Long harbour, 255, 256, 257Tiagan, 106Ticao, 106timber
extraction see deforestation; loggingin Burma see Burmain Japan see Japan
in the Spanish Philippines seePhilippines
specific trees see specific treessee also construction; boat- and
ship-building; woodtin, 2, 45, 61–71, 152, 165, 166, 168,
169, 171, 174, 175Bangka-Belitung see Bangka-Belitung
tobacco, 6, 7, 42, 52, 53, 54, 66, 173, 218
Toe Hla, 231, 234Tokugawa period, 11, 127, 128, 129,
133, 136, 139, 222nTokyo, 135, 139Tondo, 105Tongsawang people, 192Tonkin, 186, 187, 253, 254
see also Vietnamtools, 14n, 42, 62, 113, 131, 137, 211,
212, 228Torrens system, 171, 179ntourism, 258town-dwelling monks, 235–40Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, 13Toyoda Sakichi, 131Tra Ly River, 252trade, 1–14, 20, 21, 26–8, 29–32
China, 11, 207, 217–8, 221Chinese traders see Chinese merchants
and entrepreneursDutch traders, 48, 50, 51, 62–77“exotic” crops, 5–8forest products, 165–7, 169–70iron see iron traderice, 185–99timber see Burma; Philippinessee also exports; imports; specific
productstrade liberalization, 8–9, 52, 200n,
259–6“tragedy of the commons”, 20, 25,
31, 257“tragedy of indifference”, 20, 21transport of goods, 3–4, 12, 25
barges, 48, 217boats in Siam, 42, 43, 45–6, 48, 50,
51, 57ncarabao, 113carts, 42, 46, 51elephants, 46
Index 285
transport of goods—continuedJapanese sailing ships, 132junks, 48, 49, 53, 170, 250, 251, 254motorcar, 254railways, 66, 95, 126, 128, 130, 147shipping, 189, 217, 251roads, 70, 71, 88, 89, 95, 113, 165,
175, 177, 178, 194–5, 258Trat, 46trawlers, 249–50, 255–7trees and tree crops
agroforestry, 22, 27, 156arboriculture, 21–2, 25, 26–7, 32, 165extraction see deforestation; loggingspecific trees see specific trees
tribute, 9, 47, 62, 63, 64, 72, 192, 233tropical hardwoods see woodTroup, R.S., 128Tuban, 190Tungabhadra Dam, 86, 91, 95, 97nTungabhadra Reservoir, 83Tungabhadra River, 83–7, 91, 95Turnbull, C.M., 170Twinthin, 229typhoons, 108, 114, 253, 257, 258
U Nu, 150, 153United Nations, 151U.S. Bureau of Forestry, 116United States industrialization, 126–8,
133–4unsustainable resource use
agriculture, 19–32fishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nforests see forestsminerals, 65, 69, 72
upland areas, 7environmental degradation, 7, 24, 175exotic crops see specific cropsv. lowlands, 46, 187–8, 194plantations see plantations
urbanization, 5, 32, 41, 84, 87–9, 111, 163, 190, 198–9, 200n, 245
value of resources, 3van der Heide, Homan, 57van Linschoten, Jan Huygen, 186van Ly harbour, 256, 257van Vliet, Jeremias, 44, 48–9, 51
vegetables, 7, 42, 89, 130, 166, 186,192, 217
see also specific vegetablesvegetation
burning off see swidden-farmingchanges in South India, 83, 84, 86,
87, 91–3, 94–5, 96degradation, 32, 71, 112, 166fallow land, 22–3, 24, 27, 29–30, 32,
190, 232grasslands, 23–5, 28, 30, 32, 48, 50,
104, 112, 220see also deforestation; land-clearing
Vidal y Soler, Domingo, 112Vidal y Soler, Sebastían, 103, 107–115Viet Minh, 251Vietnam, fishing industry, 245–63
