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NanoDustFusionAfter about 60 years of multibillion dollar efforts, the official versions of controlled nuclear
fusion
could
not
yield
any
results,
despite
all
the
efforts.
Cold
fusion
did
reach
the
overunity
stage,
thoughusuallynotinareliablemanner,exceptfortheeffortsofA.RossiandFocardi,orZhang
andArata. The Italian device seems to be readyfor massproduction. It looks like the original
PonsFleischmann solution stumbled into the periphery of the right technical approach, like
flappingwingtypeairplanesatthedawnofaviation.Thegoldmineofcontrollednuclearfusion
parametersaretobesoughtatevenhighertemperatures,andbyadifferenttechnicalsetup.The
main arena of this effort is transient, dustyplasma of nanosize carbonparticles supported by
ionacousticresonanceswithhundredsofresonancepeaks.Theresultisareliableprocesshaving
multiplenucleartransmutations.
Theprocess tobedescribed isanunusualone.Theessential ingredientsaredustyplasmamadefromnanosizecarbonparticlesandairandsomewatervapor;(SeeFig.1).In itssimplestversionthe process works at atmospheric pressure, and at modest lukewarm temperatures at 10003000C.Thefundamentalprocesscouldbecreatedathomewithmostmicrowaveovens.Indeedthere are dozens of demonstrations on YouTube, under the title 'Microwave Plasma'. However,thereisalongandunfinishedroadfromthiseasydemonstrationtoapracticaldevice.
However, thismethodcanbea faster road toacontrollable, reliable, inexpensivenuclear fusionprocess.Whatsortsoffusionprocessestakeplacehere?Wedontknowyet,butperhapswewillbe able to answer the question withjoint effort in a few years. It is obvious: there should betectonic shifts in theapproach towardscontrollednuclear fusion theoreticallyand technically, inorder to have a massproduced device. The old hot fusion method and mindset should beabandoned, the sooner the better. That fruitless approach will not yield any technical result.However, the focus of the cold version of fusion should be shifted from bulk palladiumelectrolysis with deuterium at room temperature to higher temperatures, nanosize particles,without electrolysis. The nanoparticle induced LENR pinpoints that this process is essentially asurface phenomenon, as indicated by David Nagel, and not a process inside a lattice, as earlytheoretical models expected. Further, the phenomenon is not restricted to deuterium; ordinaryhydrogencanserveaswell,andevennucleiofhighermassnumbers.
The FocardiRossitype process of heated micronsized particles is technically limited by themeltingpointofnickel.(TherearesimilarproblemswiththeArathaZhangtypeofZnO2+Pdnano
particles system,apart from thehighpriceofPd). Inouracousticdustyplasmaprocesswehavetwobottlenecks:themeltingpointofanacousticresonatorvesselandtherecrystallizationpointofnanosizecarbonparticles.Otherwise,onlytheskyisthelimit.
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PartI.Fusion Device in Ten Minutes
Thetechnicalsetupisasfollows:Asshown inFig.2,thesimplestdevice isessentiallyahouseholdmicrowaveplasmaoven,wheretheessentialfusionprocessesarerestrictedtothevolumeofanacousticresonator.Webelievethequintessenceofthetechnicalprocesstakesplace inthedusty,orcrystalplasma.[1]Thecrystalplasma isessentiallyafifthstateofmatter.It isplasma,thoughthesmalldustparticles inside itare arranged along cubic or hexagonic symmetries as shown in Fig. 1. The periodic, latticelikecrystal structure is not essential though: the nanosize carbon dust particles can settle in semiorganized liquid or disordered gaseous forms as well. Moreover sometimes large voids ofparticlesareformedwithintheoscillatingplasma.
As shown in 2, the dust particles have a large accumulated negative charge, as the high speed
electronsbump intotheparticlesurface,andpenetratedeep intothedust.Theyremaintrappeduntilanextraordinaryhighelectrondensityisreachedintheorderof105109electrons/particle.Inordertohaveaveryhighspeed (near thevelocityof light)seedingelectroncloud, theplasmamust oscillate at a wide spectrum of frequencies and at very high amplitudes. The plasmawakefieldaccelerationeffect[2]istobeusedfortheseedingprocess.Itisanalogoustosurfingonthebeach.Whenasteepandemergingwaveapproachesthebeach,thecloudofsurfersridingitisaccelerated,extractingmomentumfromthehugekineticenergyofthewave.Asimilareffectisusedonsmoothwater, ifamotorboat istowingawaterskier.Thereisnoneedforarope;theVshapedwakescanpropelaskilledskiermanouveringon the innerslopeof theboatwakewave.Tabletopsizeplasmaacceleratorsareabletoproduceuptoa1GeV/cmelectricfield inaplasmawave. This is more thananygiant, kilometersized accelerators of Fermilab or CERNare able to
produce,(butthebeamisnotuniforminourcase.)
The processes inside the plasma are indeed complex. Apart from the nanosize carbon dustparticles, negative and positive ions, electrons and neutral atoms or molecules oscillate in aresonator,inordertoachieveasfrequencieswiththehighestpossibleamplitudes.
Thoughmicrophonescannotbe inserted intotheplasma,nor intotheelectromagneticresonator,theamplitudesarebelievedtoexceed130dB.Fortunatelymostofthemattheultrasoundrange.Unfortunatelythere isanotherpeakofintensityaswellforthe infrasoundsattherangeofabout1020Hz,asthisisthetypicalhallmarkofdustyplasmas.
Inordertosatisfythe instantcuriosityofthereaderaboutthedevice,Fig.2/aand2/cprovideaquickintroductiontotheessentialsofasmallhomemadedustfusionreactor.Fig.2/aisasimplemicrowaveoven,wheremicrowavesareradiatedintotheEMresonantcavityviaawaveguide.Onehastoplaceamatchorathickerpointedpegofdrywood intothecenter.Light it,thenclosethedoorquickly,turnontheoven(atabout1kW),andwatchashiningflameclimbuptotheceiling.Thisisthecrystal,dustyorcomplexplasma. Thesootparticlesoftheburningstickofwoodprovidethemicronornanosize carbonparticles. It isevenbetter tousea thin sharpenedgraphite rod,takenfromamechanicalpencil.
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AfurtherstepisshowninFig.2/c,wheretheplasmablobiscapturedinaglassjar.Thisistheendof the foolish YouTube type experiments. A real qualitative, but very difficult step is to use asphericalquartz resonatorwithat least twodifferent tubularelongationson the topandon thebottomof the sphere. It should beplaced onan insulating stand.Aproper, welltuned acoustic
resonator,andaproperlymatchedimpedancechainstartingfromthemagnetrontotheEMcavityisamust.Thedifferenceislikehavingaviolinwithouttheusualresonator,ortohaveapiano,butwithout the wooden soundboard, only the strings. Instead of a spherical quartz resonator, onemightuseanopenendedquartztube(~25mmx60mm)ora50x50x50mmboxmadeofmicaplate;(seethefirstphotograph).
Thesystemisnotnecessarilyclosedhermetically,asitworksatatmosphericpressures,orathigherandlowerpressuresaswell.Thereisanotheruniquefeatureofthissystem:itisextremelytolerantofanyalienmatterpassingthroughtheplasma.Thusaverywiderangeofchemicalandnuclearreactions of fusion of the plasma can be achieved, like splitting the molecules of CO2 or any
hazardousmaterialslikewasterubbertires,orgalvanicsludge,justtonameafew.ElectrochemicalCFcellsareintolerantofanygarbageorpollutantsgettingintotheelectrolyteorintotheelectrodematerial.ThesysteminFig.2/cisenoughforabreakevendevice,ifdenseCO2isblownthrough
theplasmainsidetheacousticresonator.
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PartII.Assumptions
GodCreatedMatter,buttheSurfaceisMadebytheDevil
What sortof physical process takesplace inside theplasma?Theuniqueandvery embarrassingfeatureofthisparticulartechnology isthattheessentialphenomenatakeplacesimultaneouslyatleastonfourdifferentlevelsofsizeandtimescale,spanningabout12ordersofmagnitude.
Thesearethefollowing:
Macroscopicengineeringlevel
Complex plasma oscillations of different frequencies range from the order of 1 Hz to GHz.Consequently, the wave lengths of acoustic oscillations vary from the scale of cm way down to
submicron.Whenfilmedbyahighspeedcamera,thedifferentoscillatingregionsarevisibletothenakedeye,up toa limit.Onsome filmsonecanseeanoscillatingsphericalcheckerboardwithregionsmovinginandoutofphasewithregularsizesubregionslikethesurfaceofapeeledorange.Thedustyplasmaasawholeisconsideredtobeelectricallyneutral,exceptitssurface.
Thereareostensiblysimilardifferencesinthe localplasmatemperaturesfordifferentingredients.Electrons,acceleratedbythemechanismofplasmawakefieldaccelerationcanreachnearlythevelocity of light, therefore they can penetrate deep into a dust particle, creating an enormouschargedensityneverseeninanyothertechnicaldevice.
In fact, theaccelerationofevenapositive ioncanexceed thatofablackholebeyond theevent
horizonduetothemassivenegativechargeofadustparticle.Butforneutralatomsnearthecoldwallof theacoustic resonator, thevelocityhasmodest,usualvalues like inany technicaldevice,(likeaweldingtorch).
Micrometerrange
This is the levelof the interactionof the carbonnanoparticleswith theirambient surroundings.The plasma is no longer neutral electrically in this range. The nonlinear Debye length is thecharacteristicdistanceofthedustplasmainteractions.
