Index [link.springer.com]978-0-230-60753-8/1.pdf · South India, 88–90, 92–4 Lower Chindwin, ... Bikol province, 10 ... Cotabato, 108 cotton, 6, 42, 51, 53–4, 84, 89, 234

Aboriginal Malays (Proto-Malays), 164,165, 166, 169, 179n

Aboriginal Peoples Act, (1974), 173–4,176

Aboriginal Peoples Ordinance (1954),179n

Abra, 106access to resources

communal land, 11–12, 29–30, 110,171, 198

open access, 8–9, 11–12, 20, 29–30see also customary rights; private

ownershipAcemoglu, Daron, 5, 9Acheh/Aceh, 191, 192agrarian economies, 11, 84, 206, 210agriculture, 2, 19–32

effect of overexploitation onvegetation see vegetation

intensification, 24–6, 84, 88–9, 218,219–20

irrigation see irrigationlivestock see livestockNew World plants see exotic cropsrice see ricerice in China see Chinashifting cultivation see shifting

cultivationslash and burn, swidden farming see

swidden farmingsoil fertility see soilssustainability, 19–32

agricultural expansion, 7–8, 32China, 219–20South India, 88–90, 92–4Lower Chindwin, 227–41

Agricultural Involution (Geertz), 21, 199Agricultural Treatise (Nongshu) (Wang

Zhen), 211, 212, 213–14

Agrodiversity, 7Agroforestry, 22, 27, 156Ahern, George, 103Akkeringa Drill (Bangka Drill), 66Alaunghpaya, King, 230Albay, 105, 117nalien crops see exotic cropsalienation from land see

displaced/dispossessed peoplealientation of land, 109–110alluvial minerals, 62, 72alluvial soils, 84, 231–2Alon, 231, 234, 237American Bureau of Forestry, 103American colonialism, 103–4, 116Americas (The), 3, 6, 7, 9, 20, 135, 207Amoy, 67ancestral lands see land rightsAndaman Islands, 84Andaman Sea, 179nAndaya, Barbara, 170Andaya, Leonard, 170Andreas, Julian, 113Angkor, 200nAnglo-Burmese Wars, 148–9animals, 7, 8, 13, 253

for eating, 166, 186, 236hunting, 23, 44, 47, 93, 155,

165, 171livestock see livestockmanure, 234reserves and sanctuaries, 172, 228,

237, 238wild see wild animalsworking, 113, 189, 192–3, 232,

233, 238anthropogenic areas, 82, 83, 86, 93,

166, 169anti-Communist Emergency, 173

Index

appropriated land, 169, 175see also displaced/dispossessed people

“appropriated” v. “unappropriated”land, 4–5, 171–2

aquaculture see fishingArakan, 186, 195, 230, 232arboriculture, 21–2, 26–7, 32

see also specific treesareca palm, 46, 48, 86aristocracy, 30, 31, 189, 193, 210, 234

see also elitesArroyo, Manuel, 112artificial materials, 125, 126–7, 129,

134, 137ASEAN, 151Assam, 229, 230Aung San Suu Kyi, 151Aung-Thwin, Michael A., 227Australia, 66, 150, 151, 250autarky, 43, 49, 150Ava, 227, 229, 230Ayutthaya, 41–52

Ba Lat River, 252Ba Vui, 257Babel, 61Bac Ninh, 253Bach Thai Buoi, 251Bagac, 113Balabac, 106, 113Bali, 21, 26, 186, 195bamboo, 104, 105, 167, 256bandits, 152, 238Bang Pakong Delta, 44Bang Pakong River, 46Bangka-Belitung (tin mining)

Belitung (Billiton), 62, 68–9, 70Chinese labor dominance, 63–70, 75Chinese merchants, 63, 76Chinese population, 69, 70, 71, 73colonial administration, 65, 68, 70, 75control of resources, 61, 64, 65, 68,

73–4coolie recruitment, 64–71deforestation, 71, 75demographic changes, 70depletion, 65, 69, 72environmental degradation, 66, 71,

74, 75Europeanization of mining, 65–9

exports to China, 62infrastructure, 71, 75kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nlabor shortage, 66–7landscape transformation, 70–1payment of wages, 67, 71, 73, 76npiracy and smuggling, 64, 74, 77nprices, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74,

76, 77nproduction, 63, 65, 69, 76nprofits, 61, 65, 67, 68, 71, 73–4, 76nsettlements, 70slash-and-burn, 62, 64, 76ntechnology, 63–9, 74–5tribute, 62, 63, 64, 72

Bangka Tinwinning, 67–8, 71Bangkok, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53Bangladesh, 185, 186, 194Bangplasoi, 54Bangplasoi port, 52Banpakong, 52, 54, 56nBankoff, Greg, 83Banten, 191, 192Bantheay Meas (Ponthiamas), 52Bao, Dai, 251Barbier, Edward, 3Barbosa, Duarte, 186barges, 48, 217bartering, 42, 50Bataan, 106, 107Batak Uplands, 191Batangas, 106, 107Batavia, 49

mining, 62–3, 64, 65, 68, 73rice-growing, 192–3, 196–7see also Jakarta

beans, 54, 220, 233beeswax, 47, 167, 169Beihei port, 67Belinyu, 66Belitung (Billiton), 62, 68–9, 70Bellary, district, 91Bengal, 186, 195Besemah, 191Bhadra River, 95Bikol province, 10Billiton Maatschappij, 68–9Binondo, 113biodiversity, 7, 8, 19, 22, 23, 27Blaikie, Piers, 20

Index266

“blood” resources, 143, 157–8boat- and ship-building, 2, 14n

Burma, 143, 145, 232, 256Japan, 132for the navy see naval vesselsPhilippines, 103, 105–6, 111, 114,

116, 117nSiam, 42, 49

boats as transport for goods, 113, 189, 217

Siam, 42, 43, 45–6, 48, 50, 51, 57nBodawhpaya, King, 231, 236Bogor, 26Bohol, 106Bombay Burmah Trading Corp Ltd

(BBTCL), 146, 149Boomgaard, Peter, 83, 205Borneo, 76n, 163, 165, 180n

forest-clearing, 23gold, 72–3land ownership, 29rice-growing, 188, 192, 194Sabah, 76n, 163, 180nSarawak, 76n, 163, 180n

Boserup, Ester, 26boundary v. transboundary resources, 14Bowring Treaty (1855), 48Bradley, D.B., 50Brantas Delta, 190Bray, Francesca, 63, 196, 197breadfruit, 13, 46bricks, 48, 49, 50, 126, 129, 133British colonialism

Burma, 146, 148–50, 152–6India, 81–2, 90, 91, 96n, 147Indonesia, 65Malaysia, 168–74

British industrialization, 125–6, 128,170, 209, 222n

bronze, 12Brookfield, Harold, 20Browne, Horace A., 239Budalin, 233, 237Buddhism, 55, 189, 210, 228,

235–40, 241nBugis, 62, 63building companies, 138, 139buildings see constructionBukit Barisan, 190, 191Bukit Seruk, 190

Bulacan, 106, 117nbunds, 22, 46, 48, 214Buol, 30Burma, Lower Chindwin see Lower

ChindwinBurma (teak forestry), 143–58

alienation of Burmese State, 148,150–1

Anglo-Burmese Wars, 148–9army (tatmadaw) control, 151, 153–4British colonial rule, 146–7, 149–50,

154–7Burmese State control, 153–5competing interests, 143–58deforestation, 148, 149exports, 146, 150fire prevention campaign, 155–6forest resources, 146Four Cuts anti-insurgency campaign

(Pya Ley Pya), 154geopolitics, 147–51identity as “land of teak”, 143,

145, 146illegal extraction, 145Karen shifting cultivators, 143, 149,

152–8labor, 145merits of teak, 145military junta (SLORC), 150–1political economy, 144, 145regulatory control, 154–7“resource curse”, 144–5, 146, 150,

154, 157–8resource militarization, 152–4role of elites, 143, 144, 145role of foreign firms, 146–7, 148–9ship-building industry, 143,

145–6, 148tax, 145teak as an imperial resource, 145–6use of profits, 147use of revenue, 147, 150

Burmese Way to Socialism, 150burning off see swidden farmingBurzynski, Joseph, 110

cacao, 6, 7, 74, 194, 198Cagayan, 106, 108, 111, 117nCalifornia, 66, 136Calle Lacoste, 113

Index 267

Camarines, 105, 106Cambodia, 43, 46, 52, 186, 249camphor, 167, 169canals, 45, 59, 86, 88, 89–90, 92,