access rights, 254, 258–9catch data, 248–9, 255, 257Chinese fishers and traders, 249–50,
254coastal villages, 250–1, 253–4, 258–9consumption, 246, 249control and protection of waters,
256–7cooperatives, 255–6environmental degradation, 245–6,
247, 258expansion, 246–7exports, 247, 249, 251, 253–4fish products and processing, 246,
249, 254, 257fishery zones, 247fishing rights, 245, 258–9French colonial period, 249–52,
253–4from 1945, 254–5from 1975, 255–7gillnetting, 248, 257Gulf of Bac Bo, 247, 253marginalization of small fishers,
258–9Nam Dinh province, 246, 252–4natural hazards, 245, 252–3, 257–8naval activity, 246, 251, 256overfishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nprivatization, 259sea dikes, 252, 257, 258sea levels, 246, 257state management, 259
Index286
trawlers, 249–50, 255–7vessels and equipment, 247–8, 255–7
Vijayanagara, 82–97village economy, 27, 42, 44, 49,
50–1, 234Vinh, 250, 253Visayas, 106volcanoes, 228von Bosch, Adolph, 112
Wallace, Alfred Russell, 166Wang Zhen, 211, 212–14war
and fishing, 248, 251, 255and mining, 67, 69, 75, 95, 130and rice, 189, 193and timber, 123, 135, 138, 139,
149, 153and wood, 116, 130, 134–6, 138,
145–6, 148–9, 151war captives, 229–30warships, 49, 106, 146waste products, 2, 3, 118n, 220,
233, 258“wastelands”, 5, 32, 109, 171, 189, 220water, 21, 28, 61, 96
dams, 28, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97n,174, 175, 176
dikes, 196, 210, 212, 245, 252, 258drainage, 48, 71, 89, 190, 196, 197hydrology, 82, 83, 87, 95, 110rainfall, 21, 85, 91, 221, 232, 233reservoirs, 83, 85–97n, 175–6, 200nuse in mining, 63, 66, 68, 74wet rice-growing see rice
water buffaloes, 23, 24, 55–6, 189, 192,193, 232, 238–9, 240, 241n
water pumps, 63, 65, 66, 67, 97n, 212watercourses, 83, 89–90, 93, 108, 220waterways and canals
China, 217, 220Siam, 44, 45, 56nSouth India, 86, 88, 89–90, 92
weeds, 21, 22, 24, 92, 93, 95, 196Wei-An Chang, 209, 218wells, 4, 86, 97n, 232Western Ghat foothills, 86, 95Western industrial capitalism resource
view, 2wetlands, 233, 240, 252
wild animalsBurma, 228, 237Malaysia, 165, 166, 167, 170Siam, 44, 47, 48, 55–6South India, 93
wildlife depletion, 7, 8, 175, 176, 238
Williams, Michael, 106Wittfogel hypothesis, 189World War I, 130, 134–5, 138World War II
mining, 67, 69, 75, 116timber, 123, 135, 138, 153
Wong, R. Bin, 209, 210wood, 3, 8, 14, 42
agar, 48amugis, 113, 114buildings see constructioncordwood, 113, 130firewood, 27, 49, 57n, 86,
112, 115fuel, 125–6, 129, 130, 135, 168gaharu, 167guijo, 113, 114hardwoods generally, 2, 14n, 54, 104,
113–14, 145Japanese wood industry, 123–39lauan, 114mangrove, 27, 50maniknik, 114molave, 104–5oak, 14n, 106, 146plywood, 126–7sappan, 47, 48, 54ship-building see boat- and
ship-buildingtangile, 114teak, 2, 13, 14n, 47, 49, 143–58“wild wood”, 2–3
woodlands, 23, 24, 96, 106, 124, 126, 139
see also forests; vegetationWorcester, Dean, 103Worcum, 49World Commission on Environment
and Development (BrutlandCommission), 14n
Wuysthoff, Gerrit, 51
Xu Guangqi, 211
Index 287