Thedustparticlesareofmicronsizeatthestart,butby thetimethey reachtheworkingplasma
temperature they are broken and regrown into nanosize pieces by evaporation, condensation,crystallization, erosion and Maxwell stress rupturing due to the repulsion of the electronsaccumulated inside the dust particles. Small fullerenes and sections of nanotubes are to befoundhere,astheseparticlespasseventhroughveryfinefilters.
Rememberthatwithoutthe finenanodustofrightsizeandshapethere isnoeffectwhatsoever.(Plasmaetching,orionbombardment,alsocreatessuchsmallparticles,asafrequentlycursedsideeffectofsemiconductorchipmanufacturingandionimplantation,butofSi.)Theregularfeaturesofthisdustlatticecrystal,orliquidseemtobeessentialtoitssuccess.Thislatticecanaccommodate
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transverse,longitudinalandeventorsionaloscillation,anditcanamplifythemviaresonanteffects.AsimplifiedsketchoftheDustAcousticResonance,ordustacousticwave isshown inFig.3/a,and 3/b. The characteristic feature of this wave is that the heavy carbon nanoparticles arerelatively stagnant, and the electron cloud is mobile. The electron cloud is driven partly by theexternal electrical field of the transversal waves of the magnetron, and by the selforganized
plasmaoscillations.Thepositiveioncloud(mainlyofN+)andthenegativeioncloud(mainlyofO),and thenegativecarbonnanoparticlesare thedominantmassesof thisoscillation.Theelasticspring is the electrostatic field of the ions and nanoparticles. This nonlinear oscillation ischaracterizedbyalargenumberofresonantfrequencies,andonlyafewofthemareaudible.Mostofthemareintheultrasoundrange(from20kHzuptosomeGHz)withregulardistributionofpeakresonantfrequencies.(ThisqualitativedistributionisshowninFig.4,upto100kHz).
Nanometerlevel
Wehavearriveddowntothetimeandsizescaleofparameters,wheretheusualmacroscopicrulesare no longer valid, yet the rules of the familiar quantum mechanics cannot be applied. Forexample,goldnanoparticlesarechemicallyreactive,andmostmaterialssignificantlychangetheirphysical properties, like melting point, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, etc. Surfaceeffectsbecomedominanttothoseofthelatticeorcrystalstructure.Entirelyunexpectedqualitativeandquantitativefeaturesemergealreadyatthissizelevel!Weirdquasiparticlesappearatthissizescale.Theyhavepropertiestechnicallyusefulyetnotutilized.
On the surface of the dust particles surface plasmon polaritons rule the local world. They areunusual phenomena, littleknown, studied by only a handful of physicists. Quasiparticles likeelectronholes inasemiconductorcrystal,spinons,excitons,orquantizedphononvortices,etc.are strange but useful objects. Magnetic monopoles have also been discovered (and eventuallyforgotten) the same way. (A charged, rotatingmagneticdipoleof micron size irradiated by lightbehaveslikeaperfectquantizedmagneticmonopole).[3]
The most ancient and wellknown quasiparticle is a surface wave that carries energy bycollectivelyorganizingindividualdroplets.Yetitcameasasurpriseinthe1880sthattheseobjectscanbenearlydissipationless.
Contrary to the magnetic monopoles, surface and volumetric plasmon polaritons have not beenforgotten [4]. These quasiparticles appear even on infinite metal/dielectric surfaces. Theypropagateelectrondensitywaves,orelectromagneticwavesstronglyboundtothis interface.Theelectric field intensity at the interface can be very high. There can be even resonant fieldamplificationatsmallnanosizeconductiveparticles,whosesizeissmallerthanthewavelengthoftheexcitingsource.Theexcitationsourcesareparticleimpact,opticalwavesandnearfieldeffects.Themidinfraredwavelengthrangeisespeciallyfavorable.
Surfaceplasmoneffectscanbemoreprominentonnanosizeconductingparticlesthanonopticalgrades or metal plates. Good conductors as Au, Ag, ormultiwall conducting carbon nanotubeswhichproducepronouncedfieldamplificationeffects,especially inthepresenceofplasma,whichhasanegativecomplexdielectricconstant.
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Asconductingmultiwallnanotubesareabout1000timesbetterconductorsthancopperorsilver,their presence is a must. They can be quite easily manufactured in highpressure oscillatingreactiveplasma[5]
Duetothepronouncedresonantfieldamplification,allsortsofhighenergyeffectsformingneutral
particlesmaytakeplacetherelikethoseproposedbyMills[6].
Collectivelyoscillatingelectronsmay interactwith positive ions,protons, thus forming neutrons.The setup is the perfect match to the model developed by Larsen and Widom [7]. Ultracoldneutrons or other neutral quasiparticles can be born by these interactions then react with anynucleustheycancontact.
This process is most likely not governed by strong forces, but ostensibly by electroweakinteractions.Thusthecollectiveoscillationsofsurfaceelectronsdonotnecessarilycausefusionbystrong interaction, but the restof theprocess might cause fusion.So thisvery strangegroup ofphenomenaismostprobablyrestrictedtothesurfaceofnanosizecarbonparticles.Unfortunately,
thereisnowaytodirectlyobserveandjudgetheultrafastreactionsonthesurfaceofthecarbondust,butwithoutdustthere isnoeffect.Thiseffectdominatestheouter layer in theresonator,showninFig.5.
This isessentiallyanonradiantphenomenon.No radioactivity isdetectedwhen the inputpowerdensity iskeptundera threshold levelofplasmavolume (ofabout1kW/1dl).When thepowerdensityincreases,radioactiveradiationappears,e.g.mildXrays, and radiation.
Electron,nucleonsizelevel
Herethemoreor less familiarrulesofquantummechanics,orQ.E.D.rule. Inouropinion,strong
interactionandclassicalfusionstarttodominatetheprocessaboveacertainpowerdensityinthemiddle layer.Sparking isvisibleonslowmotion films.Obviously,theamplitudeofoscillationalsodepends on the plasma radius, pressure, and temperature. At the center of the plasma, theamplitudesshouldbemuchhigherthanthoseattheouterwalloftheacousticresonator. (Therecanbethehighestamplitudeofasphericalstandingwave).SeeFig.5forthethreelayers.
Near the center of the plasma sphere (middle layer), charge shielding can dominate nuclearprocessesduetotheenormoussurfacechargedensityofthedust.Thenrepulsingchargesof likeprotonscanbeovercomebythehugenegativechargedensityofthecarbonparticles.
Ontheslowmotionvideorecords,onecanclearlyseetheappearanceofsuddensmallsparks,en
mass.ThentheGeigercounterstartstoclick,thoughatmoderatelevels.Atpresentnooneknowswhatgoesoninthecenteroftheacousticresonator.
In Fig. 6 these simultaneous mechanisms are shown as field amplification by resonant surfacepolaritons(Fig.6/a),directvolumetricpolarizationbyelectronandionimpact(Fig.6/b),andchargeshielding (Fig.6/c) isshown,wherestrong interactionrules (againatadifferentsize level)at thecharacteristicsizeofanucleon.Obviouslytheseareallhypotheticalmechanisms,astheycannotbeobserveddirectly.
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Severalclassicalfusionreactionsandothernewtypeoffusionsinvolvingheaviernucleimaytakeplacehere.Thesurfaceofthecarbondustparticlecreatesanuclearlyactiveenvironment,usingthewordingofEdmundStorms[8].Thekeywordsofthisnewarenaofnuclearlyactiveenvironmentsare: dusty, resonant plasma, nanotechnology, surface and volume plasmon polaritons, electron
loading,crystalplasma,microwaveexcitation,orRFexcitation.Technicallythis isthehottestofthecoldfusionprocesses.
The classical PonsFleischman process takes place mainly a bit above room temperature, with apalladiumcathode,andheavywater(D2O)electrolysis.Thoughthereareothersubfields,theyarevariations to this engineering setup. This is the most widespread, and even most investigatedtheaterofwar,butafterabout20yearsofinvestigation,thereisnomassproduceddevicebasedon this setup, though initially it was very useful, and influential. The high temperature ceramicprotonconductorexperimentsofT.Mizunohavebeentheexceptions,nottherule.
The ArataZhang, or FocardiRossitype (or Mills?) of micropowder and nano powder approach,
with H or D loading at about 300 C already promise practical application. The resonant, dustyplasma,basedoncarbondustcanbeanother 'battleground'thatcanyieldotherusefultechnicalapplications,andofferareliable,inexpensivenuclearprocess.
Butitcomesataprice.Asmanynew,hithertounheardphysicaleffectsneedtobecombinedandutilizedduetothecomplexityofselforganizingresonantdustyplasma.However,this isthe leastexplored, least understood group of phenomena. Apart from reliability, its most importantadvantageisthatitallowsthesimultaneouspresenceofseveraltypesofenergygeneratingnuclearphenomena,layerbylayer,asshowninFig.6.
Thereareat least fourdifferentsizescalesand fivedifferentphysicalphenomena tobewatched
simultaneously. Dust ionacoustic resonances driven by resonant transversal and longitudinalelectromagneticwaves(crystalplasmaoscillations),surfaceplasmonpolaritons(asquasiparticles),wakefieldelectronacceleration(andelectronpenetrationintoadustparticle),andchargeshieldednormalandneutroninducedfusionprocessesmaytakeplaceatdifferentscaleoftime,scaleandtemperatures.
Unfortunatelyalltheatersofactionsmustbeobservedsimultaneously,andshouldbeunderstoodatleastintheiressentials.Simultaneousembedded,serialelectromagnetic,acousticandpolaritonresonances,andfieldamplificationsareessentialtohaveapracticaldevice.
