WRITTEN BY A VICTORIAN
2012
Geography Elective
(Combined) The Republished 2012 Edition
Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011
T H E A U T H O R W A S T A U G H T B Y M I S S R A K S H A
CHAPTER 1: NATURAL VEGETATION
Biome profile (Rainforest, Monsoon and Coniferous) Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon forest Temperature coniferous forest
Dense and abundant vegetation growth,
very luxuriant V
Less dense than rainforest, more
open, less luxuriant V Dense and abundant in coniferous trees V
30 m - 50 m
E
25 m - 30 m
C
20 m - 30 m
E
Made up of
tallest trees
To reach out for
sunlight
Fewer non-parastic plants
Evergeen and
found close
together
To withstand strong winds 15 m - 30 m
C Continuous
and inter-
locking
Prevents sunlight from
reaching forest floor
6 m - 15 m
U.
S
6 m - 15 m
U.S
Uniform height
and conical
shaped
Sways instead of toppling Smaller trees with narrow crowns -
Few non-parastic plants
5 m - 6 m S
0 m - 6 m
U.G Little under-
growth
0 m - 5 m
U.G
Tree saplings and woody plants Dense vegetation,
more under-
growth, shed
leaves
Sunlight able
to reach the
ground when
trees
Poorly leeched soils
0 m - 5 m
U.
G
Little sunlight reaches floor
Sparse
vegeta-
tion
Little sunlight reaches the
floor as emergent and canopy
areas spread out like umbrellas
Thin layer of leaf litter
Needle-shaped leaves do not
favour fast decomposition
Examples Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon forest Temperature coniferous forest
Canopy
Lianas (thick woody vines, up to 90m), Epiphytes (grows on trees
for support, rainwater and decaying leaves land on for supply of
water and nutrients), Raflessia (parasitic, competes with host
tree, causing the death of the tree)
Teak, sandalwood and sal -
Understorey Shrubs, ferns and small young trees - -
Undergrowth Small plants, ferns, fungi, saprophytes, decaying leaves Thick shrubs, bamboo
(thickets), grasses and herbs Mosses and lichens
Tropical equatorial rainforest
Tropical monsoon Tropical mangrove Temperate coniferous
Diversity
of plant
species
Largest diversity of plant species in
all biomes Mostly hardwoods Made up of halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)
Softwood found in the trees, which grow in pure stands
Useful
species
Keruing, Kapur,
Chengal, Meranti Sal Sandalwood
Avi-
cenn
ia
Son-
nera-
tia
Rhizo-
phora
Bru-
geria
Sea
hibis-
cus
Nipah
palm Fir Spruce Pine
Making furniture For fuelwood For making
incense
Cons-
truction
materials
Me-
dicine
Fire-
wood Charcoal Food
Pa-
per Pulp
Mat-
ches
Fur-
ni-
ture
Chem
. pro-
ducts
Summary
Large variety of
plants due to high
year round
temperatures and
rainfall, 750 species of trees
and 1500 of plants/ha
Fewer species due to
inconsistent rainfall, 200 species/ha
Plants have to be adapted to growing in salt
water
Plants have to be adapted to low
temperatures and precipitation,
1-3 species/area
Density Extremely dense
and abundant
Abundant but less
dense than tropical
rainforest during dry
season
Mostly similar to tropical
rainforest during wet
season
Sparse d
uring dry
season
Dense and luxuriant Not dense
Reasons High temperatures
and rainfall
Crowns do
not interlock
to form a
continuous
canopy,
denser
undergrowth
More
abundant
leaves
Plants lose/sh
ed
their leave
s High temperatures
and rainfall
Canopy competes
continuously for sunlight
resulting in sparse
undergrowth
Low temperatures and
precipitation
Tropical mangrove Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon Temperate coniferous
Leaves S
ecre
te
exce
ss s
alt
Abso
rb
salt
and
st
ore
them
in
old
le
aves
Char
acte
rist
ics
sim
ilar
to e
quat
oria
l cl
imat
e
Ever-green
No shedding of leaves
Large and
broad
Waxy with drip tips
Deciduous (shed leaves during dry
season)
Bamboo plant have narrow leaves during dry season
Mostly
evergreen
Needle-like
Store water during winter
Reasons
Avi
cenn
ia
Son
nera
tia
Rhiz
ophor
a
Bru
guie
ra
High
cons-
tant
rainfall
through
-out the
year
Constant
rainfall,
loss of
water
need not
be highly
reduced
To
maximise
surface
area for
photo-
synthe-
sis
To allow
rainwater to drain
off easily to
prevent bacteria
from growing on
them (as high
temperatures
promote growth
of bacteria)
To minimise
loss of
water
through
trans-
piration
To minimise
of loss water
through
transpiration
due to lack of
water during
dry season
So th
at photosynth
esis
can occur all the tim
e
To
reduce
loss due
to
trans-
piration
The
ground
will be
frozen
and
little
water
available
To regulate the
amount of salt in the
tree as they grow in
salt water
Flowers
and
fruits
Avi. Brugeria Rhizo- Colourful and sweet smelling, present all
year round Usually only present during dry season
Bear cones
Colourful
bright red
lantern
shape -
Attract
insects: for
pollination
phora
Fruits Waves/ Male Female
Traits
and Pros
currents carry
buoyant fruits to
new
places to
take root
elongated,
sharp tips
- Anchor
firmly in
muddy soil
Still air at canopy area do not allow
pollination to be carried out by wind and
can only rely on insects for pollination
and animals for dispersal
They are leafless during this period
Produce
pollen
Produce seeds
(dispersed by
wind or animals)
Protect the seeds from
the cold
Bark and
branches
Thin and smooth
barks
Branches found
only on the top
one-third of the
trunks
Thick and coarse
Located
around the
middle of
trunks
Thick
barks
Flexible
branches
Conical
shape
(some)
Pros
No need for
protection against
cold or dry
conditions
Emergent and
canopy layers
branches spread
out like umbrellas
to get maximum
sunlight
Protects
trunk from
heat and
dryness
during dry
season
Withstand
extreme
heat from
natural
forest
fires
Sunlight
better able
to reach the
lower parts
of the
forest
Protect from
long cold w
inters
Snow can
slide off
easily
prevent-
ing
breakage
With
stand
strong wind
s by
swaying
Tropical equatorial
rainforest Tropical monsoon
Tropical mangrove Temperature coniferous
Roots
Shallow and spread widely
Buttress roots
present Deep roots
Aerial roots / Pnuematophores (exposed during low tide)
Prop / Stilt roots Kneed roots
Shallow and spreading roots
Pros
Roots do
not need to
reach deep
into soil for
water and
nutrients
To
support
the great
weight of
the trees
To tap
water
sources
deep under
the ground
Avicennia Sonneratia Rhizophora Brugeria
To absorb water easily
from soil surface when
snow melts, as during
winter, snow falls instead
of rain
Peg-like,
thick base
Pencil-like, able
to grow 30m high
To anchor trees
firmly in muddy soil,
protecting coastal
areas from strong
waves
To provide
firm
support on
soft soil
Exposed during low tide and able
take in oxygen from the air
during this period
Roots are specially adapted to oxygen-deprived soil
Reasons
Leaf litter decomposes
and humus form to
supply nutrients to the
topsoil
Rainfall is
not regular
throughout
the year
The trees grow on soft and waterlogged soil that lacks oxygen
Precipitation is low
throughout the year,
resulting in little water in
the ground
Biome profile (Mangrove)