197, 217Canton, 52, 53, 219, 220capital see labor; machinery; technology

natural resources, 3capitalism, 2, 3, 4, 11

forestry in Peninsular Malaysia,163–80

forestry in the Spanish Philippines,103–18

wood in Japan, 123–39Cardona, 114–15cash crops, 27, 29, 71, 73, 75, 177, 221

see also specific cropscassava, 6, 7, 74, 194, 198Catbalogan, 111cattle, see livestockCavite, 105, 106, 107Cawang, 175Cebu, 105, 106, 108, 117Centre for Orang Asli Concerns

(COAC), 178cereals see grain; riceCeylon, 187, 196, 197Chachoengsao, 46, 52, 54Chainat, 43, 56nChakri, dynasty, 41Champa, 251Chanthaburi, 45, 46, 47, 54Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] basin, 41,

43, 45Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] Delta, 43–4,

47, 56n, 57n, 196, 197Chaophraya [Chao Phraya] River, 44,

48, 49, 50, 51, 187charcoal, 50, 64, 66, 71, 87, 92, 93,

113, 124, 129, 130Chattip Nartsupha, 42–3, 48, 49, 50,

54–5Chayanov, 208chemicals, 12, 74, 129, 222n, 258Cheng-Guatco, Lorenzo, 113Chi River, 43, 44, 45, 47Chiangmai, 47Chiefs, 30, 31, 47Chin people, 229China (Late Imperial)

as agrarian state, 11, 210cotton, see cottondiversification, 218, 219, 222ndouble-cropping, 216–7elites, 207environmental pressure, 219–22exports, 207farming methods, 211–13, 215, 216,

219–20fishing, 249, 250, 251, 254gender roles, 213–14imports, 207intensification, 205, 208, 214, 219–20irrigation, 206, 212Jiangnan region, 211–12, 214–17, 221landless people, 220landscape transformation, 212,

219–20manufacturing and production,

208–9, 217–19merchants, 207, 218, 221non-rice crops, 208, 214, 217,

220, 221population pressure, 205, 206–7,

218, 219, 220protection of resources, 220–1rice-growing, 212–17, 219rulers’ goals, 206, 207, 209–12, 221sericulture and cotton, 214specialization, 205, 209, 217–18, 221taxes, 207–8, 210, 214, 217, 221technology, 211–16, 221–2textiles, 211, 213–16, 217–18trade, 11, 207, 217–18, 221welfare, 209–11

Chindwin, Lower see Lower ChindwinChindwin River, 149, 228, 230,

232, 240nChinese fishermen, 249–54Chinese immigrant laborers

agriculture, 42, 52–4, 56, 168, 191, 192

forestry, 115mining, 63–72, 76n, 77n, 168

Chinese merchants and entrepreneurs,5, 10–11

fishing, 249–50foresty, 112–13, 169–70mining, 51–4, 63, 71rice, 193, 199

Index268

Chola Empire, 84Chonburi, 43, 46Christianity, 4, 73, 177, 195, 211Ch’ung Ning She, 113churches and temples

Buddhist, 238construction, 49, 89, 103, 105,

115, 116South India, 88, 89, 90, 95use of bonded labour, 189

cinchona, 6cities, 5, 190–3, 199

in Burmese states, 229in China, 208, 217, 220in Indonesia, 190–3in Japan, 135–6in Malaysia, 163in South India, 89, 96nsee also specific cities

climate change, 7, 82, 91, 96n, 108,245–6

cloth and clothingChina, 208, 214, 215, 217, 218Japan, 130, 131Siam, 51see also cotton; silk; textiles

coal, 2, 68, 124, 125–6, 129, 130coastal areas

Burma, 148fishing in Vietnam see VietnamMalaysia, 165–6, 169Philippines, 104Siam, 43–4, 49–50

Cochinchina, 251, 196cocoa, 22coconuts, 12, 22, 26, 27

Siam, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53South India, 86, 92, 93

coffee, 6, 7, 22, 54, 65, 76n, 195, 197collective ownership, 21, 29–31,

254–6, 259Collins, Thomas, 113, 114colonialism, 4, 5, 9–10, 11, 26, 81–2

American, 103–4, 116British see British colonialismChinese, 207, 221Dutch, 62–77, 179n, 192–3, 194French, 149, 249–54Spanish, 103–18

“Columbian exchange”, 6, 194–5, 199

commercialization of resourcesagriculture, 31–2exports see exportsfishing see Vietnamforestry see Burma; Japan; Malaysia;

Philippinessee also specific resources; trade

communal land and resources, 11–12,29–30, 109–10, 171, 198

Communism, 173, 176competition for resources, 11, 12, 28,

48, 61fisheries, 246–7, 250, 258forest resources, 104, 110, 114–16,

134, 169–70labor, 66, 75, 76n

Complete Treatise on AgriculturalAdministration [Nongzhengquanshu] (Xu Guangqi), 211, 217

conservationfish, 258forests, 19, 32, 114, 166, 172, 174soils, 19, 20

constructionboats and ships see boat- and

ship-buildinghouses, 104–5, 111, 133, 135–9,

145, 167railways, 130temples and churches, 49, 89, 103,

105, 115, 116“contested spaces”, 12contratistas (contractors), 110, 112, 114cooperatives

fishing in Vietnam, 254–6mining in Indonesia, 53, 56, 68

copper, 8, 12, 129, 228copra, 27coral reefs, 258corn see maizeCoromandel Coast, 51, 186, 187, 195Corruption, 13, 113, 115, 144, 255corte de Madera, 106corvee, 9, 42, 47, 52, 189, 231Cossay, 231Cotabato, 108cotton, 6, 42, 51, 53–4, 84, 89, 234

in China, 207, 208, 214–19, 220, 221Crawfurd, J., 53–4crocodiles, 44, 48, 56

Index 269

crops, see specific cropsculture, 4customary rights, 11, 29

Burma, 143–58Malaysia, 163–80Philippines, 109–16

Dai Viet, 251Dampier, William, 186dams, 28, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97n, 174,

175, 176Daroji Reservoir, 83, 94, 97nDaroji Valley, 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 95Day River, 252Dayaks, 27, 72, 73, 75, 192de Ibarra, José, 113de Foresta, Hubert, 26de Vries, Jan, 209, 218, 222ndeer and deerskins, 23, 24, 45, 47,

48, 51deforestation, 7, 8, 22, 24, 28,

32, 125–6Burma, 146, 149China, 219, 220Indonesia, 66, 71, 73, 75Japan, 134–6, 139Malaysia, 171, 174, 176nPhilippines, 104, 106–8South India, 82–3, 85, 87, 92, 93,

96, 96nVietnam, 245

degradation of resources seeenvironmental degradation

deltas, 186, 187, 195–6, 197Burma, 232, 240China, 211, 217, 218, 222nJava, 190, 195Siam, 43–8, 56n, 57nSouth India, 84Vietnam, 190, 252, 253see also specific deltas

demography see populations anddemographic expansion

Denmark, 158Dentan, Robert, 4, 175, 177Department of Orang Asli Affairs

(Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli)(JHEOA), 173, 174, 175, 178

depletion of resources, 3, 55, 168forest resources, 167, 170, 175, 176

minerals, 65, 69, 72wildlife, 7, 8, 175, 176, 238see also deforestation

Dhanayakanakere, 89, 90Diamond, Jared, 13dikes, 196, 210, 212, 245, 252, 258disease, 42, 64, 65, 66, 165, 173,

193–4, 206, 232, 233, 239Malaria, 51, 71, 165

displaced/dispossessed people, 23, 24China, 220Burma, 143, 152–8, 235, 238Malaysia see Orang Asliresettlement, 41–2, 173–6, 228–30

diversification, 41, 42, 50, 74, 185, 194China, 218–20, 222nLower Chindwin, 232–3Malaysia, 164–5, 166

Doab region, 81, 96ndomesticated animals see livestockdrainage, 48, 71, 89, 190, 196, 197drought, 193, 194, 197, 232dry rice see ricedry zone crops/dry farming, 84, 86, 88,

89, 91, 232–3, 240Dunn, F.L., 166, 167Durian, 46, 49, 166, 168Dutch colonialism, 62–77, 179n,

192–3, 194Dutch East India Company [Vereenigde

Oostindische Compagnie] (VOC), 2,48, 62, 64, 188, 192, 194, 196,197, 199, 200n

Dutch traders, 48, 50, 51, 62–77duties, 42, 46, 48

Early Historic period, 85, 86–7, 93Early Modern period

Imperial China, 205–22Lower Chindwin, 227–41Siam (Central Thai region), 41–58

earthquakes, 105, 111, 135, 136, 138East India Company (EIC), 188,

197, 199Echague, 112ecological adaptation, 164–5, 167ecological change, 7–8, 11–12