Coldfusion,orLENRisusedhereasawordingonlyinitsbroadestsense,asseveralplasmabased
interactive phenomena take place simultaneously. The possibility of Hagelstein type processesshould be considered as well as the characteristic frequencies can be of TeraHz order, due tointensiveinfraredradiation.
The phenomena based on dusty (crystal) plasma are nonequilibrium, nonlinear, selforganized,complex phenomena. Essential effects take place at all four levels, but all of them areinterconnectedviaseveralinternalfeedbackloops.
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Theexactdescriptionof the internalpositiveandnegative feedback loopsand theirconsecutiverelations are as yet in the fog of our ignorance, and will remain so for a while, as theirinterconnectedness issometimes loose,sometimesstrong.Forexample,theenergygeneratedbyelectroweakandstrong interactionsdirectly influencetheaverageplasmatemperature.However,averagetemperature isaparameterof interestforan investmentbankonlywhowanttoknow
nothingbuttheaverageexcesspowerdensity.Theelectrontemperature,thepositiveandnegativeioncloudtemperatureareofinterestonlyasafunctionofspaceandtime.Whocanprovidethis?Nottospeakoftheamplitudesofcrystalplasma dustoscillation.Moreover,alloftheseshouldbecoupledtothe incomingtransversewavesandtothepartiallyreflectedlongitudinal(Tesla)wavesgeneratedonthesurfaceoftheplasma[9].
Aswecannotdissectthisphenomenontoseparatesubeffects,(andthussimplifytheprocess),wecan study this group of effects like a botanist,just watching it growing by slightly altering theambientparameters.
Selforganization makes the process of chaotic plasma and the device simple, durable, and
inexpensive. On the other hand, complexity makes the experimenter mad, as seemingly smallchangesinsizeandshapeusuallymakesignificantandfatalchangesinthebehavioroftheprocess.
Dieselenginesserveasanexample.Theyproducebothplasmaoscillations,anddustparticles,butno crystal plasma and no latticeinduced nuclear phenomena. These machines have beenmanufacturedby themillions,and foroveronehundredyears.Stillthedevelopment isnotoveryet.USautomakersareunabletoproducehighquality,smalland inexpensivedieselengines(likethatofVW),buttheyarecapableofmakingexcellent,largetruckengines.Thisisjustanexampleoftheneedforthe immenseamountofknowhowduringtheR&Dphase.This isthedarksideoftheforce.
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PartIII.The Dark Side the Engineering Problems
Aswehaverealizedquiteearly,there issimplynoroomhereforelegantmathematicalmodeling.Therearenice(andunsolvable)equationsforcrystalplasma,polaritons,nuclearphenomena,etc.,butwithoutconstitutiverelations,proper initialandboundaryconditions.Tomake thingsworse,therearenoproperinexpensiveplasmadiagnostictoolstocheckthevalidityofthecalculations!
Few people are aware of the immense efforts of the complexities of the dusty diesel plasmadiagnostics,forexamplebyxrays.Millionsofdollarshavebeen invested intothisR&D,but ithasnot yielded results. Experience, immense accumulated knowledge, intuition, and trialanderrortypeeffortscharacterizethedevelopmentofplasmadevices.
Thesamehappenedduringtheformativeyearsofthemassproductionofmicrochips.Thepresence
ofsilicondusthasbeenobservedearlyduringtheplasmaetchingprocess. Itwasassumedthat itcamethroughthewindow.Thereforeexpensivecleanroomswerebuilt,andcumbersomesafetyclothinghadtobewon.Yetitwasamistake.Thedustwasanunwantedandannoyingsideproductof the plasma etching process. By the time it was realized,hundredsofmillionsof dollars werewastedonunnecessaryexpensivedustfilters.(Nevertheless,medicaloperatingtheatersbenefitedfromtheadvancedfiltersystems).
It isstrange thatTokamak typehot fusionprojectsconsider thecarbondust in theplasmaasanannoyingprocess tobeeliminatedatany cost [10].Carbon inner tilingsof the toroidal chamberhavebeenreplacedbytungstentilings.There isasophisticatedsolutiontomitigatethisproblem(the divertor chamber). However, the dust is the solution to have controlled fusion, and the
problemwhichneedstobemitigatedistheITER.
Forourexperimentsnuclearreactionsassistedbyresonantcrystalordustyplasmatheageoldtrialanderrormethod was theonly way forward. Science relies on and revels in intuition, hardwork,andpureluck.Thereforethiskindofscienceismankind'slasthope.Scienceasaninstitutionalwayssuppressedandwillkeeponsuppressing it,toourgreatestperil.Allthiswasnecessarytomentionbeforewediscussour test resultsand furtherdetailsof thedevices,whichhavealwaysbeenbasedonintuition,crudediagnosticsandneverondetailedcalculations.Wehavetomentionthatonlya fractionof thedesired testswerecarriedout,due to lackof fundingandconsequentlackofmanpower.Wehavefacedmajordifficultieswithseveraltechnicalissuesatthesametime.
The firstchallengehasbeentheefficientgenerationofhigh frequencyEMwaves,to findouttherightshapeandsizeofcavityresonators,couplingantennas,waveguides.Therewasverylittleofftheshelfknowledgeinthisfield.
Aswerealizedtoourperil,theresonant,oscillatingplasmaemitsscalar,or longitudinal, i.e.Teslawaves.[9]Textbooksonelectromagneticwaves,mentiononlytransversalwaves.Someofthemtrytogiveashyexplanationofwhythereareno longitudinalandtorsionwaves.Asanytextbookofmechanics describes theses waves in solids, the longitudinal (sound), transversal and rotationalwaves,onemayponderwheretheyareinelectrodynamics.Thetroublecomesmainlyfromthefact
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thatTesla'spioneeringresearchinthisareahasbeenalmostcompletelyignored.Thefundamentalprocess to generate a longitudinal wave is to charge a sphere (or a plate) to a high electricpotential,andtodischargeitrapidly.Itisbettertohaveonesidedpushwaves,butthepushpullmethodalsoworks inanoscillatingmembrane.According toourvisualobservations, theplasmahasevenrotatedinthecavityresonator.Accordingtotextbookphysicsthereisnoreasonforitto
doso.
TherotatedplasmaphenomenonappearsatthethresholdlevelofseveralthousandsofVoltsandkHz.Inouroscillatingplasma,boththenegativelychargeddustparticlesandnegativeandpositiveionstakepartinthisoscillationprocess;(seeFig.8.)
Without heavy positive and negative ions, there is no ion acoustic resonance, and there are nosignificantoscillations.Electronsaresimplytoo lighttocounterbalancetheheavymassofpositiveions.Nevertheless,ionacousticanddustacousticoscillationshaveaveryusefulproperty:theyemitlongitudinal sound and Tesla waves, which serve as a reliable diagnostic tool, along with thespectrumoftheplasma,(thoughonlyforanarrowbandforacousticfrequencies.)
The Tesla waves are emitted from the plasma surface. However, the cavity resonator, which isreflectivefortransversewaves,isonlypartiallyreflectiveforthelongitudinalEMwaves,whichisanunwantedlossalongwiththegenerationofsoundwaves;(SeeFig.9.)Thisposedamajordrawbackfor us. The electromagnetic cavity resonator has to be optimized to achieve the following tripletask:
Atthestart,anignitionpackofcarbonpowderisplacedintotheacousticcavityresonator,andthisresonator is placed into the transversal cavity resonator; (see Fig. 2/c). The dust lump must belocatedatthemaximumnodeoftheelectricfield,otherwisethere isno ignition.OnlytransversalEMwavesarepresent.
Afterignition,theconductiveplasmadestroysthehighqualityfactoroftheEMresonatorbyshortcircuiting,anddissipating.Thenadifferentshapeoftransversalwavecavityresonatorwouldworkmore efficiently. So we struck a compromise: we start at a higher input power, but once theplasmaisformed,theinputpowerisreduced.However,whenthetemperatureofthedevicehasclimbedto itsnormalsteadyvalue,thepowerpartially radiated away by scalar longitudinal (Tesla) waves is annoying. The Tesla waves aregenerated at multiple frequencies, as they are generated by the ion and dust acoustic waves.Therefore their multiple reflections and transmittance inside the EM cavity resonator require adifferentshape,thanthatoftransversalwavesonly.Inthebeginning,theperformanceofthenewboxwasnotsteady.Sometimesitwasselfextinguishing,whenthematchbetweentheshapeofthemetalbox (EMcavity)optimized for transversaland longitudinalwavesand thepositionof the
acousticresonator(quartzsphere)wasnotcorrect.Ittookanextremeamountoftrialanderrortofigureoutacompromiseamongthethreecompetingdesigncriteria.
Longitudinal(Tesla)wavesareemittedbytheplasma(byacomplicatedspatialdistributionatthemaximumamplitudenodes),and reflectedback into theEM cavity resonator. If the longitudinalwaveisreflectedbackpartlyintotheplasma,thenapositivefeedbackloopexists,andtheplasmaisselfsustaining.SeeFig.8.
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Otherwisetherearetwocompetingmodesinsidethemetalcavityresonator,(becausethetwoEMwaves have two different nodes), and the oscillation becomes intermittent causing a series offlashesandloudminiexplosions.Theseeventsaretechnicallyuseless.