Zone Coastal zone Middle zone Inland zone
Species of trees Avicennia and Sonneratia Rhizophora Bruguiera
Types of roots Aerial roots / Pnuematophores Prop / stilt roots Knee-like roots
Tolerance in salt water
Shor
e
Sanility
Inundation (water
cover)
Soil stability
Density of leaves
Distance from sea
Increases
Increases
Functions of forests
Habitat
for flora
and
fauna
Habitat for
people Water treatment
Green lungs of
the Earth Medical uses Water catchment
Protecting
coasts
Preventing
floods
Home to
more than
half the
species in
the world
About 60
million people
live in tropical
rainforests of
SA, SEA &
Africa
Mangrove forests
process waste
materials like dead
animals and human
waste carried by
water
Forests
prevent global
temperatures
from rising
Some plants in
forests have
medicinal value,
which some has
yet to be fully
explored
Enable water to be
collected, stored and
maintained
Mangroves
are able to
protect
coastal
areas
Roots
reduce
chance of
the river
overflo-
wing banks
Quantity
maintenance
Quality
main-
tenance
Tigers
and rare
animals
Tropical
rain-
forest
in Penin-
sular
Malay-
sia
Grizzly
bears
Coni-
ferous
forests
of
North
America
Hunter
gatherers
Korubu tribe
in Amazon
hunts wild
animals
Gathers
leaves for
subsis-tence
Shifting
cultivators
Grow crops
on forest
land cleared
by burning
Roots of mangrove
trees help trap
waste materials
and filter water
before it flows
into sea
Soil contains
bacteria that can
break down
biodegradable
waste, converting
into nutrients for
themselves
Some countries
channel sewage
portions to
mangrove forests
to treat waste
During
photosyn-
thesis
Forests take
in carbon
dioxide, a
greenhouse
gas produced
by humans
Release
oxygen,
replenishing
oxygen supply
This helps
regulate
temperature
on Earth
Sarawak
Calophyllum has a
compound that
may be able to
prevent full-
blown AIDS
Brazillian
rainforest
Quinine from
Cinchona in can
be used to treat
malaria
Coniferous forests
Cough syrup
from barks of
Eastern white
Pine trees
Leaves and branches
intercept rain falling on
ground surface
Acts as a
barrier
from
strong
waves
and
storms
In 2004
Indian
Tsunami ,
it pro-
tected
coasts of
Southern
India
from
destruc-
tion
Soil
erosion
is slower
Soil
makes
the river
bed
shallower
Ability
of the
river to
contain
the
water is
in-
creased
with
roots
Less surface
runoff More
groundwater
Rivers and
reservoirs
Vegetation
transpires to
release water
vapour into
the
atmosphere,
encouraging
cloud
formation and
rain
Less
soil
par-
ticles
are
wash
ed
into
near-
by
rivers
and
reser
-viors
Rnfst
Mnsn
Mngr
Cnfs
Functions of forests
Research and
education Chemicals Food Recreation Timber
Fuelwood and
charcoal
New medicines and
varieties of crops
developed
Some useful
chemicals are
extracted from
forests
Forests also
provide people
with food (e.g.
Borneo:)
Provides ecotourism to
many city-dwellers
Timber can be used to
make furniture and paper
and construct buildings
Wood and charcoal is
used for cooking and
heating for 2 billion
people in the world
New medicine and crops
Banana, coffee and
cocoa are cultivated
for food, new ones are
constantly discovered
Effect on ecosystems
on life
Scientists study
interactions between
forest, animals and
plants like the effect
of weather
Mangrove trees
in East Africa
Tannin from
Rhizophora
treat leather
Tree sap
Black dyes
Pine and fir
trees
Resin Wood
varnish and
ointments
Sago from sago
palm
High in starch
concentration
Edible ferns
Midin
Forests provide
the perfect
location for
animal hunting
Wild deer for
meat
Rafting, hiking and bird-
watching is engaged so
that the environment is
not harmed
Otherwise, tourists
entering the forests
have to follow rules and
regulations
Tamam Negara in
Malaysia is promoted as
ecotourism to gain
income while protecting
the forest
Tropical forests
Chengal and meranti
trees
Rattan for furniture
and baskets
Coniferous forests
Pine trees
Mangrove forests
Leaves of Nipah palm
can be made into
thatched roofs
Monsoon forests
Bamboo for buildings
Less developed
countries like Asia
and Africa gather
wood from forests
as fuel
Rhizophora is being
cut down to make
charcoal in the
Matang Forest
Reserve in
Peninsular Malaysia
Rnfst
Mnsn
Mngr
Cnfs
Causes of deforestation
Forest fires
( Forest fire control)
Most of the forest fires are deliberately set up by people
Plantation companies start forest fires to clear large areas of rainforest for growing oil palm
Some of the fires are also due to dry weather
Vegetation debris that are left on the forest floor like branches and twigs catch fire easily
Caused deforestation of more
than 23750 km2 of Kalimantan
between 1997 and 1998
Demand for
agricultural
landuse
Causes increase in demand for land which result in population pressure in area near forests
New settlers near forests permanently clear forests to grow crops in small holdings
Small farms such as rice and cocoa are grown for own use, for sale and profit
Indonesian government population
programme eases overcrowding in
islands like Java and Sumatra
Causes of deforestation
Growth of
settlements
As population increases and settlements become crowded, more land is cleared for
housing
People start moving from rural settlements to urban settlements to live and
work due to more opportunities for employment
Rainforests are cleared
Balkapapan in East Kalimantan is a business
centre for many national companies dealing with
mining and oil extraction and this reduced the
are from 98.7 km2 to 35 km2 in one year
Improved
transport
networks
Roads and railway tracks are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan
Allow access to previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan
Lengths of forest trees had to be cut down to clear the path
Trans-Kalimantan Highway between Balikpapan
and Banjarmasin is 230 kilometres long and cuts
through rainforests. This has made it easier for
people to destroy more forest areas.
Growth of
industries
( Logging control)
Logging (timber being cut down and sold)
Pace of logging is increased by timber companies to ensure that the processing
facilities are fully utlitised
Mining (extraction of gold, silver and copper underneath the forests)
Vegetation has to be cleared to expose the ground underneath
A large hole has to be created, exposing loose soil
1656 km2 of forest is removed West
Kalimantan annually
A mining company was awarded a contract to
mine 1290 km of the rainforest since 1980.
Large expanse has been cleared.
Problems caused by deforestation
Loss in
biomass
/diversity ( Af/refo- restation)
Stored energy of the organisms represents the total amount of food available on Earth
Ability of the rainforests to support various plant and animal life is reduced as the food chain is
adversely affected.
Survival of herbivores and carnivores will be threatened due to the loss of plant food sources.
Biodiversity of plants and animals in the Kalimantan forests are reduced
Extinction of species in
the Kalimantan may result.
The Proboscis monkey in
the Kalimantan rainforest
is being endangered.