Lower Chindwin, 227–40ecological damage see environmental

degradation

Index270

“ecological footprint”, 190, 199“ecological release”, 6economic performance of resource-rich

countries, 8–14economies of scale, 25, 198, 251ecosystems, 19, 22–3, 219

forests, 22, 27, 139, 168, 237, 240seas, 248, 250

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO),193, 194, 253

elites, 9, 10, 30, 56, 84, 114, 137Burma, 143–5, 147, 158China, 207, 221, 231, 234

Elvin, Mark, 208, 210, 218, 219, 221–2Endicott, Kirk, 165, 168, 169, 173,

177, 179nEngerman, Stanley, 9, 10engineers, 28, 57n, 66, 67, 68, 109,

125–39“environment”, meaning, 5environmental degradation, 1–32, 81–2

and commercial decline, 28forests, 108, 112, 175, 176, 179nland see erosionmining, 66, 71, 74, 75seas, 245–6, 247, 258soils, 21–6, 62, 96, 166specific countries see specific countriessee also deforestation; vegetation

epidemics, 193–4, 206Ermita, 105erosion, 7, 11, 19, 20, 21–3, 29, 32

China, 219, 220Malaysia, 171, 175South India, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90,

93–5, 96see also soils

European companies and firms, 67–8,75, 146–7, 148–9, 197

East India Company (EIC), 188, 197, 199

see also Dutch East India Company(VOC)

European colonialism, 4, 9–10see also specific administrationsenvironmental effects, 220

“exotic” crops, 5–8, 95, 96, 194–5, 199

and ecological change, 7–8and population growth, 7

types, 5–7see also specific crops

exploitation of indigenous peoples, 9,64, 154–7

explosives, 85, 97n, 258exports, 1, 5–6, 8–9, 27–8, 62, 65

Burma, 143, 145–7, 149, 150, 241nChina, 207, 218, 219, 220, 220nIndonesia, 62, 65, 73, 75–6, 191, 192Japan, 130, 131Malaysia, 163, 167, 169, 171, 174Philippines, 103, 112, 114, 116Siam, 45, 47, 48–50, 53–4, 55, 57nSouth India, 95Vietnam, 247, 249, 251, 253–4

extraction of resources, 1, 2, 3, 9–10,11, 24

fishing see Vietnamminerals see miningtrees see Burma; Malaysia; Philippines

factories, 54, 131, 136, 138China, 208, 214, 217, 218Vietnam, 254, 257

failed crops and harvests, 10, 51, 193–5,200n, 217, 232, 241n

fallow land, 22–32, 190, 232famine, 13, 30, 82, 96, 193, 194, 195,

200n, 208, 209, 211farming practices, 19–32

agroforestry, 22, 27, 156irrigation see irrigationlivestock see livestockrotational farming see swidden

farmingshifting cultivation see shifting

cultivationslash-and-burn farming see swidden

farmingwet rice see rice

Farming and Weaving Illustrated[Gengzhi Tu] (Lou Chou), 206,212–14

Federation of Malaya, 174, 180nFederation of Malaysia, 163, 180n

Peninsula Malaysia see Malaysia(Peninsular)

see also Borneofees and fines, 47, 65, 67, 74, 112, 145,

149, 156, 175, 254

Index 271

Felize Esperanza, 106fertility of soils see soilsfertility (humans), 186, 195, 200nfertilizers, 166, 211, 214, 215, 216,

219, 220, 221, 234fire, 23, 24–5, 107

slash-and-burn farming, 62, 64, 76n, 192

see also swidden farmingfire protection/prevention, 30, 155–6firewood, 27, 49, 57n, 86, 112, 115First Taung-ngu Dynasty, 227fish products, 254, 257fishing

Chinese entrepreneurs, 249–50Chinese fishermen, 249, 250,

251, 254industry in Vietnam see VietnamSiam, 44, 48, 50

flooding, 7, 11, 22, 26, 28, 188Burma, 232China, 209, 210Malaysia, 175, 176Philippines, 108, 114Siam, 44, 46, 54South India, 94Vietnam, 245, 252–3, 257–8

floodplains, 43, 44, 48flora and fauna, 7–8, 13, 23, 24, 253

see also wild animals; vegetationfood

aboriculture, 26–7agroforestry, 22, 27, 156availability, 13, 19, 21, 24, 52cultural value, 84exotic crops, 5–8famine see faminefield crops, 22, 26foraging, 164, 176, 177forest products, 166–7, 168fruit see fruitgrain see grain; riceimported, 21, 24, 27, 28loss through dispossession, 176meat, 166, 186, 235–40nonrice crops, 194, 198as payment, 165plant parts, 166rice see ricestaple foods, 26, 28, 48

vegetables see vegetableswild food, 166–7, 168, 194see also specific crops

Foot, R. Bruce, 95foothills, 43, 47, 52, 53–4, 86, 165forests, 27, 31–2

agroforestry, 22, 27, 156Burma see Burmaconservation, 19, 32, 114, 172, 174customary rights of Orang Asli,

163–80deforestation see deforestationecosystems, 22, 27, 139, 168,

237, 240extraction see loggingJapan, 123–5, 127, 139Malaysia see MalaysiaPhilippines see Philippinesreforestation, 135replanting, 134, 135reserved areas, 30, 86, 155, 172, 174shifting cultivators, 143, 149, 156–7

forest products (non-timber), 2, 12, 27,44, 47, 109, 112, 146, 155, 166–8

forest-dwelling monks, 228, 235–40forestry departments, 108–15, 146,

148–9, 152, 153, 172Frank, André Gunder, 209French colonialism, 149, 249–54French Indochina, 249–54Friedel, Robert, 125fruit, 4, 12–13, 26, 27, 186, 192

Malaysia, 166, 168, 174, 175Siam, 46, 48, 49, 50, 57nsee also specific fruits

fuelscharcoal, 50, 64, 66, 71, 87, 92, 93,

113, 124, 129, 130wood, 125–6, 129, 130, 135, 168

Fujian, 208, 217furnaces, 66, 87

gender, 213–14, 218Gharib Newaz, 236Giao Lam, 255, 256, 257Giao Phong, 257Giao Thuy, 253gold, 3, 10, 49, 51, 61, 72–5, 116n,

103, 129, 165, 191Gourou, Pierre, 26, 250, 251

Index272

governments, 10, 11, 28, 185, 196–7Burma, 150, 153, 154–5China, 11, 205–10, 220–1Indonesia, 61, 65–9, 73–4, 77n,

194–5, 196–7Japan, 124, 128, 137, 139Malaysia, 165, 169, 171–8, 179nPhilippines, 103–4, 109–12,

114–15, 116Siam, 47, 52, 55Vietnam, 247, 254, 256, 259–60

grainChina, 210, 213–14, 217, 218,

220, 221South India, 86–7, 89

Grand Canal, 217grass, 23, 24, 66, 86, 92, 93, 95, 233grasslands, 23–5, 28, 30, 48, 50, 104,

112, 220Great Fish Race, 250Great Kantp Earthquake (1923),

135“green deserts”, 123“green gold”, 143Green Revolution, 186, 210Gresik-Joratan, 190Guinayangan, 112Gulf of Bac Bo, 247, 253Gulf of Thailand, 46, 50, 52, 56n, 251Gulf of Tonkin, 249–50, 255gutta percha, 170

Ha Long islands, 253Ha Tien, 52, 250Hai Hau district, 252, 253, 256, 257Hai Nan, 250Hai Phong, 253Haikou port, 67Hakka, 64, 76nHamilton, G., 209, 218Hampi-Daroji Hills, 85, 87, 92, 93, 96Han dynasty, 216, 220Hangzhou, 211Hanoi, 252, 258Harbors, 190, 191, 246, 256, 257Hardin, Garrett, 29Hau Hau, 257Hayami Akira, 218, 222nHayter, Roger, 11Heeck, Gijsbert, 48–9, 51, 55

Heita Kawakatsu, 11Hindle, Brooke, 126, 139Hinduism, 189, 235, 236hinterlands, 45, 191, 192–3, 197, 199,

207, 217, 222n, 232Ho Chi Minh, 251Holland-China Handels Compagnie

(HCHC), 67Home Islands, 134Hong Kong, 66, 67, 247, 249Horn, 51, 57n, 167horses, 7, 232–4, 240Horsfield, Thomas, 64, 65Hospet, 83, 91, 97nhousing construction, 104–5, 111, 133,

135–9, 167human capital see laborHunan, 217, 220hunting, 23, 44, 47, 93, 155,

165, 171hydraulic systems, 71, 189, 212, 221–2Hsaya San rebellion, 152Huang, Philip, 208, 218Hubei, 217, 220