Thearduoustaskofoptimizationforthelongitudinalandtransversewaveswassolvedbyoneofus
(Cs. M.) by trial and error. He kept on building and testing new cavity resonators, alwaysrectangular ones, as they were easy to make and relatively inexpensive. The spherical acousticresonatormadeofquartzservesfortheplasma.However,thereisasignificantenergylossduetosound energy. So the transversal longitudinal EM cavity resonator also functions as a simpleexternalacousticresonator.Stilltherectangularshape isnotgoodenough;asphericalonewouldbebetter.Certainly, there isahuge rangeofuntestedgeometries:cylindrical, sphericalor semirounded cylindrical. As a rule, the acoustic and the EM resonators do not have a commongeometrical focus point. The acoustic resonator usually ignites there, but not at optimalparameters.
AllmusicalinstrumentsweredevelopedduringtheMiddleAgesandmoderntimesbythistrialand
error method. Think of the analogy of a violin or a piano. The wave generation starts with theignitionofstrings,buttheir impedancematchingtotheambientair issimplyawful.Evenharpshaveasmallimpedancematchingresonator!(Otherwisetheycouldnotbeheardevenfromashortdistance.) The impedance matching between the power source, the bow and the chords, thebridge,theresonatoranditsstructureismorethanpurephysics,itisempiricalart.
A violin built long ago by Stradivari or Guarneri is still very expensive, though its technology isbetter understood and more sophisticated now. The difference between a master violin and amediocreviolinappearsintherichness,thedensityofharmonictransversalwavesoftheresonator.Thereforethequalityandthepreparationofthestructuralwoodmaterialwasatradesecret,(anditstillis).
Thesoundgetsbetterandbetterasmoreinputenergyoftheartististransformedintothedelicatebalance of properly selected longitudinal and surface mechanical transverse (bending) waves,whichturn intosecondary longitudinalsoundwaves.Thisservesasausefulanalogybetweenthetwotypesofdevices.(SeeFig.9.)
Thedifficulty tohave instantsuccess is reallydiscouraging.Onehas tobeextremelypatientanddiligenttomaptheacceptableworkingparameters.However,thisisafairdeal,asthereisarewardfromanunknowncorner.
Longitudinal(Tesla)wavesofdifferentfrequenciestendtodestroysomebacteriaandviruses,but
onlyatarathersharprangeoffrequencies.ThehonorgoestoRaymondRife,aprolificUSinventorandphysician.Heusedhydrogengasplasmaacousticoscillations to study themedicaleffectsofTeslawaves,asTeslahimselfdid.Hewasabletocurefluveryefficiently,andsometypesofcanceraswell,asavirusinfectioncouldleadtomalignancy(aftersomedecades)whentheimmunesystemisweakened.
Thiseffecthascometousasasurprise,afterourfriendswitnessingtheongoingplasmatestswerecuredfromcoldsormildflu.
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Nevertheless,overcertainlargedosesofweeksormonthsharmfuleffectsappear,likenosebleedsornausea.TheTeslawavesmayirritatethepolarizedsurfaceofthecellmembranesofthenose.
Certainlywedonotwanttodiminish furtherthepoorrespect forCFresearch.Possibletitles like
Mad Scientists Claim to Kill Bugs by Cold Fusion would not help this field, though the usefulmedicalpotentialisdefinitelythere.
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PartIV.The Next Hurdle
The proper shaping of the acoustic dusty plasma resonator is a similar problem. Without thisacousticcavityresonator,theefficiencyoftheprocessismeager.Thisisnotasurprise.Atthedawnof radioandTV, the signalswere so weak that selectiveamplifiers, several filter and resonatingcircuits had to be invented during the dawn of analog radio age, both for transmitters andreceivers.
Inthelightoftheseroutineengineeringconsiderations,itisstrange,thatmainstreamhotfusiondevicesdonotuseresonanteffects.Bruteforcegivesbirthtoinefficiency,thusapoorproductonthemarket,orstalledresearch.
Theimportanceofacousticresonancefortheamplificationoftheamplitudesofplasmaoscillations
isobvious.Itwasclearfromthestartthattheefficiencymustbeuncreased.However,theproperdesignandmanufacturingofthisHelmholtzlikecavityresonatorisnotatallsimple.
We have used at least two circular holes with some edge rings on the top and bottom of thesphericalresonator.Thematerialisquartz,assphericalheatandstressresistantceramicshellsarenotavailableofftheshelf.Certainly,thisisasevererestriction,asquartzbreaksandpartiallymeltsat about 1400C. (Further, only a few elderly glass blowers are able to form quartz with therequiredaccuracy).Unfortunatelyeven1 2mmdeviationsfromsphericityhamperefficiencydueto severelydiminishingamplitudes.More than onehundredquartzacoustic cavity resonatorsofthistypehavebeenbuiltandtested,being themostexpensivepartof theproject.Therejectionrateoftheglassspheresismorethan50%!Abouthalfofthesphereshavegivenacceptableresults,
therestwenttothedustbin.
Theevennessofthicknessofthewalls, lengthsanddiametersoftherims,andtheratiobetweenthediametersoftheholeswasimportantandrequiredpainstakingpatience.Itisnecessarytohavetwo holes and rims of different geometries. If only one hole is used, it yields only a few peakamplitudes,some fundamentalones.Two (ormore)holesgivemore frequencies,and theirsumsanddifferencesalsoappear,astheplasmaisnonlinear.Inasense,theresonantquartzsphereisamusicalinstrument.Optimizationisimportant.Itseemsthatthesequenceoffrequenciesandtheiramplitudes significantly influence the performance of the process. The more resonant peaks wehave,themoretheefficiencyincreases,butsodoesthesoundpressure,(theamplitude).However,thelargertheareaoftherimmedorifices(seephotograph),thesmallerthe(relative)amplitudeis.(Onecanmeasure thesound intensityonlyoutsideof thehotmetalcavity resonator,not insidebecausethemicrophonewouldmelt).
Mostofourworkhasbeendevotedtotheoptimizationofthetwocavityresonators,andyet it isfarfrombeingperfect.Ateamofat least5 6memberscouldmostprobablydo it in2 3years!Apart from this, the dusty plasma oscillations also contain novelties, as there is a single drivingfrequency(magnetron)andhundredsofresonantpeakplasmafrequencies.
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Thediameterofthesphere,thegeometryofthetwoorthreerimmedtuningholes(orshorttubes),theaverageplasmatemperature(thedrivingpower),allinfluencetheoutcome.Fortheinterestedreader,muchisneededtobelearnedonlyaboutthesynchronizationprocesses[11].
Butinordertoavoidtheexpensesofquartzmanufacturingandthehardlyrepeatablehandblown
sphericalacoustic resonators,onecandecrease thepressure.Anoilfree rotarypump isenough;then less expensive and even tubularshaped Pyrex tubes can demonstrate this phenomenon.However,thevacuumsystempressuregauges,and thethickermetalcavityresonatoraddtothecostsandtroubles.
All the abovementioned seems nothing but complaints, but one has to learn from the hostilereputation of the original PonsFleischmann experiments, when the immense amount of theminimumrequiredknowhowwassimplynonexistentatthetimeofpublication.
Ourdevicesandprocessrequireevenmoreknowhow.Tostartfromscratchwithoutaluckystrikeissuicidalbecausetherearesomanyopportunitiestofail.
Severalresonantphenomenahavetobematchedcarefullyforoptimumperformance,andavastamountoffirsthandexperience isnecessary,asthere isverylittlereliableknowhowinthisfield.Therewardwillbeareliable,powerfuleffectwithamodestlypriceddevice,which is light,small,andevencanbeportablelateron.
TheToolKit
If someone is interested in repeating the simplest setup, a household microwave oven will do,providedthebeamentranceisattheside,notonthetop.ThesetupinFig.2cisthebest.Onemayuseathin,softgraphiterodfromamechanicalpencilinsteadofaglowingwoodenstick.
Whenusinganacousticcavity resonator,onemayusea smallamountof carbondustpacked insmallball,wrappedinthincigarettepaper.Theamountislessthenaquarterofagram,butbeverycareful. Its optimum depends on the initial magnetron power, size and relative position of theacoustic and metal (EM) cavity resonator. Carbon weights increase by 10 mg steps, so carefulweighing isamust. Iftheweightofthestartingcarbondustcharge istoosmall, itwilljustmakesomesparksandfizzleout.Iftheweightistoomuch,itwilljustreleasesomesmoke,anditwillbeover.
To find out the maximum electric field in the EM (metal) cavity resonator, one may map theinternal volume by placing a heat sensitive, slightly wet fax paper into the cavity at different
heights.Therearemoresensitivemethodsbyapplyingcobaltchloride.[12]
Youshoulddecideat thebeginningwhichpathof technology issuitable foryourself. Ifyouhaveaccesstoagoodglassblowertomakequartzsphereswith0.5mmaccuracy,thenatmospheric(orgreater)pressurescanbeused.Ifnot,andonlyPyrexglassisavailable,thenlowerpressures(downto1 2Torr)arethewayout,usingarotaryvacuumpump.Then lowerfrequenciescanbeused,but at high voltage (10 20 kV). Inductively or capacitively driven tubular or spherical acoustic
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resonators can also be used. Resonant, lumped parameter power sources at about 14 MHz areavailable.
Thenecessary toolsare professionalmicrophones,acoustic spectrumanalyzers,GM tubes,massspectrometers,etc. However,skillinexperimentationanddedicationisamust.
The physics of the five essential physical phenomena are quite different though. The essentialfundamentals are dusty (crystal) plasma, plasmatransversal and longitudinal wave interactions,carbonclusters(nanotechnology),surfaceplasmonpolaritons(quasiparticles)andfinallythewildandwideworldofLENRorCANR.Therearegoodbooksandevenreviewpapersonplasmaphysicsandalltheaboveareaswhichwouldhelptogiveamoreorlesssolidbackground,thoughnoneofthemcanbedirectlyapplied.