Changes in
the
nutrient
cycle
Less leaf litter
Less decomposed
material
Slower fertility rate
Lack of vegetation cover
No protective cover for soil
Soil exposed to rain and erosion
Loss of soil nutrient
Roots are absent
Absorption of rain reduced
Soils are leached topsoil becomes
infertile cannot support growth
Little of original
vegetation can be replaced
back and cleared land is
unsuitable for cultivation
Vast
changes in
water
Droughts - Less transpiration Cloud formation is reduced Rainfall is lowered
Floods - Roots are not present Soil is loose Eroded and goes into rivers Decrease river
capacity
Muddy waters - Increased amounts of soil Increased sediment level of rivers Unclean waters
Acidity of rivers - Increased amounts of soil Increased sediment level of rivers Water
becomes more acidic Inversely affects aquatic life in the rivers Less fish catch by fishermen
Droughts have been
caused during 1997-98
Severe floods in 2001 in
Samarinda and
Balikpapaen
Problems caused by deforestation
Air
pollution
Dust and smoke released during clearance of trees by burning, causing air pollution If more severe, the
particles were be suspended in air and be blown by strong winds Haze found in other areas like
Southeast Asia from Central Kalimantan, many suffered from eye, nose and throat irritations
Flights had to cancelled to
the Southeast Asian region
due to poor visibility in 1997
Summary of the adaptations of forests
Tropical Rainforests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests Coniferous Forests
Large and broad
To maximise surface area for
photosynthesis
Waxy with drip tips
To allow rainwater to drain off easily
to prevent bacteria from growing on
them
Branches found only on the top one-
third of the trunks
Emergent and canopy layers branches
spread to get maximum sunlight
Colourful and sweet smelling fruits
To use insects for pollination and
animals for dispersal
Roots shallow and spread widely,
buttress roots present
To support the great weight of the
trees
Deep roots
To tap water sources deep under the
ground as rainfall is not regular throughout
the year
Thick and coarse
Protects trunk from heat and dryness
during dry season and withstand extreme
heat from natural forest fires
Waxy with drip tips
To allow rainwater to drain off easily to
prevent bacteria from growing on them
Deciduous (shed leaves during dry season)
To minimise loss of water through
transpiration
Bamboo plant have narrow leaves
To minimise of loss water through
transpiration due to lack of water during
dry season
Leaves able
secrete or store
excess salt
Regulate the amount
of salt in the tree
as they grow in salt
water
Flowers are
generally colourful
To attract insects
to pollinate flowers
Specially adapted
roots
Like aerial, prop and
kneed roots to grow
on soft and
waterlogged soil
that lacks oxygen
Needle-like
To reduce loss due to transpiration
Leaves able to store water
The ground will be frozen and little
water available during winter
Flowers bear cones
Protect the seeds from cold
Thick barks
Protect from long cold winters
Flexible branches
Snow can slide off easily preventing
breakage
Mostly conical shaped
Withstand strong winds by swaying
Shallow, spreading roots
To absorb water easily from soil
surface when snow melts, as during
winter, snow falls instead of rain
Nutrient cycle
dissolved in rainfall from atmosphere
LITTER decomposes tissue fallout BIOMASS
surface runoff
leaching nutrient transfer to SOIL plant uptake
weathered from rocks
Nutrient cycle characteristics in forests
Equatorial rainforest Temperate Coniferous forest
Biomass Largest store of mineral nutrients Relatively low (unsorted)
Total mass of living
organisms, mainly
plant tissues
Tall, dense and rapid vegetation growth Composed of
several layers
of plant species
Needle-like leaves Littler undergrowth
High annual temperature,
with high and even rainfall
Year long
growing season Limited variety of species
One layer of coniferous
trees only
Litter Limited despite continuous fall of leaves
Largest store of mineral nutrients Total amount of
organic matter (e.g.
humus and leaf litter
in soil)
Hence rapid decomposition of dead vegetation
Hot and wet climate provides ideal environment for bacterial
action
Soil Rich in nutrients but easily leeched and washed by runoff Contains few nutrients (unsorted)
Naturally occurring
unconsolidated or
loose covering Earth’s
surface
Soil has to rely on replacement of nutrients from chemical and
biological weathering of the bedrock
Lost through leeching
and surface runoff
Low temp restrict the rate of
chemical weathering of parent
rock, slow replacement rate
Litter content is rapidly reduced
Low fertility
potential of podsol
soil of tiaga
Needle-like cuticles discourage
decomposers and breakdown of leaf
litter to humus
Summary of the functions of forests
Tropical Rainforests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests Coniferous Forests
1. Habitat for flora and fauna
2. Habitat for people
3. Green lungs of the Earth
4. Medical uses
5. Water catchment
6. Preventing floods
7. Research and education
8. Food
9. Re-creation
10. Timber
11. Fuelwood & charcoal
1. Research and education
2. Chemicals
3. Food
4. Recreation
5.Timber
6.Fuelwood and charcoal
7. Habitat for flora and fauna
8. Habitat for people
9. Green lungs of the Earth
10. Water catchment
11. Preventing floods
1. Water treatment
2. Green lungs of the Earth
3. Water catchment
4. Protecting coasts
5. Preventing floods
6. Research and education
7. Timber
1. Habitat for flora and fauna
2. Green lungs of Earth
3. Medical uses
4. Research and education
5. Chemicals
6. Recreation
7. Timber
Measures to reduce deforestation
Forest fire
control
Implement policies to make it
illegal to clear forests by
burning
Conduct annual forest fire
awareness campaigns
Indonesian government introduced measures to
to monitor forest fires through forest fire
campaigns in 1996 and National Fire management
plan in 1999
However, some plantation companies
continue to burn for profit as it is
the cheapest way to clear land
Some local people are also too used
to their traditional farming methods
inherited from the past
Affores-
tation and
reforestation
Plant trees on area not
originally covered with
forests
Plant trees in formerly
forested area cleared by
logging
Afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands
located on fringes of villages and existing forests
MOF set out to restore 900 000 hectares of
forests annually in Kalimantan through the
Forests and Land Restoration Initiative with local
people involved in the replanting of trees
However, rates of the forests being
replanted are slower than the forest
being cleared as the incentives may not
be attractive enough for the people to
participate in the projects
Logging
control
Careful management of
forests with the use of law
enforcement, education and
research programmes
Severe penalties such as
fines and imprisonment are
enforced for irresponsible
timber companies for illegal
logging
Ministry of Forestry (MOF) has arranged for
education and research programmes for timber
companies
Selective cutting is encouraged so that much of
the forest is undisturbed
However, it is difficult to monitor
logging and detect illegal logging
activities due to the lack of
manpower and remoteness of the
forest
Some places has allowed illegal
logging to go undetected
Also, trees selectively removed may
also affect un-removed trees
Conservation
Careful use of resources like
forests to protect them from
destruction
MOF sets aside nature reserves like the Betung
Kerihum Nature Reserve (Heart of Borneo)
WWF works closely with Kalimantan, Brunei and
Malaysia to protect the reserve
However, it is difficult to monitor
logging and detect illegal logging
activities due to the lack of
manpower and remoteness of the
forest
Treasure Island at Risk reported the
presence of illegal logging in 2005
TOPIC 2: RIVERS
1. River terminology
Drainage basin the land area drained by the main river and its tributaries
Watershed the imaginary line acting as a boundary separating one drainage basin from the
next one.
Channelisation the process of changing the natural course of a river to make it flow in a
specific path so as to reduce possibility of flooding.
Wetted perimeter the perimeter of river channel in contact with water
2. The hydrologic cycle map
Refer to Annex A
3. Factors affecting river energy
River velocity
Channel
shape
Rivers with the same cross-sectional area but with different shapes have different velocities
The larger the wetted perimeter, the greater the friction, the lower the erosion, the
slower the speed
Channel
slope
Channel slope refers to the steepness or gradient of the the channel
The steeper the slope (the higher the course), the greater the velocity of the river
Channel
pattern
Three common types of patterns are the straight pattern, the meandering pattern
and the braided pattern
The lower the amount of friction, the faster the flow of water in the river
Channel
roughness
Channel is uneven with items like boulders and vegetation
These items increase the amount of friction, thus decreases the velocity of the
water in the river
River volume
Size of
drainage
basin
Larger drainage basins have generally more tributaries that increase the volume of
water in the main river
The larger the drainage basin, the greater the discharge
Climate
Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration rates and result in a lower
discharge in the river
Higher precipitation result in more volume of water in the river to cause a higher
discharge in the river
Permeability
of rocks
More permeability of rocks increases the infiltration of water into the ground and
reduces surface runoff
Places with low permeability include concrete pavements in urban areas and places
with asphalt roots
When discharge exceeds river capacity, flooding occurs
Presence of
vegetation
Vegetation intercepts and absorbs rainwater when it rains, increasing the
infiltration of water and reducing surface runoff
Elements of a hydrograph
Hydrograph The graph of the amount of river discharge against time during a specific
stormy period
Rising and falling limb The gradient of the discharge increase from start of storm to peak of storm
Lag time The time taken for the storm to reach the peak of the storm from the start
Peak discharge The greatest discharge during any period of the storm
4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods
a. Transport (TS3)
Traction involves rolling and sliding of large particles like boulders along river bed
Saltation moves bedload and small materials like pebbles downstream by bouncing
Suspension transport of silt, clay, sand and other particles without the touching the river bed
Solution chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3)
b. Erosion (CASH by vertical or lateral erosion)
Corrasion wearing down of a river bed and banks by grinding action of rock fragments carried by
the river
Attrition load carried by river is being broken as rocks collide with each other, becoming
smoother and rounder in the process
Solution chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3)
Hydraulic
action
loosening, breaking, dragging, tearing away and removing of rock particles from the river
bed and banks by the sheer force of running water
c. Deposition
Why
At the lower course, river velocity is low and energy level falls.