Ifugao, 28–9Ilocos region, 106Iloilo, 117nimmigrants, 64, 167, 169

Chinese laborers see Chinese laborersimperial resources

China see China (Late Imperial)teak see Burma

imports, 21China, 52, 219, 220Indonesia, 8, 191Japan, 134, 135, 138–9Malaysia, 191Philippines, 8, 12Siam, 48, 51Vietnam, 251

India, 1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14n, 54, 82, 251

colonial administration in Burma,147–9, 152, 196

cotton, 51, 219rice, 185, 186, 187, 194see also South India

indigo, 48, 53, 192, 217, 220Indios, 109, 110, 115

Index 273

individual ownership see privateownership

Indochina War, 251Indonesia

gold in West Kalimantan, 72–5rice see ricestate management of resources, 68, 69tin mining see Bangka-Belitungsee also Sumatra; Borneo

Indonesian Centre for Soil andAgroclimate Research, 26

Indonesian Constitution (1945), 68, 73Infanta, 106Inocencio, Doroteo, 113industrial raw materials, 169, 170industrial revolution, 125–6, 128,

209, 222nindustrialization, 2–3, 12, 170, 199

Britain, 125–6, 128, 170, 209, 222nJapan, 11, 14n, 123–39Philippines, 10Siam, 10, 41United States, 126–8, 133–4

“industrious” v. “industrial”, 2, 209,218, 222n

infrastructure development, 10, 25, 26see also roads; transport

“insatiable appetite” for resources, 2,14n, 32

Inspección general de Montes (forestrydepartment), 109, 115, 116

investment, 3, 14ncrops, 21fishing, 247–8, 257forest products, 170–1land, 9, 25–6, 29mining, 61, 67, 68, 75timber, 138, 147see also merchants and entrepreneurs

Iron Age, 85, 86–7, 93, 125iron sources, 8, 28, 47, 48, 62, 85, 92,

94–5, 126, 129iron trade, 12, 28, 54, 62, 84, 85, 87,

116, 131, 132, 207Irrawaddy Delta, 154, 196Irrawaddy River, 187, 197, 228, 232Irrawaddy valley, 148, 229irrigation, 21–32

Burma, 232, 234China, 200n, 206, 209, 212

Indonesia, 26, 63, 192Philippines, 26South India, 84, 85–7, 88, 89–91,

93, 97nVietnam, 245wet rice see ricesee also canals; dams; reservoirs

Isabela, 106Isla de Corregidor, 106Islam, 62, 70, 73, 175, 177, 195

Jakarta, 73–4, 192Japan, 11

carpenters, daiku, 127, 129–30, 131,136–9

colonialism, 196, 205–6deforestation and war, 134–6fish comsumption, 249foreign oyatoi, 128–9forest resources, 123–5, 127, 139housing construction, 133, 135–9imported lumber, 138–9“industrial revolution” context,

125–9industrialization, 11, 14n, 123–39logging, 134–5“Japanese-ness” of wood, 127, 133Meiji period, 11, 125–39mining, 129–30, 207rebuilding of Tokyo, 135, 139role of wood in industrialization,

123–39silk, 130symbolic value of wood, 125, 126–7,

132–3technological innovation, 130–2trade, 1, 5, 11trawling in Gulf of Tonkin, 249–50wood: as fuel, 129, 130, 135; material

culture, 125–9, 133–4, 139; v.other materials, 126–7, 129,130–1, 133; railroad-building,130;in ship-building, 132; inwar, 134–6

wooden machines, 127, 131–4zairai-koho (“the way we build”),

136, 137, 138Java, 2, 8, 26, 29, 54, 117n, 186–99

mining, 65, 69, 72, 73, 77nJava-China-Japan Line, 67

Index274

Jepara, 190Jesuits, 211Jiangnan region, 211–12, 214–17,

222nJiangxi, 208Johor, 170, 176Jordana y Morera, Ramón, 106, 115Julia, 112junks, 48, 49, 53, 170, 250, 251, 254

Kabinburi, 43, 46Kachin people, 229Kadebakele, 87Kaempfer, Engelbert, 49, 55–60Kalimantan, West, 30, 72–5, 76n,

188, 194see also Borneo

Kamalapuram, 88, 92, 94, 97nKapuas River basin, 76nKaren people, 143, 149, 152–8Karen National Union (KNU), 153Karim, W., 175Karnataka (Northern), 82–97Kerinci, 187, 191King George V National Park, 172Kingdom of Pagan, 227Klabat Bay, 76nKlaeng, 47Kobayashi Ushisaburo, 124, 135Koenig, J.G., 56Koloniaal Verslag, 71, 76nKòn-baung, 237Konbaung, 231kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nKorea, 135, 185, 196Kota Kapur stone, 62Kuala Lumpur International Airport, 176Kuiburi, 46Kwangtung, 186, 187, 195–6Kye-mon, 234

La Loubère, Simon de, 44, 56nLa Union, 106labor, 3, 7, 9, 14n, 24–6, 28, 32

Chinese see Chinese laborcorte de Madera, 106dangerous work, 154, 156division of labour, 44, 49, 221exploitation of indigenous people,

9, 64, 154, 175

kongsis, 63, 65, 66, 72, 76nlabor-intensive work, 26, 50, 188,

195, 218labor raids, 228, 230migration, of, 28, 52, 198, 256mining, 63–73, 75–6organization, 63, 65, 68–9, 72, 76n,

113, 137paqueao, 113shortages, 63, 66–7, 75, 109, 111,

228–9, 247skill, 14n, 28, 145, 164, 165, 212,

220, 222n, 231, 247slavery see slaveryspecialization, 42, 49, 50, 69,

131, 208ladangs (dry rice cultivation), 70, 71,

188, 190, 198Laguna, 106lakes, 71, 91, 92land

erosion see erosionsoil fertility see soilssustainable use, 19–32

land rights, 164, 169, 171–4, 176, 198collective ownership, 21, 29–31,

254–6, 259communal land and resources, 11–12,

29–30, 110, 171, 198customary rights see customary rights

land-clearingfor agriculture, 21–32, 104, 149for coastal development, 246for settlement purposes, 104forests see deforestation; loggingsee also shifting cultivation; swidden

farminglandscape transformation, 7, 23, 81

and agriculture see specific farmingpractices

China, 212, 219–20, 222development schemes, 174–5and forestry see deforestation; loggingman-made constructs see canals; dams;

reservoirsand mining see miningand urbanization see urbanizationsee also vegetation

Lasan, Antonio, 111Lattimore, Owen, 216, 222n

Index 275

laws, 4, 29, 68fishing, 256forestry, 109–12, 115, 116, 145,

155–6, 172mining, 65, 73, 74, 77nversus customary rights, 109–10, 168,

173, 179nLaws of Johore, 4Leidi hsayadaw, 235–40Lepanto, 106Leyte, 106Le-zin, 234Li Bozhong, 218, 222nLibrada, 112Lieberman, Victor B., 227, 230, 240nLinggiu Dam, 176Little Ice Age, 91, 194livestock, 7, 20, 23, 24, 189

Burma, 155, 227–8, 232–41nhorses, 7, 232–4, 240Siam, 49, 50South India, 84, 86, 89, 94water buffaloes, 23, 24, 55–6, 189,

192, 193, 232, 238–41nlogging, 31–2

Burma, 143Japan, 134–5Malaysia, 174, 175, 177, 179nPhilippines, 107–8, 110–13see also deforestation

Lombok, 186, 195Lopez de Legazpi, Miguel, 104, 117nLorenzo Cheng-Guatco, 113Lou Chou, 206, 212–14, 215Lower Chindwin

agricultural expansion, 227–41army and elites, 231, 234Buddhism, 228, 235–40demographic expansion, 230–40ecology, 227–8, 231–2, 235–40forest-dwelling monks and

anti-beef-eating, 235–40frontier raids, 228–9, 230, 232, 236labor shortage, 228–9Leidi hsayadaw, 235–40livestock, 232–41nmovement to dry zones, 232, 233, 240population mobility, 228–30resources, 228royal state, 228–31, 237

soils and cultivation, 228, 231–4trade, 231war captives, 229–30

lowlands, 8, 46see also rice

Luat Hop Tac Xa [law on cooperatives],256

Lubeigt, Guy, 237–8lumber see timber; woodLuzon, 10, 21, 28–9, 106, 107

Mac Cuu, 52Macassar, 186, 191, 192, 200nmachinery, 14n, 55, 131

logging, 175mining, 67–8, 69, 71, 74, 75,

76n, 129textiles, 42, 131, 214, 215wooden, 127, 131–4

Mae Khlong Fan, 44Mahachai canal, 45, 56nMaize, 6, 7, 26, 194, 198, 219,

220, 228Makino Fumio, 131Malacca, 168, 179n, 187, 191, 196malaria, 51, 71, 165Malay Reservation Enactment (1913),