SomeTestResults
Insteadoflistingthedetailsoffurtherhurdles,letusdescribesometestresults.
Thereareonlyahandfulof freeparameters, like inputpower,geometryofthemetalandquartzcavity resonatorsand their relative positions,plasma input mass fluxand chemical composition.Theirmutualeffect ismostlyunknown,andevenworse:counterintuitive.This typeofplasma ischaotic,butnotrandomandunpredictableatbest,wickedatworst.
Usually, iftheparametersarenotkeptwithinanarrow range,theplasmasputtersandvanishes.Thenthetransversewavesarereflectedtothemagnetron,andlackingaproperlymatchedloadtheelectronicsystemfails.
On theother sideof thespectrumofannoyingphenomena, theplasma simplyjumpsoutof the
acousticresonator,oscillatesinacornerorattheceilingoftheEMcavityresonatorandisuselessagain.Thisisnotourobedientservant,butanervecrackingprankster.(Somuchabouttherealfaceofthephenomenon).
Therangeofgeometricalandotherinitialparametersthatcanbeusedisintermittent.Thatis,theusefulphenomenaappearonlyassmall islandsof theparameterson thevastoceanofpossiblesetups.OnemaycreateaDCelectricmotorofanydiameterfromafewmillimetersuptoseveralmeters. The same is true with internal combustion engines, or springdriven clocks, etc. Butresonantdustyplasma,beingstronglynonlinearandselforganizing,obeysdifferentrules.Asthedrivingfrequencyofmagnetronsisnotafreeparameter(about2.4GHz),givenaquartzsphereofthediameterofabout58cm,onlythediametersandrim lengthsofthetuningorificesprovide
some freedom. The safest range for a 60mm diameter acoustic cavity resonator is a 5mmdiameterupperorificewitharimlengthof23mmandalowerorificeofthediameterof1520mm,andarimlengthof2mm.Thesphericityoftheresonatorshouldnotvarymorethan1mm;otherwisetheresonantpeaksofthesound(qualityfactor)noticeablydecrease.(Pyrexglasscanbetried,butitwillmeltinaminute).
Lower pressures provideamuchwider rangeofpossibleparameters, but their power density islower.
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FirstObservations
Oncetheplasmaisignitedandproperlytuned,ithums,trappedintheacousticcavityresonator.Ifnothingischanged,itwillstaythereformonths.Ourlongestcontinuoustestperiodwas6weeks.It
wasterminated inordertoexaminethewearandtearofthequartzacousticresonator.(Its innersurfacebecameopaque,andslightlyscaled,flaky,otherwiseallright.)
Thefirstquestiontoariseis,whydoesthecarbonorcarbosilicatedustremainthereafterweeksofoperation?Onewouldexpecttheterminationofthephenomenonduetotheslowdiffusionoftheinitialdustoutofthequartzsphere.Evenaslightventilationadmittingfreshairletstheprocesscontinueindicatingasortofselfreproductionofthedust.AmassivefluxofCO2willnotextinguish
theplasmaeither,indicatingselfreplicationofthefinedust.
There isanothertesttoprovethe importanceofthenanodust.Whenthemagnetron isswitchedoffandswitchedonimmediately,theplasmavanishesandreappearsatthesameinputpower.Foranordinaryhighpressuregloworarcdischarge,ahigherinitialvoltage(andpower)isnecessaryforthe ignition or reignition of the discharge. Moreover, there is a significant difference in powerconsumption, when the dusty resonant plasma is compared to the pure plasma, without anacousticresonator,butwitharectangulartransversalresonator.D.J.Sullivanetal.[13]hasburnedmethane in a microwave rectangular TE1,0,n type resonator, while it had a laminar flame. The
plasmaabsorbedonly22Wofthe12003400WinputEMpower,increasingslightlythespeedofthe flame (combustion). The volume of their plasma was only a few cubic centimeter (17mmdiameter,4mmthickness).
Inourcase,anapproximately500cm(10cmdiameter)noncombustible(CO2)plasmarequiredan
inputpowerofabout1200Wtomaintainit,yetitsmashedmostofthechemicalbondsofCO2.TestresultsareshowninTableI.
When themagnetronwaveguideEMcavityacousticcavitychainwasoptimized,1kWhofworkinputsplitted2.9kgofCO2intofineCdustandO2with~95%efficiency.Thiswasthehighest
possible CO2 mass flux, with a 10cm diameter quartz sphere resonator, the largest the glass
blowerhasevermadeafterseveralunsuccessfultrials.(About25kWh inputenergy isrequiredtodecompose2.9kgofCO2.)
TransmutationofmedicalqualitytitaniumisshowninTableII,aftera6min.treatment.Thedatais
takenfromthesurfacesample.(Twosurfacesamplesweretaken,yieldingsimilarresults.)Electronbeammicroanalysiswasusedtoanalyzethecompositionofacleanquartzsphere.
Ingeneral,theresultshavenotalwaysbeenrepeatable,astherewerealwayssomedifferencesinthegeometry of the quartz acoustic resonators. Nevertheless, transmutations have alwaysbeenobservedafter23minutesoftreatmentofthesolidsample,withtheexceptionofNiandFe.
Asalastexample,thetestresultsoftheplasmatreatmentofredsludgeareshownonTableIII.Thissludge isabyproductofaluminumproduction,rich inmineralsandmetals.Mostof it is iron
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andsilica, but thereareanumberofrareearthmetals in it,too.Thesamplewasa5g lumpofslightlywetsludge.Ithasbeenexposedtotheplasmafor3minutesatthebottomoftheacousticresonator,inair,atatmosphericpressure.Afterthetreatmentthemelted,oxidizedremnantsweregiventoanaccreditedcompanytobeexaminedbyaquadrupolemassspectrometer.Column4ofTable IIIshowsthenewcompositionaftertreatment.Thesludgeunderwentasignificantchange;
theratioandthedifferencebeforeandafterthetreatmentisshownaswell.
Underordinarycircumstancesthevolatilematerialssuchasmercuryshoulddisappear,andothermaterials with high boiling points should be enriched, but not in this case. Here lithium wasenrichedby20%,(meltingpoint277C.)Theratioofmagnesiumtripled(meltingpoint660C),asdid thephosphorus content (meltingpoint44C); thepotassiumcontent increased17 fold.Thehighestyieldwascopper.(Itsmeltingpointisabout1000C).Itwasenriched430fold.Galliumwasenrichedby50%,butitsmeltingpointis30C!Palladiumwasenriched13fold.(Itsmeltingpointis400C).
Certainlythecomparisonhastobetakenwithapinchofsalt,asgaseswerenotanalyzedatall,and
volatile materials were allowed to evaporate and escape from the system. The data have beenplottedalongwiththedataofMileyetal. (onpage92),andMizunoetal. (samepage) from theexcellentbookbyEdmundStorms.[8]Theatomicnumbersareplottedontheverticalscale,whichisalogarithmicone.E.Stormsusedtheproductionrate(atoms/cmsec)forlightwaterelectrolysis.Mizunousedheavywater (D2O) inplasmaelectrolysis,andused the totalchangeofatoms/cm,alsoinlogarithmicscale.
George Miley noted that there were more productive yield rates in transmutation in four massranges[14],notably:A=2030;5080;110130;190210. It istrue,however,thatthere isagoodapparentincreaseintheLiandBecontentaswell.Theselightelementsaresupposedtohavebeencreated in theBigBang, but there isnonucleosynthesisongoingeither insupernovaor inthe
wombofstars.Therearesomepossibleprocessesforthenucleosynthesisoflightelements,butitwould be better to carry out this test by improved methods, as condensing and analyzing thevolatilematerialsaswell.
Allouraboveresultshingedontheassumptionthatthetestresultsarestableordinarymaterials,notpolineutrons,whosenucleonsareultrarichinneutrons,observedbyJohnFisher[15].Electronbeam microanalysis or liquid chromatography should have been done, but we could not affordthem.
Thismethodopensnewdoors tosynthetisenucleonsbyan inexpensive technology.Thereforenuclear models developed by W. L. Stubbs, A. G. Gulko or L. Sindely will become of practical
importance.
Warning
If anybody is interested in repeating these tests, please note: submicroscopic,nanosize carbonparticles aremoredangerous than regular soot grains. Therefore ventilated premises must beused. Infrasound may cause nausea after long exposure. Tesla waves have hitherto unknown
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hazards, apart from their beneficial viruskilling effect. (We have developed our test device andcalibrationdeviceinordertomeasureandshieldourselvesfromthesewaves).
Historicalroots
It is the cautious opinion of the author that Nikola Tesla might have stumbled onto thisphenomenon as early as 1891, while working on his spherical and cylindrical carbon buttonlamps. (US patent 454,622) Later in his London lecture he elaborated the test results of highfrequency gas discharges with carbon, carborundum (carbosilicate) electrodes working at theparametersofabout50kHz,and20kV.
Hekeptonreturningtothissubject,andheboastedlaterinhislifethathismostimportantresultwasnotAC,nothisversionoftheradio,butatubeofhighvoltageproducingartificialradioactivity,and radiationpower.There isanurban legendabouthissilentelectricitydrivenhackedPierceArrowcar.Itisunthinkableforanaverageinventorinthe1920'stohavediscoveredandperfectedcontrolled nuclear fusion, and to have developed it into a usable device. But he was notjust
another inventor, a backyard tinkerer. In a hard to find book, [16] there are photographs ofhundredoddtubesforhisearlyradiotests.Someofthem,especiallytheone(s)inFig.99,arethecosphericalcarbon coated tubes that couldhave shown the featuresof thesephenomenaaftersomeionbombardment(sputtering).Morehastobelearnedaboutthephenomenaingeneral,buthewaswellaheadofhis(andour)timeinmanyrespects.