The river is unable to transport its load and it will be dropped and deposited.
Larger particles are dropped first as they require more energy to be transported
When
When there is a decrease in river velocity, when floodwaters recede, or when a river
enters a sea or reservoir or lake, there will be a significant drop in river energy,
causing the river to lose its ability to transport its load.
Where
At the inner bend (convex bank) of a meander (slip-off slope)
Floodplain when floodwaters recede
At the river mouth where a delta is located
5. Landforms on rivers
a. Erosional
Waterfall
rocks of different resistance
erode less resistant rocks faster
change in gradient
sudden fall in height
great force
hydraulic action (impact of water)
abrasion (rocks swirling at the base)
deepening the depth of the waterfall
Plunge pool
further hydraulic action
and abrasion results in a
deep depression known
as a plunge pool
excavated, enlarged and deepened by hydraulic action
turbulent water at base of water
rock particles swirl about
further erodes the depression
Gorge (it is
a deep,
narrow and
valley with
steep,
almost
vertical
sides)
river flows
through less
resistant rocks
vertical erosion
is faster than
the wearing
away of the
sides of the
valley
flows to the edge of the cap rock of limestone
water increases velocity a excavates a plunge pool at the bottom
armed with rock debris
backsplash at base of waterfall
undercuts cliff face of less resistant sand and shale
erosion of the cliff face
overhanging cap rock loses support and collapses
continuation of the process cause the waterfall to retreat
and form a deep, narrow and long valley known as a gorge
b. Erosional and depositional
Meanders (loops in the
course of a
river)
Areas of regular-spaced deeper water
pools and shallower water riffles
Less friction in pools
Greater velocity and erosive power
More friction in riffles
Lower velocity and more deposition
Continuous erosion and deposition
accentuate
Slight bends of a river
Further erosion and deposition
Bends are more pronounced
Loops known as meanders form
River cliffs
and slip off
slopes
Difference in velocities across channel
Unequal pressure and energy distribution
Currents in a river bank moves in a corkscrew
manner, repeating a series of rotations
Current from outer concave bank descends
downwards
Undercuts and erodes materials
Continuous erosion causes some eroded
materials are slumped down a river, forming a
river cliff on the concave bank.
Some eroded materials are
also carried along the bed up
to inner convex bank
Deposited there
Continuous deposition makes
the convex bank shallow
Resultant slack water
encourages further deposition
A gently-sloping slip-off slope
is built up
c. Depositional
Floodplains (a
wide low-lying
plain found on
both sides of a
river) and
levees (natural
embankments
found along river
banks)
Heavy rain
Amount of water will be
more than the river
capacity
Water overflows its banks
Floods surrounding areas
Once out of the channel,
there will be more friction
Velocity is reduced and energy decreases
Deposition
Larger, coarser and heavier materials are
deposited at river banks and accumulate to
form raised embankments (levees)
Smaller, finer and lighter materials are
deposited further away from the river banks
and accumulate to form the floodplain
Ox-bow lakes (horse-shoe
shaped lake)
Continuous erosion of concave bank
and deposition of the convex bank
Pronounced meander formed
Two neighbouring banks get closer
Narrow neck of land formed
Continued lateral erosion eventually
erodes the narrow neck of land
Outer banks merge
Water now flows straight through the
straighter river channel
Instead of the cut-off abandoned
meander loop
Deposits start to build up at both ends
of cut-off
Seals it off from the main channel
Cut-off becomes an ox-bow lake
Stabilised by vegetation or dried up
Delta (a flat
alluvial platform
found a a river
mouth nearing a
sea)
River mixes with water upon entering sea
River velocity decreases and river loses
energy
Deposits alluvium load of gravel, sand,
silt and clay
The clay consolidates with salt water and
sinks to the bottom
When tidal currents are not strong
enough
And when coastal waters are shallow
enough
Mass of alluvium built up from sea
bed and rises above the water
forming extensive deposits deltas
A flat alluvium platform is
formed and obstructs the flow of
water
Water is forced to find another
way around and hence overflows
banks into distributaries
Levees built up
Stabilised by vegetation
6. Channel management strategies (pros, examples, cons)
Strategy Description Example
Realignment (straightening
of the river
channel)
i. Removes meanders
ii. Reduces length
iii. Increase river velocity
iv. Flow away from an area more quickly
v. Wash away sediments which have accumulated on the river
bed
vi. Deepens the channel
vii. Channel capacity is increased to hold more water
viii. Localised flooding is minimised
For example, the
Mississippi River in
the USA has been
shortened to up to
240km to reduce the
threat of flooding.
Re-
sectioning (widening and
deepening of
the river
channel)
i. Widening and deepening of river channel ii. Increases channel’s ability to hold water
iii. Increases amount of surface runoff as more surface
runoff can enter without flooding
iv. Soil of river banks can be replaced with cement and granite
v. Less friction between water, river bed and banks
vi. Increase rate of water flow away from a section of the
river
Singapore River has
been extensively
altered by widening
and deepening the
channels through
dredging. This is an
effective long-term
measure.
Gabions and
revetments
i. Built along river channel
ii. Divert flow of water to centre
iii. Protects banks from being eroded by force of running water
iv. Reduces amount of sediment flow into the river
Revetments built in
Jamuna and Megna
Rivers in Bangladesh.
Vegetation
planting and
clearance
i. Planting vegetation along river
ii. More roots of trees present
iii. Hold soil together firmly
iv. Improves stability of channel
v. Minimal destruction to natural habitats
Embankments of the
Mekong River
stabilised with
mangroves planted
along river by a joint
initiative by Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam
and Thailand.
Strategy
Disadvantage
Realign-
ment
Re-
sectioning
Gabions and
revetments
Vegetation planting
and clearance
Building of
dykes
Costly and labour intensive Requires technological
know-how Deters the growth of
marine life like corals Aesthetically unpleasant
and affect tourism Sediments may accumulate
behind these structures and
may lead to flooding, have
to be maintained regularly
May add stress to the banks
and causes the banks to
collapse
Strategy
Disadvantage
Realign-
ment
Re-
sectioning
Gabions and
revetments
Vegetation planting
and clearance
Building of
dykes
Woody debris can become
erosion agents and
encourage flooding
Continual build-up of
sediments on river bed
makes channel shallower and
water levels to raise higher
over the years
Sediments have to be
regularly dug up from the
bed
7. Summarised pros and cons of dams (refer to Geography file)
Pros Cons
Hydroelectric Power Generation Silting
Domestic Water Supply Salanisation
Flood Control Destruction of habitats
Transport and economic value Resettlement of people
Recreation Spread of diseases
Destruction of delta downstream
Water pollution
Annex A
Inputs
Precipitation
Stores and flows
1. Return flow
2. Interception
3. Surface water
storage
4. Infiltration
5. Soil water storage
6. Percolation
7. Groundwater storage
8. Groundwater flow
Interception
Transpiration
by plants
1
2
3
1
4
Water is taken through
the roots to reduce volume
of river as less water
enters the river
Reduces the
amount of
water that
reaches the
river
Outputs
1. River runoff
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
TOPIC 5: COASTS
1. Wave terminology
Crest The highest part of a wave formed between two troughs
Trough The lowest part of a wave formed between two crests
Wave height The vertical distance between the wave crest and wave trough
Wave length Horizontal distance between two wave crests or troughs
2. Coast profiles terms
offshore (not visible
even during low tides) foreshore (zone of contact
between sea and land) backshore (exposed all
the time) shoreline
cliff
high tide level
low tide level sand
coastline
rocks
sea
3. Factors affecting wave energy
Wind effects
Duration of wind The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves will be.
Speed of wind
Since waves are formed as a result of high wind velocities across the
surface of the water they are proportionate.
The higher the wind speed, the bigger the waves.
Sea effects
Fetch
It refers to the expanse of sea that a wave travels through before reaching
land. A larger fetch will allow the wave to gain more energy.