171Malaysia (Peninsular), 10, 30, 52, 62,

66, 186Aboriginal Malays (Proto-Malays),

164, 165, 166, 169, 179ncolonial control and development,

168–74conservation areas, 172, 174deforestation, 171, 174forest products, 165–7, 169–70immigrants, 168–9land development schemes, 175–6logging, 174, 175, 177, 179nmanufacturing, 163, 174Orang Asli see Orang Asli peopleresources, 163–7, 174standard of living, 163–4Straits Settlements, 168, 172Westernization of trade, 169–71

Maldonado, Juan Pacheco, 105Malloch, D., 53Manchukuo, 134Manchuria, 206, 220

Index276

manganese, 84, 85, 92, 95mangroves, 27, 44, 50, 57n, 170, 247,

252, 258Manila, 104, 105, 106, 108, 111, 113,

114, 116Manipur, 229, 230, 232, 235, 236Mann, M., 81, 96nmanufacturing, 10, 14n, 48

electrical goods, 174imperial manufactures, 208iron products, 54, 207factories, 54, 131, 136, 138, 208,

214, 217, 218, 254, 257Fujian region, China, 217–19textiles see textileswood products, 123–39

Marinduque, 105marine resources see fishing; Vietnammarket demand, 2market forces, 110–11, 199, 259marketing, 71, 74, 131, 191, 207, 238markets, 1–2, 3, 5, 10–11, 26–8

exports see exportslocal (village) markets, 27, 47, 48, 51,

71, 89, 90, 217, 254world markets, 1, 10–11, 71, 76,

77n, 143–51, 198–9, 218, 247, 249

see also specific products; tradeMarx, Karl, 3Masbate, 105, 106, 111Mataram, 191material culture

textiles see textilestimber/wood, 116, 125, 126, 128–9,

133–4, 139Maungdaung, 235, 237Maxwell, W., 4Means, G., 171meat-eating, 166, 186, 235–40Meiji period, 11, 125–39Meiktila, 230Mekong Delta, 186, 196, 197Mekong River, 44, 51, 187Memoria sobre el Ramo de Montes

(Vidal y Soler), 107Memoria sobre la Producción de los

Montes Públicos de Filipinas(Jordana y Morera), 106

Mentok, 76

merchants and entrepreneurs, 42fishing, 250, 251, 254forestry, 109, 110, 112–14, 116mining, 51–4, 63, 71within China, 207, 217–19, 221wood industry, 126, 129see also Chinese merchants and

entrepreneursMetal Ages, 12metals, 10–11, 12

mining see miningsee also specific metals

Meysig, 105Michon, Geneviève, 27migration, 28, 52, 198–9

Burma, 149, 154China, 215, 218, 220Lower Chindwin, 228, 240nVietnam, 253, 256see also displaced/dispossessed people

military control, 84, 112, 116, 143–4,145–54, 158

millet, 86, 88, 233milling, 193, 197, 217Minahasa, 192Minami Ryoshin, 131Minangkabau, 191Minayeff, Ivan, 239Mindanao, 27, 64, 106, 108Mindon, King, 237Mindoro, 106, 112minerals, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 20, 22

Burma, 148, 149, 150Indonesia, 28, 61–77Japan, 124, 129Malaysia, 163, 164, 166Philippines, 103–4South India, 84–5, 87, 95smelting, 62, 63–6, 68, 71, 85, 87see also specific metals

Ming dynasty, 5, 10, 211, 214, 217, 218

mining, 2Bangka-Belitung, West Kalimantan,

61–77Japan, 124, 126, 128, 129–30Malaysia, 168, 171, 175South India, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93,

95, 97nVietnam, 249

Index 277

Misawa Homes, 138Mitsui Homes, 138Mncak, 175Moluccas, 187, 191–2, 196Mon, 229–30monarchs, 143, 148–9, 153, 193,

196–7, 199money, 110, 165, 189, 197, 208money economy, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50–51Mong Cai, 257monks, 235–40monocrops, 22, 199monopolies, 10, 72, 76, 114, 145, 196,

198, 221monsoons, 85, 91, 96n, 105, 193Monywa, 228, 232, 234, 237Monywe, 234Moore, Elizabeth, 228Moron, 113Morong, 106, 114–15Mosk, Carl, 131, 132mountains, 26, 28–9

China, 220, 233Bangka, 64Japan, 124Malaysia, 165, 174, 190Philippines, 104, 107–8, 116nSiam, 43, 44, 47Sumatra, 190

Mu valley, 230Mu River, 231, 240nmulberries, 214, 217Mun River, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47mung boats, 256, 257Musi River, 62Myin Gyan (Hermit of Gado), 233Myingyan, 230Myinsaing, 229

Nakhon Nayok, 46Nakhon Ratchasima, 46Nakhonchaisi, 54Nam Bo, 247Nam Dinh, 246, 252–4“natural capital”, 3“natural” resources v. “unnatural”, 2–8natural resources, defined, 2–8, 12, 84,

123, 125, 164naval vessels, 105, 106, 112, 114, 134,

146, 148, 246, 251, 256

Navotas, 113Nayaka period, 91Ne Win, General, 150Nef, John U., 125–6, 139Negros province, 10, 106Neolithic, 8, 86, 91, 228Netherlands Indies, 61, 116n, 117n,

192, 194New World

crops see exotic cropsgold and silver, 10, 103weeds, 93, 95

Nghia Hau, 253Nghia Hung, 252Nguyen, 251, 253Nguyen, The Anh, 248Nias, 27–8, 187, 191, 195, 199Ninh Binh province, 252Ninh Co Fishing Enterprise, 256Ninh Co River, 252nipa palm, 44, 57n, 104, 105Noi-Lopburi floodplains, 44nomads, 23, 164nonrenewable resources

coal, 2, 68, 124, 125–6, 129, 130minerals see minerals; miningoil, 2, 12

Noone, H.D., 179nNueva Ecija, 106, 107, 117nNueva Vizcaya, 106nuts, 27, 48, 54, 170NV Gemeenschappelijke

Mijnbouwmaatschappij Billiton, 69Nwa-meitta-sa (Leidi hsayadaw), 238

oil, 2, 12oil palm, 6, 22, 174, 175, 176Ong Hean Chooi, 175, 177Operation Aung Soe Moe, 154“Operation Teak”, 153opium, 47, 54, 64, 76n,Opium Wars, 14n, 205Ora, Luis, 114Orang Asli people, 163–80, 179n

assimilation, 174–5characteristics, groups, 164–5customary rights, 164–78dispossession, 163–4, 168, 169,

171–2, 173–6forest legislation, 172

Index278

forest products, use, 165, 166–7,170–1, 176

forest reserves, 171–2, 176Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli

(JHEOA), 173, 174, 175, 178land rights, 167–8, 171–2,

173–7, 178livelihood, 163–77mixed horticulture, 164–5population, 164, 169poverty and deprivation, 165resettlement, 173, 174–5, 176responses to losses, 177–8Semang (Negritos), 164–5, 166, 168,

172, 177, 179nSenoi, 164–5, 168, 171, 179nshifting cultivation, 164–5, 171, 172,

176, 179nstate treatment, 174–7trade, 165, 167

Orang Asli Assistance Fund, 178Orang Asli Association of Peninsular

Malaysia (POASM), 178Orang Laut, 64oranges, 48, 49, 217Orchard, John, 132–3orchards, 46, 98Organization of Economic Cooperation

and Development (OECD), 5Orion, 113Oton, 105overexploitation

fishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nforests see deforestationsoils see 21–6, 62, 96, 166see also erosion

ownership of resourcescollective or communal, 11–12, 21,

29–31, 109–10, 171, 198,254–6, 259

customary rights see customary rightsprivate see private ownership

oyatoi (foreign experts), 128–9

Pacific War, 134Pagan, 229Pahang, 165, 177palace-building, 8Palawan, 113Palembang, 62, 64–5, 76n, 190

Paluan, 112palm sugar, 47, 50Pampa, 87Pampanga, 106, 108Panay, 106Pangasinan, 106Pangkalpinang, 76nPangyi, 229, 231Panya, 229paqueao (labor gangs), 113Parang-Parang River, 108Pasak River, 44, 46Pasig River, 108Pattani, 49, 186Patthaya, 52Pearl River Delta, 218Pegu, 186, 192Pegu Yoma range, 148, 152, 154, 156Peninsula Malaysia see Malaysia