DustFusioninNature?
Onemay presume that this phenomenamay take place in the cold, dusty interstellaroscillatingplasma (rich in graphite), creating some energy (dark energy?). Larsen and Widom are of theopinion that this process might take place in the solar corona explaining its much higher
temperaturethanthatofthesurface.
All in all, oscillating dusty plasma offers a chance for a more reliable, useful, renewable energyproductionmethodinourlifetime:Fromdusttodust.
FurtherSteps
Fourfurtherrathercounterintuitive,butusefultechnicalstepsneedtobetakentoimprovefurthertheperformanceofthedevice.Apartfromthehightemperaturesolutionthereisanotherlargeandusefulareausing lowtemperature(dilutedplasma).Patentapplicationshavebeenfiledforbothareas. As these areas are vast, and much needs to be done, we are looking for partners in
experiments,managementandinvestment.
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CaptionstoFigures
Figure1:Schematicviewofnearequilibriumrectangularcrystal(ordusty)plasma
Small micron or nanosize negatively charged dust particles are in dynamic equilibrium with theneighboringplasma.Positive ionsareattractedtothesurfaceofthedustparticles;theymaytakeanelectronandleaveitasaneutralatomoroscillatecollectivelyonthesurface.Thisconfigurationisadissipating,energyconsumingmedia,ofnodirectpracticalinterest.Theparticlescanbeofanyshape,andtheirdistributionofsizeisusuallynonuniform.
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Figure2:Schematiclayoutofamicrowavedrivendustyplasmaexperimentsetup
a) Layout of a commercial microwave oven. The metal, rectangular cavity resonator has astrictlycalculatedgeometry.(Thewaveguideandthemagnetronarenotdetailed!)
b) Aburning,pointedwoodenstick isplacedonan insulatingstand.Afterthedoor isclosedandthemagnetronisstarted,ashinyloudhummingplasmablobiscreated,anditwillfloattotheceiling,meltingitafterawhile.Athinsharpenedgraphiterodwilldothesamejob.
c) Whenthestickoragraphiterodiscoveredwithaglassjar,theeffectisbetter,louder.Thejarisbrokenafterafewseconds,duetothermallyinducedmechanicalstress.
d) Spherical,tunedquartzacousticcavityresonator insideametalE.M.cavityresonator.Thelattershouldbemodified(alongthewaveguideandthemagnetronelectronics)toyieldanoptimum (cos 1),andhighperformance.WhendenseCO2 isblown into theacoustic
resonator,thebreakevenpointisexceededbyawidemargin.
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Figure3:Simplified,schematicsofaDustAcousticWave,fortwocharacteristicpositions:
whentheelectroncloudisinside(Fig3/a)oroutside(Fig3/b)ofthedustlattice
Thedust latticeitselfbarelymoves,butthepositive ions(andnegative ions)andtheelectronsdomove.They interactwiththeexternalmicrowaves.Onlythefundamentalharmonic isshown,notthesubandhigherharmonics.Theplasmaisstronglynonlinearandselforganizing.Theresonatorwallisnotshown.
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Figure4:Characteristicdistributionofacousticamplitudes
(inlogarithmicscale)asafunctionoffrequencies(linearscale)
Thisistheleastexpensiveplasmadiagnostictool.Underabout50Hz,theDustAcousticWavesaredominant (infrasounds). There are no dominant peaks in the lower audible range. High peaksappear in the ultrasound region, due to ion acoustic oscillations. The higher and narrower theresonant peaks are, the better. The sphericity of the acoustic oscillator is the most importantqualityfactor.Over100kHzTeslawavedetectioncouldreplaceacousticplasmadiagnostics.Some
testdataareasfollows: 3Hz68dB; 5Hz72dB,12Hz98dB;3200Hz81dB;6400Hz80dB;12800Hz82 dB; 25600Hz72dB;32000Hz62dB;38400 Hz 62dB;89600Hz 56dB. (Datawas takenoutsideofthemetalE.M.cavityresonator.)
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Figure5:Schematicsofthevisibleplasmacharacteristicforslowmotions
fora10cmdiameteracousticresonator,forabout1.5KWinput
a) The external plasma near to the wall is the coolest. Moving nodes, antinodes and crests(being darker) are clearly visible, they produce Chladnylike surface oscillations. (Thecharacteristicphysicsseemstobedominatedbyquasiparticles).Forlowinputenergythisistheonlyvisiblemechanism,thereisnoradioactivity.
b) Athigherinputenergy,thesparkingregionappears,alongamilddegreeofradiationbothx rays and particles. (There is a slight radioactivity in the exhausted dust and the quartzsphereafterthepowerisswitchedoff,foracoupleofdays).
c) Internalcorenoinformation.Meltednanodustparticles?
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Figure6:Threedifferentassumedmechanismstakeplaceonthesurfaceofnanoparticles
a) Due to the external transversal and longitudinal E1 electrical field, the conductive dustparticle (nanotube) is unevenly polarized. A secondary, amplified E2 electrical field is
generated,anditisverystrong.Thefieldamplificationfactorcouldbeupto108[4a].InthestrongE2secondaryfield,protonsattachedtotheparticlesurfaceareaccelerated,andthey
mayformneutronswiththeelectrons.(WidomLarsenprocess?).IonizedArgonatomsmaytake part in a catalytic reaction with electrons. (Mills process?). Small closed carbonspheroids may be used, from Fullerenes (C60) up to carbon spheroids of C540 may
participate in this process,but mainlynanotubesare present.Even singlelayergrapheneflakescanparticipate in this typeofprocess, theirsharpedgesandgoodconductivityareessentialinthistypeoftheprocess.
b) Whenthedustparticleisnotyetfullycharged,anelectron,acceleratedbyplasmawakefieldacceleration (up to0.60.8GeV)hitsaprotonon thesurface,yieldinganeutron. (LarsenWidom II electroweak interactions?) Large, closedsurface carbon spheroids and
amorphousgrainsofupto106atomsmaytakepartintheprocess.
c) Thechargeshieldingeffectcanbesubstantialwithveryhighdustchargedensity.Protonsordeuteronscantakepartofreactionsinvolvingstrongnuclearforces.Region'b'inFig5yieldsradioactivebyproducts.Largerparticlesofseverallayersofcarbonatoms,evenamorphousmicronsizedones,maytakepartinthisprocess.Electricalconductivityisnotessential;thelarger
isthe
particle,
the
more
charge
can
be
accumulated,
until
itisripped
apart
by
internal
Maxwellstress.
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Figure7:Twophasesofadustacousticoscillation
The heavy dust particles do not move significantly, but the electron cloud does, partly as aconsequenceofwakefieldacceleration.Positiveandnegative ionsmayalsoacceleratetoamuchlesser degree. (Neutral atoms, molecules are not shown). Only the fundamental frequency isshown.Theexcessheatisgeneratedonthesurfaceofthecarbonnanoparticlesbyheatingawave,thuscreatingapositivefeedback.Teslawavesareemittedfromtheplasmasurface,asthesurfacechargealternatesfrompositivetonegative.
Theexternalelectromagnetic radiation isabsorbedmainlyby theelectrons.The thicknessof the
plasmasheetabsorbingexternalandexcessenergydependsonthenumberoffreeelectrons inagivenvolume.Thisrestrictsthemaximumdiameterofanacousticresonator.
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Figure8:
Outline
of
the
process
of
the
generation
reflection
of
Tesla
(longitudinal)
wave
Netcharge(positiveornegative)appearsonthesurfaceoftheplasmasphere(seeFig7/aand7/b)creatinganetsurfaceelectricfieldofchangingsign,thuslongitudinalwaves.
Thereareanumberof frequencies for the longitudinalwaves,whichare partly reflected,partlytransmittedby themetalE.M.cavity resonator.There isnoclearcutgeometry forhighQcavityresonatorforthelongitudinalwaves,soitsresonancecurveisshortandflat.Powerfullongitudinalwavesmaydestroythemagnetron.Threeembeddedresonancesareshownhere.Electromagnetic(transversal and longitudinal waves), acoustic and (invisibly small) resonant surface plasmonpolaritons.Thelastoneisessential.
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Figure9:Asimplifiedstringmusicalinstrument.
Itsstringscanbeexcitedbyaboworpluckedbyhand
Theenergyofthe transversalwaves is ledbyabridge (waveguide) intoaresonator,which isanacousticcavity.
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Annotatedreferences,recommendedpapers,books[1]
Thereisnothinginthevastliteratureaboutplasmasthatfitsexactlyourneed,but:Therearedozensofgoodbooksonintroductory(regular)plasmaphysics.
Myfavoriteisashort,enlighteningbook:
Lev.A.Arzimovich.1965.ElementaryPlasmaPhysics.BlaisdellPublications.