Depth of sea
Water particles in a wave are in a circular motion.
A deeper sea would mean that the particles are able to move more freely as
compared to shallow sea, where a lot of friction is encountered.
Hence the deeper the sea, the less friction, the greater the size of the waves,
and the greater the wave energy.
4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods
a. Transport
Longshore drift (refers to the
movement of
sediments parallel
to the coast by the
action of waves
reaching the coast
at an angle)
Winds usually travel towards the coast at an angle.
Prevailing winds cause the waves to hit the coast at an oblique angle.
When the waves reach the beach, the waves break and topple over, causing
surf containing sediments to run up the beach as swash.
The surf then runs back down the beach as backwash perpendicular to the
coast due to the influence of gravity.
The sediments in the backwash are later being carried by a second swash.
This continuous motion of swash and backwash result in transport of sediments
in a zig-zag fashion by longshore currents.
b. Erosion (W.CASH)
Wave
refraction
Wave refraction occurs when waves approach an irregular coastline in a parallel
fashion.
Wave energy is concentrated on promontories such as headlands, erosion
occurs.
Corrasion Waves and rock debris lash against the base of cliffs, scouring and
undercutting the rocks.
Attrition
Rock particles carried in the water knock against one another, reducing one
another in size.
The load is hence more rounded, evident from beach deposits.
Solution
Rain water is a weak acid, and may be further acidified with acid rain.
When it reacts with limestone containing calcium carbonate, it gradually
weakens the whole rock structure, causing it to disintegrate.
Hydraulic action
When waves surge into cracks and joints in rocks, air is trapped in the rocks
and would be temporarily compressed.
When the waves leaves the rocks, there would be a sudden expansion of the
trapped air, exerting a force on the rocks.
Alternate contraction and expansion weakens the structure of the rock overall,
resulting in the disintegration of the rock.
c. Deposition
Where
Gentle waves
Heavy load
Erosion opposing
factors
*Indented
coastline
Presence of vegetation
Sheltered, less windy coast
*Gently sloping shorelines
*Source of beach sediments (e.g. headlands)
Why
Indented coastline
Wave refraction occurs
Waves travel a larger distance to the bay compared to the
headlands
Dissipated wave energy encounters more friction and diverges
at the beach as they spread
Gently sloping
shorelines
Swash is stronger than backwash
More deposition than erosion
Source of beach
sediments More active erosion occurs at the headlands
5. Landforms at coasts
Landform Method of production
Sea cliff
When waves repeatedly pound
against a rocky coast, rocks are
weakened to form lines of
weaknesses in the rock face
A notch forms
Further eroded to form a sea cave
The overhanging part of the cave
eventually collapses with repeated
pounding
A cliff is formed
Wave cut
platform
As a cliff continues to be eroded
by waves, it retreats inland
Over time, a flat or gently sloping surface
known as a wave cut platform is formed
Landform Method of production
Headland
When waves approach coasts of
differing alternating
resistance, the less resistant
rocks are eroded at a faster
rate than the more resistant
rocks
Differing rates of erosion of rocks produce
an uneven coastline
Less resistant areas of rocks curve inwards to
form bays
More resistant areas of rocks protrude out
from the coastline to form headlands Bay
Beach
Rocks of different resistance builds
up at headlands and bays
Wave refraction at the headlands
cause wave energy to be dissipated at the bay
Materials eroded form headlands
together with materials carried by the
waves get deposited and accumulate at the bay
Over time, a beach forms
Berm
As constructive waves run up the
beach slope, it loses energy
Load is deposited
Swash is stronger than backwash
More materials deposited then
removed
During a storm, waves are stronger
and beach sorting occurs
Coarser heaver materials are hurled
further up the beach slope and deposited
there as the weaker backwash does not
have the energy to remove them, forming
the berm
Finer lighter materials are carried
seawards by the backwash and deposited
near the water’s edge
Spit
Longshore drift
Prevailing winds
Waves to hit the coast
at an oblique angle
Waves breaking
obliquely at the shore
move materials
Along the shore in a zig-
zag manner known as
longshore drift...
Due to backwash and
swash (more on 4a)
Spit formation
Abrupt change in the
coastline causes the
longshore drift to lose
energy due to shallower
waters
Sediments are deposited on the sea floor developing
an under water ridge
Over time, they extend further
Currents are not strong enough to wash the deposits
away
Lie undisturbed
Hooking
The second most dominant pushes the tip landwards
to give it its hooked appearance
When the wind slackens, the spit continues to extend.
The strong current carries the sediments out to sea
and prevents the spit from extending further.
Strong winds again pushes the end of the spit
inwards to give its second hook
Tombolo formation
When an extension of a spit joins an offshore island
to the mainland, and tombolo is formed
Tombolo
Notch
When waves have short wavelength and large
wave height, they form destructive waves
Waves attack rocks of varying resistance by C,
A, S and H along an exposed or uneven coast.
Bays and headlands form
Waves concentrate their energy on headlands
Increased wave erosion form a cliffed headland
The waves attack lines of
weaknesses by CSH (no A)
[elaborate each].
Waves continually attack
these weak rock joints
A notch is formed at the
base of the headland cliff
Cave Prolonged wave action The notch is gradually enlarged, forming a sea cave
Wave cut
platform
Over time further wave erosion
along the cave may cause its roof
to collapse forming a steep cliff
face
As the steep cliff retreats due to continued
erosion, undercutting the base of the cliff
A gently-sloping land strewn with eroded
rocks called a wave cut platform develops.
Landform Method of production
Arch
The cave and wave up
platform is slowly enlarged
and lengthened
When the cave undercuts the base fully to the
other side of the headland, it cuts through the
headland, forming an arch
Stack
As the sides of the arch are being eroded by
wind and wave forces, the arch loses its
support and collapses to the wave cut platform
An isolated pillar of rock called
a stack is left behind and
separated from the headland
Stump Continual erosion by strong winds and
destructive waves reduces the stack to a stump
This stump is only revealed at
low tide and covered at high tide
6. Waves
What happens as waves hit the
shore?
1) Waves approach the shore
2) Water depth generally
decreases
3) Friction with seabed increases
4) Circular motion of waves is
retarded
5) Waves slowed down
6) Length decreases
7) Crests bunch up
8) Wave height and steepness
increases
9) Top of wave topples over
10) Surf runs up the beach as
swash
11) Percolates into the beach
12) Runs back down as less strong
backwash
Waves
hitting a
straight
shore
No indentation
Waves hit the shore at an oblique angle in
direction of the wind
Friction near the coast
Waves get shallower
Retards the speed of waves
Waves break almost parallel to shore (longshore
current)
Transport of sediments increase
Waves
hitting an
irregular
shore
Headland
Waves reach headland first before entering
bay
Wave refracted at headland concentrates
energy there
More intensive erosive power of C, A, S and H
Bay
When waves move towards the bay, it tends to
curve away across the bay area
Energy is dispersed
Eroded material at the headland is deposited at
the boy area
Constructive waves Destructive waves
Energy Low, resulting in low flat waves High
Coastal
waves Swash more powerful than backwash
Backwash more powerful than swash, surf
pounds on sand but does not run far up the beach
Coastal
process Deposition Erosion
Ability Able to push material up the beach
to form a berm at the top of the beach
Able to dig out material and carry it out
offshore
Offshore Low wave length and height High wave length and height
Frequency Low (6-8 per minute) High (>10 per minute)
Coast
approach Gentle surging waves Steep plunging waves
Association Gently sloping coasts Steep sloping coasts
7. Coastal protection strategies
Type Strategy Description Example Disadvantage
Hard
Seawalls
i. Wall made of concrete built
in front of a coast
ii. Absorbs energy of the
waves
iii. Protects the coast against
strong waves, especially
during storms
Build at long
stretches of
coasts in
England to
reduce rate
of erosion of
land
Waves are redirected
downwards to the base of
the seawall as waves break
Strong backwash wears
away the base, weakening
and collapsing it.