(Peninsular)Penrose, E.F., 124Pepper, David, 4pepper, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 71,

75, 191Perak, 169, 175, 179nPests, 6, 21, 28, 104, 145, 216Phetburi, 45, 46Phetchaburi, 50Philadelphia Universal Exposition, 108Philip II, 104, 105Philippines (forestry and timber),

103–22alienation of “wastelands”, 109–10Chinese merchants, 112–13colonial attitudes, 103–4, 116colonial state verus farmers, 109–10contratistas (contractors), 110,

112, 114customary rights, 109–16deforestation, 104, 106–8earthquakes, 111emergence of timber market, 110–11,

114, 116entrepreneurs and merchants, 110,

112–13, 114, 116environmental degradation, 108, 112fires, 105forest cover statistics, 106, 107, 108forest law enforcement, 109–15, 116illegal extraction, 111–12, 115

Index 279

Philippines—continuedlicenses, 109–15logging, 107–8, 110–13main timber-producing areas, 106Manila, 104, 105, 106, 108, 111,

113, 114, 116population growth, 104, 109, 111prices, 111, 114revenue, 110, 111, 116state control, 109–10, 112, 114–16tax, 111, 112, 114, 115timber for construction, 104–5timber for ships, 105–6

Philippines Commission (1899), 112Phitsanulok Sukhotai, 47physical capital, 3, 14n

see also machinery; toolspig iron, 124, 130pigs, 71, 232, 236Pinchot, Clifford, 117n, 118npineapples, 46, 49Pires, Tomé, 186plains, 28, 48, 86, 220, 252

floodplains, 43, 44, 48rice plains, 186, 187, 191, 192, 194,

195, 199plants, 2, 4, 8

exotic crops see exotic cropssustainable cultivation, 19–32vegetation see vegetation

plantations, 9, 22, 187, 208forests, 135, 156–8, 168–9fruit, 46–54rice, 197–8use of labor, 9, 66, 69, 71, 75,

76n, 256see also specific crops e.g. rubber

plateaus, 85, 190politics and resource use

teak in Burma see Burmapoll tax, 53pollen, 82, 91–3, 94, 97nPollok, 108pollution, 3, 246, 258Polo, Marco, 211Pomeranz, Ken, 209, 218, 219, 221ponds, 21, 22, 26, 237populations and demographic

expansion, 5, 7, 8, 9, 19–32Burma, 228–32, 239–40

China, 205–7, 208, 218, 219, 220, 222n

Indonesia, 64, 70, 71, 73, 75Japan, 127, 130, 135–6Malaysia, 163, 164, 169, 176–7, 179Philippines, 26, 104, 105, 109–11Siam, 41–5, 52, 55South India, 82, 84, 85, 87–91, 95, 96urbanization, 5, 32, 41, 111, 163,

190, 198–9, 200n, 245Vietnam, 245, 247, 249, 252, 253,

258, 260nsustainability and demography, 24–26wet rice-growing areas, 186–7, 188,

190, 195, 196, 198–9population and the environment, 7–8,

24–6, 28, 32see also populations and demographic

expansionpoverty, 158, 163, 165, 176, 187, 199,

209, 247Prachin valley, 46, 47Prachinburi, 46prices, 13,

beef, 239fish, 250grain, 221labour, 69, 75, 169land, 20, 117nmanufactured goods, 48, 207minerals, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74,

76, 77nrice, 48, 130, 185, 186, 193, 196,

197, 198, 199timber, wood products, 49, 114, 126,

130, 132, 137, 138, 207private ownership, 9, 20, 21, 29, 31

Malaysia, 168, 171China, 220, 224Japan, 29, 124Vietnam, 245, 254, 259

privatization, 146–7, 245, 254, 259profits, 2–4, 32

mining, 61, 65, 67, 68, 71, 73–4, 76nrice, 196–7timber, 103, 109–13, 116, 144,

146–7, 157, 170see also revenue

PT Timah Co, 73–4pumps, 63, 65, 66, 67, 97n, 212

Index280

Qing dynasty, 206, 214, 220, 222nQinzhou, 219Qu Dajun, 219–20Quang Ninh, 253

Rach Gia port, 250Rachasongkhram, phra, 45Raffles, Lt. Governor Thomas Stamford,

65, 72Raichur district, 91raids, 64, 84, 169, 174, 177, 228–9,

230, 232, 236railways, 66, 95, 126, 128, 130, 147rainfall, 21, 85, 91, 108, 221,

232, 233rainforests see forestsRamathibodi II, 45Rambo, A., 166Rangoon, 145, 150, 153Ratburi, 43, 45, 46rattan, 30, 165, 167, 170Rayong, 46Reclining Buddha of Wat Pa Mok, 55Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias (forest

law), 109recycling, 3, 24, 29Red River, 252, 253Red River Delta, 187, 190, 195,

252, 253refugees, 52, 211, 216, 230regeneration, 2, 22–3, 71, 90, 93, 94–5registers, 45, 46, 47, 179n, 211, 229regulation of extraction, 11, 111, 148,

155, 256, 259see also laws

Reid, Anthony, 1, 194, 195religion, 4, 178, 185, 189, 190, 228,

240, 254Buddhism, 55, 189, 210, 228,

235–40, 241nChristianity, 4, 73, 177, 195, 211Hinduism, 189, 235, 236Islam, 62, 70, 73, 175, 177, 195

remote areas, 31, 32, 199, 220renewable resources, 2, 19–32, 166

see also animals; forests; plants; soils;vegetation

reservations, 171–4, 176, 179nreserves, parks and sanctuaries, 172,

228, 237, 238

reservoirs, 83, 85–97n, 175–6, 200nresettlement schemes, 41–2, 173–6,

228–30resin, 27, 167, 169, 170“resource curse”, 1, 8, 13, 139,

143–58, 186–7“resource peripheries”, 11–12Riau, 64, 71, 76n, 77nRiau Islands, 179nRicardo, David, 3rice, 7–8, 21–32, 185–6

dry rice, 70, 71, 187–90, 198, 200nexports, 187, 191–2, 195–6, 197,

199, 199n, 200nEuropean involvement, 196–7, 199ladangs, 70, 71, 188, 190, 198major producers, 185, 186–7mills, 193, 197origin, 187production, 185–99risks and threats in growing, 193–5,

198–9role of rulers, 189, 196–7, 198, 199surpluses, 47, 192, 195, 198–9, 207,

217, 222nsustainability, 21–32swidden-farming, 187–90, 194, 195technology, 197–8trade, 185–99urbanization and rice, 190–2,

198–9use of slaves, 186, 189, 191, 192,

194, 195, 198, 199, 200nwet rice, 13, 21–2, 23, 26, 27–8, 32:

in China see China; and cities,190–3, 197, 199; compared todry, 187–90, 194, 198; deep-water, 187, 188; labour, 188,195; and livestock, 189; inMalaysia, 165; and populationgrowth, 26, 32, 186–7, 188,190, 195–6, 198–9; and religion,189; sawah (artificially bunded),188–9, 192, 195, 198–9; inSouth India, 85, 88, 92, 93; andtrade, 189–90, 191

“rice bowls”, 191, 194, 196, 198–9, 205

“rice economy”, 185, 219Riggs, F.W., 227

Index 281

rights of indigenous people, 11, 29Karen, Burma, 143, 152–8Orang Asli, Malaysia, 164–80Philippines, 109–10, 111, 114, 116

rights regimes in Vietnam, 245–6rinderpest, 232, 239Rio Grande de Cagayan, 108Rio Grande del Sur, 108“rizification”, 185roads

Indonesia, 70, 71, 194–5Malaysia, 165, 175, 177, 178Philippines, 113Siam, 45–6South India, 88, 89, 95Vietnam, 258see also transport

Robequain, C., 250romanticism, 31, 42, 54–5, 56n, 143,

145, 158, 166, 172, 214–15Romblon, 106Rosenberg, Nathan, 126, 127, 132rotational farming see swidden farmingrubber, 6, 22, 27, 72–3, 165, 169, 170,

174, 176, 192runoff, 29, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93,

94, 97n

Sabah, 76n, 163, 180nsacred sites, 87, 90, 175Sagaing, 229sago, 13, 22, 26, 27, 30, 31, 192Sakhalin, 134, 135Sakhònburi, 45salinization, 57nsalt, 47, 49–50, 51, 208, 247, 253,

254, 258Sam Son, 253Samar, 106, 111Samrong canal, 45Samut Prakan, 45Samut Songkhram, 45San José, 105San Miguel, 105San Nicolás, 105Sandhur Hills, 83–97nSanta Cruz, 105, 112Santa Rosa, 105sappan wood, 45, 47, 48, 54, 55Saraburi, 46