Introductorybooksandpapersondustyplasmas:
a) S.V.Vladimirov,K.Ostrikov.2004.DynamicSelfOrganizationinComplexIonizedGasSystems.Pp175380.Vol393.PhysicsReports
(highlyrecommended)
b) V.N.Tsytovichet.al:ElementaryPhysicsofComplexPlasmas(verygood)Springer,LectureNotesonPhys.Vol731.2008.
c) P.K.Shukla,B.Elisson:FundamentalsofDust-plasmaInteractions.(good)ReviewsofMod.Phys.Vol81;JanMarch2009.pp2544.
d) I.E.E.E.Transact.onplasmaSci.Vol38,No4,Apr2010.PartIII.SpecialIssueonthePhysicsofDustyPlasmas(severalshortpapers)
e) I.R.Gekker:InteractionofStrongE.M.fieldswithplasmas.ClarendonPress,Oxford,1982.(good,practicalintroduction,butwithordinaryplasma)
f) AndreiLudu:NonlinearWavesandSolutionsonContoursandClosedsurfaces.Springer,2007.(goodtheoreticalbackgroundforsphericalandcylindricalresonators)
g) B.K.Shiramoggi:IntroductiontononlinearFluidPlasmaWaves.KluwerAcad.Publishers,1988.(generalintroductiontopartiallyionizedplasma)
h) Y.Magarshaketal:SiliconVersusCarbon.Springer,2008.i) V.N.Tsytovich:NonlinearEffectsisPlasmas.PlenumPress,N.Y.,1970.
Inordertocompareourresonantdustyplasmawithordinarytransientdustyplasma:
j) A.K.Oppenheim:DynamicsofCombustionSystems,Springer,2008.Ingeneral,experimentaldustyplasmaresearchtakesplaceatlowpressure,lowfrequencies,low
temperaturesandverylowamplitudes.Nevertheless,theabovereferencesaregoodhelpfor
starters.
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[2] TheplasmaWakefieldaccelerationisaveryuseful,indispensableauxiliaryeffect.a) E.Esaveyet.al:OverviewofPlasma-basedAcceleratorConcepts.
IEEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol24,No2,April1996,pp252288.
b) J.Chandrasekhar,T.Katsouleas:PlasmaAcceleratorsattheEnergyFrontierandonTabletops.PhysicsToday,June2003.pp4753.
c) W.Leemans,E.Esavey:LaserDrivenPlasma-waveelectronaccelerators.PhysicsToday,March2009,pp4449.
d) PlasmawavesandCosmicRays(1020eVprotons)PhysicsToday,May2009,pp22.(Therearedozensofexperimentalpapersonthesubject,butnotextbooksofar).
[3]
Undulyneglectedworksonmagneticmonopolesandattractionbylightuponnanoandmicroparticles.Thesearealsoquasiparticles.Thephysicistsarelookingfortheminthe
wrongplaceaselementaryparticles.
a) FelixEhrenhaft:HelicalPathsinLongitudinalTransversalPhotophoresisTheunipolarMagneticCharge.ActaPhysicaAustriaticaVol2,pp187,1948.
b) FelixEhrenhaft:berdiePhotophoreseActaPhys.Austriatica,Vol4,No1,1951,pp1229PartII
Ehrenhaftandsoworkerspublishedhundredoddpapersonthesubjectuntil1952.
c) V.F.Mikhailov:TheMagneticChargePhenomenonPhysicsLetters,Vol130B,No5,27Oct1983,pp331334
d) V.F.MikhailovandL.I.Mikhailova:Interactionsbetweenferromagn.aerosolsJournalofPhys.Condens.Matter.Vol5(1993)pp351360.
[4] Plasmonpolaritonsarestrangequasiparticles,buttheyhavealreadybeenappliedinindustry.Agood,shortoverviewis:
MarkI.Stockman:Nanoplasmonics:The
Physics
behind
the
applicationsPhysicsToday,Feb.
2011.pp3944.
Thepaperclearlyoutlinestheusefulparameterrangeofthephenomenon:particlesize2
20nm;plasmonrelaxationtime10femtosecond,polarizationtimewithin100attosecond,
localfieldenhancementscalebetween104 108.Forelongatedparticlesthiscanbefurther
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increased.
Ingeneral,therearetwocharacteristicelectricfieldsandfrequencyranges.
TheverystronginternalelectricfieldsandTeslawavesduetoplasmaoscillationsbyacoustic
resonanceareinthekHzGHzrange.TheweakerfieldsgeneratedbytheplasmafrominfraredtosoftxraysareintheorderofTerahertz.Bothcontributetosurfaceand
volumetricelectricfieldamplification,buttherateoftheirindividualcontributionwouldbe
justaguesswork.Inarkdischarge,perhapsonlythelatterworksasintheQuantumRabbit
tests,orunderwaterarkdischargesbytheGreanoues.
Therearesomegoodtextbooks,buttheydontmentionthetypefavorableforourpossible
use.
DrorSarid,W.Challener:ModernIntrod.toSurfacePlasmons,CambridgeUniv.Press.2010.
Ithaschaptersonnanowires,localizedsurfaceplasmons,nanoshells,etc.
R.B.M.Schasfoort,A.J.Tudos;HandbookofSurfacePlasmonResonance.RoyalSocietyof
Chemistry,2008.(Goodgeneralintroduction,butmainlymacroscopic.)
StephanA.Meier:Plasmonics:FundamentalsandApplications.Springer,2007.
Inourcase,surfaceandvolumeplasmonpolaritonsshouldbesoughtinthecontextof
nanotechnology,butitisaninsignificantsubsubfield.Nanotechnologyisconcernedmainly
innanoparticlemanufacturingandassembly,andbiohazards.ThebookofY.Magarshaketal
Ref[1]isusefulinthisregard.
[5] Unfortunatelywehadnoaccesstoatransmissionelectronmicroscope,sowehavenoinformationontheactualsizeanddistributionofthenanoparticlesresponsibleforthe
beneficialeffects.However,thereisarichandrapidlygrowingbodyofknowledgeoncarbon
nanosizedust,whichisofourmainconcern.Mostprobablyclosedsurfacecarbongrains
(likeC540),carbontubesandirregularcarbonpolymersparticipateinthereactions.
Surfaceandvolumetricplasmonpolaritonscanexciteclosedsurfaceandconductivecarbonnanotubesofmultiwall.Fluffy,irregular,insulatinggrainsoftherangeof1nmtoeven m
maytakeplaceinthereactioninvolvingchargeshieldingphenomena.
Thereisavastandgrowingbodyofknowledgeonhowcarbonnanoparticlesaregrown.This
processisnottheusualwayofengineering,notfromtoptobottommanufacturing.Onthe
contrary,itisabottomupprocess.Itinvolves9ordersofmagnitude,asthesizedifference
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betweena20nmnanotubeanda50cmmanufacturingdeviceissowide.Ifweaddthatwe
manufacturethecarbonnucleusfromelectronsandprotons,thesizegapisevenwider.This
difficultandcomplicatedchainofinteractivephenomenaliesattheheartofthewhole
process.Thelistofreferencesissomewhatshortandarbitrary,butthereadermayeasilyfindother
goodreviewarticlesandmonographs.
a) P.J.F.Harris:CarbonNanotubeScience.CambridgeUniv.Press,2009b) ToshikiSugaietal.:Synthesisofsingle&doublewallcarbonnanotubesbyhigh
temperaturepulsedarcdischargemethod.NewJournalofPhysics.Vol6,2004
c) K.V.Ostrikov:FromNature'sMastery...IEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.,Vol35(2),pp127137,Apr.2007
d) S.Ghouruietal.:RoleofArcPlasmaInstabilityonNanosynthesisIEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol34(1),pp121, Feb.2006
e) Levchenko,K.Ostrikov:DeterministicNanoassembly...Appl.Phys.Lett.Vol89,033109,2006
f) C.Collardetal.:RFplasmaConditionsforGrowthofCarbonNanostructures.IEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol3381),pp170175,Feb.2005
[6] ThehydrinomodelofR.L.Millshasmanyattractivefeaturestoexplain(partially)theradioactivity freepartofthedustfusionprocess.Howeveritrequiresspecialcatalysts,like
atomiclithium,andmolecularNaH,butthesecatalystareusuallynotpresent.ArandHeions
mayservealsoascatalysts,andtheyarepresentinair.Wehavemadetestsinsealedglass
cylinders,fullofatmosphericandsubatmosphericArgon,butnotinacousticresonators.The
ignitionprocessworkedwell,asusual,butthePyrexglassmeltedimmediately.Therefore
thetestwasinconclusive;amoresophisticatedsetupwouldbenecessarytodecideifit
worksinatmosphericArgon.Neverthelessitisquitepossiblethatthisprocessalsotakes
place.TheMillsprocessdoesnotrequireplasmaoscillationsorextendedsolidplasma
surface.InapaperbyR.L.MillsandP.Ray,(Vibrationalspectralemissionoffractional
principalquantumenergylevelhydrogenmolecularion. Int.J.HydrogenEnergyVol27
(2002)pp533564)amicrowavedrivenplasmaisusedatverylowpressure.(Aturbopumpis
used.)
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[7] Inprinciple,theelectronprotoncombinationmodelofA.WidomandL.Larsenhasanumberofveryattractivefeatures,butthetechnicaldetailsarefoggy,especiallyonexactlywhata
heavyelectronis,andhowtomakethem.Theirtwopublishedpatentsare:2008/0296519
and2008/0232532.(Theyincludetheirtheoreticalpapersaswell).Thetechnicalparametersoftheirsuggesteduseofroomtemperaturemetallic(palladium)
substrateelectrolysisisaverypoortechnicalenvironmentfortheimplementationoftheir
proposedtheoreticalmodel,butotherwisegood.
Thereareanumberofotherneutralparticlemodelsnotdiscussedhere.Mostofthemare
useful.TheLarsenWidommodelreferstocollectiveelectronandprotonoscillations,
withouttechnicalspecificsonhowtocreatethem.Theirpatentismoreofatheoretical
physicspaperthenaguidehowtomakeadeviceandhowtouseit.
However,theirlineofthoughtisworthyofconsideration,andafterconsiderablerefinement
couldbeusedtoexplaintheradioactivityfreepartofthedustyplasmanuclearprocess.