Expensive, S$3 million per
kilometre
Break-
waters
i. Granite materials acting as
breakwaters are placed off
and parallel to the coast
ii. Creates a zone of shallow
water between the coast
and itself
iii. Breaks the waves before it
reaches the coast
iv. Reduces wave energy
Singapore
beaches like
the East
Coast Park
and Siloso
beach at
Sentosa
Unable to provide
complete protection as
some areas are still left
unprotected
Expensive, each
breakwater is S$1 million
Groynes
i. Low wall built perpendicular
to the coast
ii. Prevents materials from
being transported away by
longshore drift
iii. As sediments accumulate at
the side of the groyne
Groynes built
at Sussex in
the United
Kingdom
The beach will not be
replenished by materials
carried by longshore
drift
Beach further down the
coast may be eroded
away
Spoils the natural beauty
of a coastal environment
Gabions
i. Wire cages containing small
rocks to form a wall
ii. Protects the coast against
erosion
Chichester
Harbour in
the United
Kingdom
Can be easily destroyed
by powerful waves during
storms
Wires rust easily
Soft
Stabilising
coastal
dunes (Ridge of sand
piled up by
wind usually
extending
many
kilometers
and heights to
100 metres)
i. Ridge of sand piled up by
wind
ii. Provides protection to
human property
iii. Provides a habitat for many
animals
iv. Plantation of vegetation
along coasts
v. Roots trap and bind sand
together, preventing sand
from being blown inland
Omaha Beach
in New
Zealand
Marram grass
Property development
and recreational
activities can damage the
coasts
Causes the sand to be
easily blown inland
Can easily cover nearby
roads, farms and
buildings
Planting
mangroves
on the
shore
i. They have prop roots that
anchor trees firmly in the
muddy soil
ii. Bind loose soil and protect it
from erosion
iii. 2004 Tsunami showed that it helps
2005 Malaysian
government
launched project
to protect
4800 km of
its coastline
Require cooperation of
the people in the local
area
Have to be mindful not
to let animals like goats
enter the plantations
Type Strategy Description Example Disadvantage
Soft
Beach
nourish-
ment
i. Large amounts of sand are
added to a beach that is being
eroded
ii. When longshore drift removes
sand from the coast, people
bring in sand from other areas
and deposit it onto the beach
24 kilometres
of the Miami
Beach of the
United States
was renewed
This method usually lasts
for only about 10 years.
Beach quality sand is
expensive
Miami Beach project
costed S$105 million
Encou-
raging
growth of
coral
reefs
i. Masses of rock like
substances calcium carbonate
from living organisms
ii. Speed of waves approaching
the coast is reduced
iii. Most of original energy of
waves is lost
iv. Protect beaches against
coastal erosion
Pacific and
Indian Oceans
where water
is warm and
clear
Dynamite fishing, sand
mining and land
reclamation can destroy
coral reefs
Water pollution hinders
growth of coral reefs
Malaysia, for example,
banned fishing in
protected areas
CONCLUSION: MAPWORK AND PATTERNS
1. Map-work materials
Long ruler Set square Protractor Calculator String Pencil Eraser
2. Formulas
Gradient Vertical Distance (Make use of the contour lines, make sure line corresponds)
Horizontal Distance (Make use of long ruler and multiply with scale accordingly)
Always express as a fraction or ratio with the numerator as 1 and denominator 3 sig. fig. if not exact
3. River and drainage patterns
Dendritic Trellis Radial Centripetal
dep
ict Main river resembles tree
trunk and tributaries
resemble branches
Resembles pattern
formed by bricks on a
wall
Move out from
centrally elevated
location
Rivers move towards
of a focal point or
depression
feat
ures
River flows over areas of
same rock types
Rocks are made up of
alternate bands of
resistant and less
resistant rocks
River originates
from the top of a
steep hill, mountain
or volcano
Usually towards a
volcano crater
forming a crater
lake
dia
gram
Opposite direction
from radial,
resembling spokes of
a bicycle wheel
4. Common unique rivers
Centripetal rivers Waterfalls formed by faulting
Rivers around Lake Toba in Indonesia Victoria Falls along Zambezi River in South Africa
5. Weather patterns (describing from climograph)
Mean Range/Distribution Seasonality Extreme months
Tempe-rature
Mean annual temperature
of climograph is high at
26.8ºC
Annual
temperature range
is low at 1.7ºC
Temperature is
hot throughout
the year...
...with the hottest
months in May and
June at 27.5ºC
Rainfall Mean annual rainfall
shown is very high at
2343.7 mm
Rainfall is well
distributed...
...with no dry
season
The highest rainfall
in December at
282.2 mm
Identify From the temperature and rainfall data, it can be seen that the climograph experiences
a hot and wet climate throughout the year and is likely an equatorial climate.
6. Weather descriptors
High Moderate Low
Mean temp. Above 20ºC 10ºC to 20ºC Below 10ºC
Temp. range Above 15ºC 5 to 15ºC Below 5ºC
Rainfall Above 2000mm 1200 to 2000mm 750 to 1200mm 250 to 750mm Below 250mm
7. Others
When Relation to factors Why Features
Velocity
drops
Channel shape When there is an increase in wetted perimeter
Channel slope When there is a sudden change in gradient Floodplains
Channel pattern When the river flows into a calm lake or sea Deltas
Volume
drops
Size of drainage
basin
When little or no rain enters a river
Permeability of
rocks
When the river flows across permeable rocks,
allowing sinking in of water
Climate When the river flows across a desert when
evapotranspiration rates are high
TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT
1. Development terminologies
Development Improvements in quality of life and standard of living
Standard of living Living conditions or conditions in which people live
Quality of life A measurement of the satisfaction with one’s living conditions and lifestyle
Core Region that has a high concentration of people, wealth and standard of living
Periphery Region that has a low concentration of people, little wealth and sol.
Cumulative causation
Increase in wealth of the core due to more economic activities from the movement of people and resources from the periphery
Multiplier effect Result of the initial development of the core that comes with benefits to drive development
Backwash effect Flow of labour and other resources from the periphery to the core
Spread effect Spread of wealth and knowledge from the core to periphery, assisting economic development in the periphery
2. Core Periphery Theory
Core (or DCs) Spread
Backwash
Periphery (or LDCs)
1 Availability of jobs 1 Fewer jobs, services and investments
2 High concentration of secondary and tertiary industries
2 High concentration of primary industries
3 Urbanised with good infrastructure 3 Limited infrastructure like roads and piped water
4 High concentration of wealth 4 Weak and poor economy
High standard
of living Full access to healthcare and education
Low percentage of population have access to healthcare and education
Low standard of living
High quality of life
Good infrastructure with many transport and communication systems
Poor infrastructure with few transport and communication lines and constant congestion
Low quality of life
Good social benefits with health plans and tax rebates
Lack of social benefits
Access to leisure facilities High pollution, little access to leisure facilities
Backwash Cumulative causation Spread Centrifugal growth
Singapore 1. Attracted workers from periphery
countries like Bangladesh and Philippines
2. Developed quickly 3. Periphery drained of labour,
hindering development in the periphery countries
1. Thailand developed automobile industry in late 1990s 2. Japanese car manufacturing companies moved their factories to
Thailand to reduce manufacturing costs 3. Local people picked up knowledge and skills in automobile
manufacturing from Japanese counterparts
4. Investments from Japan helped Thailand’s economy grow (spread)
5. Japanese car manufacturers benefited with cheap labour costs by employing Thai workers (centrifugal growth)
3. Explaining development indicators
Effective Ineffective
Eco
no
mic
Emp
loym
ent
stru
ctu
re
Industrial level - High availability of industries - Wide variety of services and food - Potentially generate more income for citizens
Level of wealth - Tertiary and secondary industries involve manufacturing machines and trained workers, creation of the various industries require money - Countries with this wealth can
Wealth of citizens - Trained and knowledgeable workers will gain higher salary - Goods produced in tertiary and secondary generate more income as It is more value-added
Only a ratio - A country may have a less people employed in the SAT industry compared to another, but more people by proportion to primary industry - Inaccurate to conclude that the country is more developed
Labour and raw
materials
Finished products, investments, wealth,
knowledge
Effective *Ineffective Ec
on
om
ic
Inco
me
per
cap
ita Industrial level - More developed country - Added goods and
services from secondary and tertiary industries - Finished products instead of raw materials - Generate more income - Higher GNP per capita
Higher standard of living - More money Greater ability to build education, healthcare and sanitation facilities - Higher quality of life for people
Average GNP per capita figure - May appear large although majority of country’s citizens are living in poverty - Large income gap between the extremely rich and the extremely poor
Informal economic activities - Activities such as tutoring services, street hawking are not registered with the government - GNP per capita appears lower
Social and environmental costs - E.g. Increasing income gap between the rich and poor - E.g. Air pollution which came with development
Emp
loym
ent
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
Purchasing power - High levels of wealth of people - Demand for good and services high - Expansion of businesses and infrastructure seen to generate revenue - High employment opportunities - Lower long-term employment levels in workforce
Hea
lth
Life
exp
ect-
ancy
Level of healthcare and sanitation - People can live longer due to availability of healthcare and proper sanitation resulting in proper hygiene levels.