Sarawak, 76n, 163, 180nsavanna, 23, 24, 25“sawahization”, 190, 196sawahs (wet rice), 188–9, 192, 195,

198–9Schatzberg, Eric, 125, 134sea

degradation, 245–6, 247, 258fishing see fishing; Vietnam

sedimentation, 91–2, 93–5, 97n, 175, 252

seeds, 166, 215, 231Sekisui House, 138self-sufficiency, 27, 42–3, 44, 49, 50–1,

197, 234Semai people, 169, 175, 177Semang people (Negritos), 164–5, 166,

168, 172, 177, 179nSenoi people, 164–5, 168, 171, 179nsericulture see silkSethakit Muban Thai nai Adit [The

Thai Village Economy in the Past](Nartsupha), 42

Settsu district, 132Shan States, 149, 229, 233Shanghai, 217, 218–9Shantidas, 236She people, 76shells as currency, 48, 51, 57nshifting cultivation, 22–32

Chinese in Malaysia, 168Karen in Burma, 143, 149, 156–7Orang Asli in Malaysia, 166, 171,

172, 176, 179nShin Nyana, 236Shin Nyeyya, 237ship-building see boat and ship-buildingshipping, 110–11, 132, 170, 189,

217, 251Showa period, 134, 139Siam (Central Thai region)

boat-building, 49canals and waterways, 45, 59Chinese laborers and traders, 42,

51–4, 55coastal zones, 43–4, 49–50diversification, 48–50exploitation system, 46–7floodplains, 43, 44, 48landscape transformation, 55–6

Index282

manufacturing, 48, 54money economy, 48, 49, 50–51plantations and orchards, 46–50,

52, 53–4population, 44–5registration system, 45, 46, 47resources, 47, 48, 49rice-growing, 44, 46, 48role of state, 42–8, 55, 56settlements, 44–5specialization, 48–9, 50suai (tax), 47, 55taxes, 44, 46–7, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55teak, 47, 49topography, 43–44trade and exports, 45, 47, 48–50,

53–4, 55, 57ntransport and transport routes, 45–6,

48, 49wild animals, 44, 47, 48, 55–6

Sichuan, 208sickness see diseasesilk, 6, 47, 124, 128, 130

in Late Imperial China, 207, 208,212, 214, 215, 217

silt, 22, 45, 90, 93, 94–5, 252silver, 3, 10, 14n, 129, 207Singapore, 67, 68, 69, 76n, 158, 168,

169–70, 179n, 180n, 249Sino-Japanese War, 134, 250Siquijor, 106Sitang River, 153Sitang valley, 148slash-and-burn farming, 24, 62, 64,

76n, 192see also swidden farming

slavery, 10, 186rice-growing, 186, 189, 191, 192,

198–9, 200nslave exports, 195slave raiding, 64, 169, 174, 177, 179nsurplus populations, 194, 195, 198–9

smallholders, 21, 22, 27, 28, 32, 71,72–3, 171, 188, 198

Smallholders, Householders (Netting), 21smelting, 62, 63–6, 68, 71, 85, 87Smith, Adam, 2, 3smuggling, 64, 74, 77n, 113, 256social deprivation, 8–9So-Tuico, Manuel, 113

soils, 19–32alluvial, 84, 231–2conservation, 19, 20, 32deltas see deltasfertile, 13, 26, 48, 186–7, 231–2fertility in China, 211, 216, 219fertilizers, 211, 214, 215, 216, 219,

220, 221, 234leaching and nutrient loss, 21–6, 62,

96, 166sustainability of land use, 19–32see also erosion

Sokoloff, Kenneth, 9Soledad 106Soler, Manuel, 112, 115Song dynasty, 207, 210–11, 214,

216, 219South China Sea, 247, 250South India (Northern Karnataka)

agriculture, 86–7, 87, 89–91canals, 86, 88, 89–90, 92climate change, 82, 91dams, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97ndeforestation, 82, 83, 85, 87, 92,

93, 96erosion, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90, 93–5, 96Hampi-Daroji Hills, 85, 87, 92, 93, 96hydrological patterns, 83, 89–90, 93irrigation, 84, 85–7, 88, 89–91,

93, 97nlandscape, 83, 85–6, 87minerals, 84, 85, 92, 94–5mining, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93, 95, 97npollen data, 82, 91–3, 94, 97npopulation expansion, 82, 84, 85,

87–91, 95, 96rainfall and monsoons, 85, 91, 96nreservoirs, 83, 85–97nresources, 84–5rice, 83, 85, 86roads, 88, 89, 95runoff, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97nSandhur Hills, 83–97nsettlement development, 86–90siltation, 90, 93, 94–5soils, 84, 93–5Tungabhadra River, 83–7, 91, 95vegetation change, 83, 84, 86, 87,

91–3, 94–5, 96Vijayanagara, 82, 84, 87–91

Index 283

soybeans, 54, 218, 220Spanish colonialism, 103–18specialization

China, 205, 209, 217, 218, 221iron production, 87labor, 42, 49, 50, 69, 131, 208rice see riceSiam, 48–9, 50timber trade, 110–11

Spice Islands, 166spices, 6, 27, 46, 47, 53, 207Sri Lanka, 187, 196, 197Srivijaya, 62, 190State Law and Order Restoration

Council/State Peace andDevelopment Council (SLORC),150–1, 154

State of Kawthoolei, 153states, 8–12, 29, 31

effect of colonization, 9–10governments see governmentslaws see lawsmanagement of resources and

trade, 8–12regulation see regulationresource richness and economic

development, 12–13taxes see taxessee also specific countries

steel, 84, 95, 116, 129, 131, 132, 136stone, 28–9, 105, 111, 130, 133,

212, 228Straits Settlements, 168, 172suai (tax), 47, 55subsistence, 6, 8, 22, 26–7, 187,

189–90, 191, 195, 199Burma, 154, 232China, 217, 219–20, 221Malaysia, 166, 167, 168Siam, 42South India, 81–2, 89, 90, 96, 96n

Suez Canal, 197sugar, 49, 52, 53–4, 86, 92–3,

95, 217–8Suharto administration, 73–4Sula Islands, 192, 199Sulawesi, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 62, 169,

186, 192Sultanate of Bijapur, 90Sulu Archipelago, 64

Sumatra, 10, 29, 169, 187, 190, 191mining, 61, 62, 64, 66, 69, 71, 74

Sumbawa, 186, 191Sunthorn Pu, 52Suphanburi floodplains, 44Suphanburi River, 44Surabaya, 190Surat, 51surpluses, 207, 217, 221, 222n

rice, 47, 192, 195, 198–9, 207, 217, 222n

sustainable development, defined, 3, 14n

sustainability, 3, 4, 13, 19–32and commerce (arboriculture), 26–8and demography, 24–6and institutions of resource

management, 28–32solutions, 21–32

swamps, 31, 43, 44, 48, 71, 187, 192sweet potatoes, 6, 7, 28, 53–4, 191,

194, 198, 211, 220swidden farming, 21–8, 187–90,

194, 195Burma, 143, 149, 156–7compared to wet rice farming, 187,

188–90, 192, 195Indonesia, 62, 64, 75, 76n, 192Malaysia, 164–5, 166, 171, 172, 176,

179n, 194sustainability, 22–8, 30, 32

symbolism of resources, 125, 132–4,139, 167–8, 215–6, 222n

Symes, Michael, 238

taik, 229, 231Taiping Museum, 179nTaisho period, 139Taiwan, 135, 185, 196, 206Takamatsu Toru, 131Taksin, King, 41, 56Taloub, 237Taman Negara, 172Tanduay, 112tatmadaw (army), 151, 153–4taungyas (hill clearings), 156–7tax, 10, 189, 196

Burma, 145, 156China, 207–8, 209, 210, 212, 214,

215, 216, 217, 221

Index284

Philippines, 111, 112, 114, 115Siam, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55South India, 84Vietnam, 251, 254, 256

taxa weed, 93, 94Tayabas, 106, 107, 112tea, 6, 7, 128, 207, 217, 218, 220teak, 2, 13, 14

politics of teak in Burma see BurmaSiam, 47, 49

technology, 55, 131agriculture, 211–16, 221–2canals, dams, reservoirs see canals;

dams; reservoirsforestry, 31–2, 104mining, 63–9, 71, 74–5, 85, 87native v. imported, 63–4, 75, 129,

131–3rice, 193, 197–8wood see Japansee also industrialization; machinery;

toolsTemenggor Dam, 175Temiar people, 168, 175, 177, 178temples and churches, 49, 71, 189, 238