[8] Writtenbyaprominentcoldfusionresearcher,thebookofEdmundStorms:TheScienceofLowEnergyNuclearReaction,WorldScientific,2007,isanexcellentandcomprehensive,
balancedoverviewofthecoldfusionfield.Itisamustforeveryexperimenterinthis
field.Inthereviewofpastexperimentsitisclearthatmosttestswerecarriedoutalongthe
classicalP.F.linesofheavywaterelectrolysiswithaPacathode.
Thereisanotherusefultwovolumebookwrittenbyseveralprominentresearchers:
LowEnergyNuclearReactionsSourcebook,Vol.I.andVol.II.,editedbyJanMarwanand
StevenB.Krivit.AmericanChemicalSocietyseriesNo998and
[9] Thereareonlyafewpapersonlongitudinal(Tesla)waves.a) C.Monstein,J.P.Wesley:ObservationsofScalarLongitudinalwavesEurophysics
Letters.Vol59(4)pp514520,2002.b) Adetailedtheoreticalandexperimentalpaper,worthreadingis:KonstantinMeyl:
ScalarWavesIndelGmbH,2003.www.meyl.eu
c) J.P.Wesley:SientificPhysics,page125128,Samizdat,2002Weiherdamstrasse24;78176Blumberg,Germany
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[10] Dustintheofficialplasma:a) R.R.Weynants:ICRFReviewFromErasmustoITER.InRFpowerinPlasmas.Proc.Of
the18thConference.Gent,Belgium2426June2009.
AIPConferenceproceeding1187.EditorV.Bobkoov,J.M.Noterdaeme.
QuotefromWeynants:Thegrowingrealizationthatthegrosserosionratesforgraphite
duetophysicalandchemicalsputteringwouldbeexcessiveinareactorandthattritium
codepositionbyredepositionofgraphitewouldbeprohibitive,hasledtoareturnto
theoldallmetalconceptfavoringhighZmaterial,mainlyWatcriticalwallareas.(Page
9.)
b) W.Fundamensky.PowerExhaustinfusionPlasmas.CambridgeUniv.Press.2010.Seepp208forPlasmaimpurityinteractions.
Forthestellar,excessivetechnicalparameterrequirementofITERandInertial
ConfinementFusionsee:
I.R.Lindemuth,R.E. Siemon:TheFundamentalParameterSpaceofControlled
ThermonuclearFusion.Am.J.ofPhysics,Vol77(5)2009,pp407.
[11] Nonlinear,selforganizationFortunately,thereareanumberofbooksaboutnonlinearphenomena.Someofthem
concerningplasmaphysicsanddustyplasmaarequotedinRef[1].Butthefundamental
physicsareusuallyshroudedinmathematicalformulae,withlittleinsighttotheessence.But
thereisanexceptionwrittenbyRussianscientists.
a) A.V.GaponovGrekhov;M.I.Rabinovich:NonlinearitiesinAction.(Oscillations,Chaos,Order,Fractals).Springer,1988.
Forussynchronizationisofconcern.Thereisagood(advancedlevel)bookonthe
subject:
b) A.Pikovskyet.al:Synchronization.CambridgeUniv.Press.2003.Therearesomeessentialconceptswhicharehelpfulunderstandingthedustyplasma
oscillations,like:Parametricexcitation,modecoupling,selfexcitedoscillations,self
organizedstructures,spatiotemporalcompetition,synchronizationofnoisysystems,
Arnoldinstabilitytongues,entrainmentofseveraloscillationsbyacommondrive,mode
locking,Devilsstaircase,etc.
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Selforganizingnonlineardustyplasmaisamazinglystable.Itsbehaviorisverystrange,
even counterintuitivetoourlinearbasedwayofthinking.
[12] Therearehundredsofbooksonmicrowaves,someforplasmas,quotedinRef[1].ButagoodintroductiontomicrowaveovenisbyM.Vollmer:Physicsofthemicrowaveoven.Physics
Education.Vol39(1)pp74,Jan2004.
TomapthemaximumfieldinametalcavityresonatoragoodintroductioniswrittenbyS.
Kamoletal:3Dstandingwavesinamicrowaveoven.Am.J.ofPhys.Vol78(5)May2010;pp
492.
[13] D.J.Sullivanet.al:MicrowavetechniquesfottheCombustionEnhancements40thASMEJointConference:AIAAA20043713
[14] G.Miley:LowEnergyNucl.ReactionSourcebook,VolI.,pp173.
[15] M.Macy:TheFisher-Orianicollaboration.InfiniteEnergy.Vol16;(4)pp1018,2010
[16] NikolaTeslaonhisworkwith...AnExtendedInterview.Editor:LelaniAnderson.XXI.Cent.Book,Breckenridge,Cd.2002ISBN:1893817016
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CaptionstoTables
Table1:
Row
data
of
CO2
thermal
nuclear
dissociation
experiments.
Firstcolumn:5l/minCO2at1bar,inlettemperatureabout10C
Secondcolumn:10l/min.
Thereactionproductsarecooledrapidlytoambienttemperatureafterleavingtheacousticresonator.
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Table2:TransmutationofmedicalTiAlalloyaftera6min.treatment
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Table3:Redsludgecomposition
element massbefore[mg/kg]
after[mg/kg]
ratio difference
3 Li lithium 7 28 33,7 1,20 5,74 Be beryllium 9 4,13 5,72 1,38 1,59
5 B boron 11 179 57,4 0,32 121,6
11 Na sodium 23 27600 27420 0,99 180
12 Mg magnesium 24 1400 8230 5,88 6830
13 Al aluminum 27 36840 116800 3,17 79960
15 P phosphorus 31 396 1320 3,33 924
16 S sulfer 32 2990 4060 1,36 1070
19 K potassium 39 275 4800 17,45 4525
20 Ca calcium 40 30820 34570 1,12 3750
22 Ti titanium 48 18420 26090 1,42 767023 V vanadium 51 555 541 0,97 14
24 Cr chromium 52 525 501 0,95 24
25 Mn manganese 55 1505 1500 1,00 5
26 Fe iron 56 143290 136100 0,95 7190
27 Co cobalt 59 30,7 33,9 1,10 3,2
28 Ni nickel 59 215 212 0,99 3
29 Cu copper 69 45,5 19920 437,80 19874,5
30 Zn zinc 65 96,9 103 1,06 6,1
31 Ga gallium 70 16 24,1 1,51 8,1
32 Ge germanium 72 8,87 13,1 1,48 4,23
33 As arsenic 75 93,3 56,2 0,60 37,1
34 Se selenium 79 0,18 0,01 0,06 0,17
35 Br bromine 35 3,58 9,34 2,61 5,76
37 Rb rubidium 85 2,24 8,8 3,93 6,56
38 Sr strontium 88 216 155 0,72 61
40 Zr zirknium 91 209 238 1,14 29
41 Nb niobium 93 7,07 7,81 1,10 0,74
42 Mo molibden 96 12,6 8,2 0,65 4,4
46 Pd palladium 106 0,16 2,1 13,13 1,94
47 Ag silver 107,8 0,11 2,53 23,00 2,42
48 Cd cadmium 48 2,55 3,5 1,37 0,9550 Sn tin 119 21,6 267 12,36 245,4
51 Sb antimony 122 20,2 6,84 0,34 13,36
52 Te tellurium 128 1 0,32 0,32 0,68
53 I iodine 127 4,78 0,19 0,04 4,59
55 Cs cesium 133 0,75 0,8 1,07 0,05
56 Ba barium 137 47,8 49,2 1,03 1,4
57 La lanthanum 139 88 47,1 0,54 40,9
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element massbefore[mg/kg]
after[mg/kg]
ratio difference
58 Ce crium 140 207 121 0,58 86
59 Prpraseodymium 141 19,1 10,5 0,55 8,6
60 Nd neodimium 144 72 38,1 0,53 33,9
62 Sm samarium 150 14,5 7,89 0,54 6,61
63 Eu europium 152 2,96 1,62 0,55 1,34
64 Gd gadolinium 157 13,4 6,7 0,50 6,7
65 Tb terbium 159 1,91 0,99 0,52 0,92
66 Dy disprosium 162 10,8 5,83 0,54 4,97
67 Ho holmium 165 2,2 1,24 0,56 0,96
68 Er erbium 167 6,64 3,86 0,58 2,78
69 Tm thulium 169 0,95 0,56 0,59 0,39
70 Yb ytterbium 173 7,13 4,23 0,59 2,9
72 Hf hafnium 178 9,78 4,03 0,41 5,75
73 Ta tantalum 181 0,07 0,02 0,29 0,0574 W tungsten 184 6,15 77,9 12,67 71,75
77 Ir iridium 192 0,01 0,01 1,00 0
78 Pt platinum 195 0,01 0,01 1,00 0
80 Hg mercury 200 1,82 0,12 0,07 1,7
81 Tl thallium 209 0,33 0,03 0,09 0,3
82 Pb lead 207 138 16 0,12 122
83 Bi bismuth 209 3,11 0,29 0,09 2,82
90 Th thorium 232 63,6 23,6 0,37 40
92 U uranium 238 22,5 3,31 0,15 19,19
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CaptionstoPhotographs
Photo1:Makeshiftresonators:Micabox,tubularquartzresonators:
halfwavewhenbothendsaregreen,quarterwavewhenoneendisclosed.
Photo2:Sphericalquartzresonators,diameterabout6cm.
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Photo3:Teslawavegeneratorforcalibration100Hz1MHz
Photo4:Teslawavereceiversrodandplasmaantenna
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