Level of wealth - Countries with higher life expectancy are usually DCs - Government can afford to build healthcare facilities and proper sanitation - People can afford to pay for such services \
Infa
nt
mo
rtal
ity
rate
Sanitation & healthcare systems - Easier accessibility to sanitation and healthcare services - Higher availability of such services
Wars or droughts in LDCS - Cause a shortage of food - Babies die from famine or malnutrition
Wat
er
sup
ply
&
san
itat
ion
Wealth of country - Country able to provide proper sanitation and safe water supply for its citizens
Edu
cati
on
Lite
racy
rate
Wealth of country - Many financial resources of a country available to meet educational needs of its people - More schools built, more teachers can be trained - Cost of education can be subsidised
Unable to compare between LDCs - Social customs in LDC may result in limited female’s access to education - Lower literacy rate - Few schools are built as children have to help out on the farms.
4. Cumulative Causation
Development of new industry in core Further development of commercial and economic activities Greater demand for goods and services
Jobs created Employment
level Demand of goods and
services Businesses Wealth level
Public services and facilities
Support for goods and services
Industrial growth
A. Creation of jobs result in more income
B. Attracts youthful workers from the periphery in search of jobs
A. Full employment opportunities
B. Wide range of skills and youthful workers
C. Population required increases
A. Increase in income, affordability and purchasing power
B. Increase in size of domestic market
C. Greater secondary and tertiary activities like in health, entertainment, education and retail sectors
Increases across research and development and within goods and super marts
A. Increases due to higher paying jobs
B. Higher standard of living
C. Government collect more taxes
A. Transport and healthcare expands
B. Improved infrastructure like more community centres built
A. Linkages to support production and distribution established for exports to overseas world markets
B. Allow for more innovation and invention
Old industries revamped to more tertiary and quaternary industries
5. Factors influencing level of development
Factors Description Examples
His
tori
cal
Co
lon
ial h
isto
ry
Colonial powers tend to develop countries colonised to obtain raw materials with basic infrastructure like railway system and industries like mining and rubber plantations
Outflow of natural resources resulted in colonies being unable to develop their economy fully as they were very dependent on their colonial government politically & economically
The Portuguese colonised Angola in 1500s to set up cotton, coffee and cocoa plantations by exploiting favourable physical conditions and availability of labour.
Cash crops exported to Europe for sale at high prices.
Countries that were colonised because of their strategic locations for control of important trade routes in the past were able to develop faster
As compared to countries that were colonised because of their raw materials.
Singapore was colonised by the British due to its location along the Straits of Malacca.
The British developed its port and city by setting up schools , building infrastructure & investing in businesses.
Ph
ysic
al R
aw
mat
eria
ls Countries that have plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries that have
few or no materials.
Money earned from selling the raw materials, like timber and crude oil, can be spent on projects to develop the country
Norway, ranked first in HDI, is well-endowed with na-tural resources like oil from the North Sea off its shore
Able to use money generated to improve infrastructure like roads, housing and water treatment plants
Clim
ate
Temperate climate usually favours the growth of crops
People grow these crops on a large scale for sale in their countries and export overseas Cool and moist climate in Canada and USA is suitable
for growing many important crops like wheat and oat
Harsh climates with constant disasters result in people having to constantly rebuild their homelands and hindering development and revenue from tourism
China experiences floods every year along major rivers, killing 1000 and losses of US$12.6 billion in 2005
Factors Description Examples Ec
on
om
ic
Cu
mu
lati
ve
cau
sati
on
Investments in industries create jobs that encourage an inflow of workers
and triggering a local demand for goods and services.
Revenue gained from expansion of industries allows government to improve infrastructure
With a multiplier effect, investors from urban centres who seek to provide their goods and services are attracted, enhancing the economic activities and wealth generated in the area
Thailand development of a automobile industry in late 1990s attracted Japanese car manufacturing companies to shift factories to there to reduce manufacturing costs
Soci
al
Edu
cati
on
Lack of trained teachers and facilities in LDCs result in lower percentage of population able to get the necessary education and low literacy rates
People with little formal education face difficulties learning new skills and embracing modern technology
Shortage of skilled labour hinders development of industries
Italy has a high GDP per capita of about US$28 000 in 2005 and 98.5% literacy rate
Due to long history of placing a strong emphasis on education - Has wealth to build schools and train teachers to educate its people
Sierra Leone has a low literacy rate of 30% as it has little money to spend on education with a GDP per capita of only US$548.
Much of the population is involved in agriculture, little effort to provide opportunities for rural people to learn to read and write
Po
pu
lati
on
gr
ow
th r
ate
Effects of high birthrates cause development of country to slow down as more resources have to be given to provide healthcare, food and education for the youthful population
Less resources available for improving quality of life for the general population
Populations of Kenya, Nigeria and Ethiopia increase approximately 3% per year at a much faster rate than DCs like Norway and Japan of 0.5% per year.
Fewer children show a higher cost of living, higher standard of living and changing lifestyle preferences
Po
litic
al C
on
flic
t
Stable government attracts more MNCs by creating stable and peaceful environment for business to develop.
Investments will not be at risk in changes of political leadership with no internal struggles for power
Assured that no bribes will be needed to set up businesses in the country.
Sierra Leone has experienced political conflict and social instability due to a civil war in the 1970s that killed 1.7 million people.
Sierra Leone being one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The HDI of Sierra Leone was ranked second from the bottom in 2005.
Long history of political stability and peace.
Local businesses have flourished with foreign investors having confidence in setting up businesses.
Switzerland had a GDP of US$30 552 in 2005.
Lead
ersh
ip
Countries that are progressing well in their economic, health and education sectors are run by efficient and development-oriented governments.
These governments are forward-looking and dedicated to meeting the needs and aspirations of their people, ensuring maximum development.
Norwegian government set a profit cap for petroleum producers
The rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway
Ensures that wealth generated from Norway’s petroleum industry is shared among its people.
Norway ranked first in HDI in 2005
6. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally
Way Org Description Example Effectiveness In
tern
atio
nal
org
anis
atio
ns
Wo
rld
Ban
k
1. Aid to less developed countries
2. Social or Economical help 3. Aid and money 4. Including loans with low or
no interest
1. Kecamatan Development Programme in Sleepy Tirtomoyo, Indonesia
2. Provides financial aid and water 3. Locals to dig wells to tap on underground water
sources and build pipelines.
1. Some countries in need might not voice out 2. Not agree to some of the ways they should handle
problems 3. Sudden rise of food prices in the world in January 2011,
countries like Thailand and Africa tended to impose import taxes on foreign goods to get money
4. Did not realise this selfish acts will only aggravate the malnutrition situation in the world
Asi
an D
evel
op
men
t
Ban
k
1. Alleviate development 2. Reduces poverty 3. Increases quality of life 4. 67 member countries in the
Asia-Pacific region 5. Monetary loans and
technical assistance.