South India, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95,Philippines, 103, 105, 115, 116

Temuan people, 176Tenasserim, 45, 46, 148terracing, 21, 25, 28–9, 43, 44, 89, 90,

93, 212Territorial User Rights In Fisheries

(TURF), 258textiles, 84, 89, 131, 174, 186

China, 208, 210, 211, 213–16, 219

Thachin River, 45, 49Thailand, 56, 61, 149, 151, 158, 179n,

186, 196Early Modern period see Siamfishing, 249, 250

Thanh Hoa province, 253Thebaw, King, 149Thinh Long harbour, 255, 256, 257Tiagan, 106Ticao, 106timber

extraction see deforestation; loggingin Burma see Burmain Japan see Japan

in the Spanish Philippines seePhilippines

specific trees see specific treessee also construction; boat- and

ship-building; woodtin, 2, 45, 61–71, 152, 165, 166, 168,

169, 171, 174, 175Bangka-Belitung see Bangka-Belitung

tobacco, 6, 7, 42, 52, 53, 54, 66, 173, 218

Toe Hla, 231, 234Tokugawa period, 11, 127, 128, 129,

133, 136, 139, 222nTokyo, 135, 139Tondo, 105Tongsawang people, 192Tonkin, 186, 187, 253, 254

see also Vietnamtools, 14n, 42, 62, 113, 131, 137, 211,

212, 228Torrens system, 171, 179ntourism, 258town-dwelling monks, 235–40Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, 13Toyoda Sakichi, 131Tra Ly River, 252trade, 1–14, 20, 21, 26–8, 29–32

China, 11, 207, 217–8, 221Chinese traders see Chinese merchants

and entrepreneursDutch traders, 48, 50, 51, 62–77“exotic” crops, 5–8forest products, 165–7, 169–70iron see iron traderice, 185–99timber see Burma; Philippinessee also exports; imports; specific

productstrade liberalization, 8–9, 52, 200n,

259–6“tragedy of the commons”, 20, 25,

31, 257“tragedy of indifference”, 20, 21transport of goods, 3–4, 12, 25

barges, 48, 217boats in Siam, 42, 43, 45–6, 48, 50,

51, 57ncarabao, 113carts, 42, 46, 51elephants, 46

Index 285

transport of goods—continuedJapanese sailing ships, 132junks, 48, 49, 53, 170, 250, 251, 254motorcar, 254railways, 66, 95, 126, 128, 130, 147shipping, 189, 217, 251roads, 70, 71, 88, 89, 95, 113, 165,

175, 177, 178, 194–5, 258Trat, 46trawlers, 249–50, 255–7trees and tree crops

agroforestry, 22, 27, 156arboriculture, 21–2, 25, 26–7, 32, 165extraction see deforestation; loggingspecific trees see specific trees

tribute, 9, 47, 62, 63, 64, 72, 192, 233tropical hardwoods see woodTroup, R.S., 128Tuban, 190Tungabhadra Dam, 86, 91, 95, 97nTungabhadra Reservoir, 83Tungabhadra River, 83–7, 91, 95Turnbull, C.M., 170Twinthin, 229typhoons, 108, 114, 253, 257, 258

U Nu, 150, 153United Nations, 151U.S. Bureau of Forestry, 116United States industrialization, 126–8,

133–4unsustainable resource use

agriculture, 19–32fishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nforests see forestsminerals, 65, 69, 72

upland areas, 7environmental degradation, 7, 24, 175exotic crops see specific cropsv. lowlands, 46, 187–8, 194plantations see plantations

urbanization, 5, 32, 41, 84, 87–9, 111, 163, 190, 198–9, 200n, 245

value of resources, 3van der Heide, Homan, 57van Linschoten, Jan Huygen, 186van Ly harbour, 256, 257van Vliet, Jeremias, 44, 48–9, 51

vegetables, 7, 42, 89, 130, 166, 186,192, 217

see also specific vegetablesvegetation

burning off see swidden-farmingchanges in South India, 83, 84, 86,

87, 91–3, 94–5, 96degradation, 32, 71, 112, 166fallow land, 22–3, 24, 27, 29–30, 32,

190, 232grasslands, 23–5, 28, 30, 32, 48, 50,

104, 112, 220see also deforestation; land-clearing

Vidal y Soler, Domingo, 112Vidal y Soler, Sebastían, 103, 107–115Viet Minh, 251Vietnam, fishing industry, 245–63

access rights, 254, 258–9catch data, 248–9, 255, 257Chinese fishers and traders, 249–50,

254coastal villages, 250–1, 253–4, 258–9consumption, 246, 249control and protection of waters,

256–7cooperatives, 255–6environmental degradation, 245–6,

247, 258expansion, 246–7exports, 247, 249, 251, 253–4fish products and processing, 246,

249, 254, 257fishery zones, 247fishing rights, 245, 258–9French colonial period, 249–52,

253–4from 1945, 254–5from 1975, 255–7gillnetting, 248, 257Gulf of Bac Bo, 247, 253marginalization of small fishers,

258–9Nam Dinh province, 246, 252–4natural hazards, 245, 252–3, 257–8naval activity, 246, 251, 256overfishing, 247, 258, 259, 260nprivatization, 259sea dikes, 252, 257, 258sea levels, 246, 257state management, 259

Index286

trawlers, 249–50, 255–7vessels and equipment, 247–8, 255–7

Vijayanagara, 82–97village economy, 27, 42, 44, 49,

50–1, 234Vinh, 250, 253Visayas, 106volcanoes, 228von Bosch, Adolph, 112

Wallace, Alfred Russell, 166Wang Zhen, 211, 212–14war

and fishing, 248, 251, 255and mining, 67, 69, 75, 95, 130and rice, 189, 193and timber, 123, 135, 138, 139,

149, 153and wood, 116, 130, 134–6, 138,

145–6, 148–9, 151war captives, 229–30warships, 49, 106, 146waste products, 2, 3, 118n, 220,

233, 258“wastelands”, 5, 32, 109, 171, 189, 220water, 21, 28, 61, 96

dams, 28, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 97n,174, 175, 176

dikes, 196, 210, 212, 245, 252, 258drainage, 48, 71, 89, 190, 196, 197hydrology, 82, 83, 87, 95, 110rainfall, 21, 85, 91, 221, 232, 233reservoirs, 83, 85–97n, 175–6, 200nuse in mining, 63, 66, 68, 74wet rice-growing see rice

water buffaloes, 23, 24, 55–6, 189, 192,193, 232, 238–9, 240, 241n

water pumps, 63, 65, 66, 67, 97n, 212watercourses, 83, 89–90, 93, 108, 220waterways and canals

China, 217, 220Siam, 44, 45, 56nSouth India, 86, 88, 89–90, 92

weeds, 21, 22, 24, 92, 93, 95, 196Wei-An Chang, 209, 218wells, 4, 86, 97n, 232Western Ghat foothills, 86, 95Western industrial capitalism resource

view, 2wetlands, 233, 240, 252

wild animalsBurma, 228, 237Malaysia, 165, 166, 167, 170Siam, 44, 47, 48, 55–6South India, 93

wildlife depletion, 7, 8, 175, 176, 238

Williams, Michael, 106Wittfogel hypothesis, 189World War I, 130, 134–5, 138World War II

mining, 67, 69, 75, 116timber, 123, 135, 138, 153

Wong, R. Bin, 209, 210wood, 3, 8, 14, 42

agar, 48amugis, 113, 114buildings see constructioncordwood, 113, 130firewood, 27, 49, 57n, 86,

112, 115fuel, 125–6, 129, 130, 135, 168gaharu, 167guijo, 113, 114hardwoods generally, 2, 14n, 54, 104,

113–14, 145Japanese wood industry, 123–39lauan, 114mangrove, 27, 50maniknik, 114molave, 104–5oak, 14n, 106, 146plywood, 126–7sappan, 47, 48, 54ship-building see boat- and

ship-buildingtangile, 114teak, 2, 13, 14n, 47, 49, 143–58“wild wood”, 2–3

woodlands, 23, 24, 96, 106, 124, 126, 139

see also forests; vegetationWorcester, Dean, 103Worcum, 49World Commission on Environment

and Development (BrutlandCommission), 14n

Wuysthoff, Gerrit, 51

Xu Guangqi, 211

Index 287

Yamethin, 230yams, 7, 166Yangzi (Lower), 208, 211,

217, 220Yangzi (Middle), 217, 220, 221Yangzi Delta, 217, 218, 222nYoshikazu Takaya, 43

Yuan dynasty, 211Ywa-tha, 237

zairai-koho (“the way we build”), 136,137, 138

Zambales, 106, 112Zhou Qufei, 219

Index288