1. Bridge of Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project of Bangladesh
2. Connects less developed northwestern region to more developed regions
3. Financial and technical support include roads, railways, gas pipelines and telecommunication lines
4. Less traffic congestion allows farmers to transport their produce to markets for sale.
1. Greater industrailisation from alleviating development 2. At the expense of degradation of the environment such
as deforestation, depletion of minerals, and environmental pollution
3. Global warming will be more fatal to the world than issues of poverty in the long run.
Inte
rnat
ion
al a
gree
men
ts
UN
Mill
enn
ium
Dev
elo
pm
ent
Go
als 1. International agreement
2. Other countries pledged their commitment
3. Aim to help LDCs get out of poverty by 2015
4. Encompass social, demographic and economic goals
1. Poverty and hunger-stricken Vietnam 2. Increased access to basic social services for the poor 3. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty
in the country 4. Pressure on the government to create jobs and
increase income
1. Conflicts of interest present 2. Most investments made in the country trap farmers and
their children to work on the farms with low wages 3. They cannot afford to send their children to schools for
education
UN
Co
nve
nti
on
on
th
e
Law
of
the
Sea
1. Adopted by more than 160 countries
2. Control usage of seas and oceans in the world for sustainable use them
3. So that they will not be depleted
1. Coastal LDC Peru 2. Fishing industry is important to its economy 3. Law disallows larger fishing boats from surrounding
DCs, that can spot and collect fish underwater easily, from fishing at Peru’s seas without permission
4. Allows the poor fishermen to make a living and maintain their livelihood
1. Landlocked countries like Bolivia in South America do not benefit from it
2. Allows other American countries to develop at a faster rate than it
3. Alleviation of development between LDCs and DCs would not be complete
7. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally
Social Demographic Economic Water supply and Sanitation Education Population control Job creation
Pla
n
Parivartan Slum Networking Programme in Ahmedabad of Gurjarat, India
Hill Tribe Education Project in Thailand One Child Policy in China KALAHI ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’
in the Philippines
Res
ult
s
Besides general underdeveloped characteristics, the area lacks basic minimum education and insufficient skills with low income and poor standard of living.
Water supply to individual households. Underground sewerage connection to
individual households. Toilets to individual households. Training was provided to teach
villagers proper usage of new facilities
Northern hill tribes like Karen and Yao were introduced to formal and informal education programmes to suit the needs of their communities.
A community learning centre was built in each village open to children and adults.
To promote literacy, the Thai language, Mathematics and life and social skills were taught.
The Chinese government discovered in the 1970s that there was an increasing rate of population growth that could result in overpopulation to hinder further development.
Therefore, the One Child policy was implemented to limit every couple to have only one child.
Volunteers were recruited to promote late marriages, late childbearing and teach proper contraception methods to keep birth rates low.
Fertility rates in China fell, especially in urban areas
Pro-poor policies were implemented to help more people set up and run small businesses, usually run by families.
The ultra-poor were given interest free loans and leadership and self-employment training to help them run businesses effectively.
The government also obliged banks to allocate part of their credit loans to be given to poor farmers and entrepreneurs.
Lim
ita
tio
ns
The slums were not developed on priority basis.
The slum networking basically deals with notified slum and not with the other poor settlements, and because of lack of funds the project could only be carried out in phases. It took 5 years for death rates to drop by almost half.
While it benefited some slums, majority are still deprived of clean water and sanitation facilities
Hill tribes live in small communities and in geographical isolation.
It is difficult for the government to reach out to the large population in the community.
Communication barriers between the hill tribes and lack of volunteer teachers have been time consuming and a great challenge to this project.
It is more difficult to implement this policy in the rural areas of China as couples in the region required more children for additional help their farms to make a living.
Many of the couples would want a son and hence tend to continue bearing until they succeeded in having a son.
With more males than females eventually, gender imbalance might not allow sufficient people to take care of the elderly in the future.
Products and skills of the poor not diversified as yet.
The poor requires greater market access in order to get more people to purchase their goods and services, as competition still exists among the poor.
More volunteers are needed to reach out to those living in areas that are difficult to reach.
TOPIC 4: GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD
1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution
LDCs Description Evidence DCs Description Evidence
Ch
angi
ng
foo
d p
refe
ren
ces
Less carbo-hydrates in diets
Mainly obtained from staple food making up important part of diet
Decreasing in proportion although still makes up large proportion
76% carbohydrates in 1971 to 1973 in LDCs
68% carbohydrates in 1999 to 2001 in LDCs
More healthy food
Increasing levels of health-consciousness
Moving away from high-fat products
Olive oil reducing risks of heart disease
Organic food found to be healthier choice
Though high consumption of meat
Proportion of fats in USA diet fell from 33% to 26% from 1950s to 2000
Consumption and imports of olive oil more than doubled from 1995 to 2005
Sales of organic food tripled over the last five years in UK
More non-staple food
More non-staple food like meat, fish and coffee
Consists largely of proteins and fats
More common in urban areas
5% to 10% proteins
10% to 15% fats from 1972 to 2000
High-fat diet urban China citizens from 33% to 61% 1991 to 1997
Larger variety of food
People in DCs becoming more exposed to different types of food around the world
Globalisation has increased due to faster transports and advanced communications
Fusion food popular
Asian person exposed to American fast food may choose to eat more bread or potato than rice
Thai food in UK, Mediterranean food in Canada is common
Americans introduced to sushi in the 1970s, LA chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi
Leve
ls o
f fo
od
co
nsu
mp
tio
n
LDCs consume less food than DCs
Poorest 20% in the world’s population
Consumes only about 5% of meat and fish in the world
Food consumption per capita of Africa
Lower than 2200 kCal/person/day
DCs consume more food than LDCs
Richest 20% in the world’s population
Consumes nearly half meat and fish in the world
Food consumption per capita of North America & Europe
Exceeds 3400 kCal/person/day
Increased food con-sumption in the world
Efforts to increase supply of food
Green revolution
General increase on amount of food consumed
Mid-1960s to 1990s
Sub Saharan African region
Increased by 137 kCal/person/day
Increased food con-sumption in the world
Efforts to increase supply of food
Green revolution
General increase on amount of food consumed
Mid-1960s to 1990s
East Asian region
Increased by 964 kCal/person/day
2. Reasons for variations of food production
Reason Description Examples Result
Aff
ord
abili
ty
Pu
rch
asin
g p
ow
er
People in DCs generally have higher incomes - Greater purchasing power - More likely to be able to buy enough food - Meet basic nutritional needs -Wider variety of food - LDCs improving financial conditions in urban areas by cumulative causation
East Asia food consumption - Increased 827 kCal/person/day more than Sub-Saharan Africa did - Mid-1960s to 1990s
High-fat diet urban China citizens - Increased 33% to 61% from 1991 to 1997
Greater consumption of food
Non-staple food, since more expensive, increasing in consumption than staple food in urban areas of LDCs
Sto
ck
pili
ng
DCs can set aside and store food - Economically well-to-do - Buy extra food and storage facilities - Control food supply in market - Less effect during crop failure or food disruption - Low risk
East Asian Emergency Rise Reserve (EAERR) started in 2004 - Member countries like Vietnam and Singapore contribute certain quantity of rice to a reserve - Used during emergencies like disasters
Improved food security
Better stability of food in DCs
DCs not self-sufficient able to tackle food emergencies
Stab
ility
of
foo
d s
up
ply
Co
nfl
icts
an
d r
iots
Conflicts among nations - Crops and livestock destroyed - Farmers abandon fields - Threaten food supply and security
Second Congo War in Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 - 3.6 million dead from starvation and easily preventable diseases
Unstable food supply
Lower food security - People unable to obtain enough food of acceptable quality and variety readily
Countries not self-sufficient like Singapore and Japan which rely on food imports affected adversely
Nat
ura
l ca
use
s Droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes - Wipe out entire harvests easily - Severe food shortages - Lower food supply
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - Destroyed much farmland and livestock in southwestern USA - Left people without food
Spread of bird flu in Asia in late 2003 - Over 20 million poultry destroyed by dying or being culled - Shortage of poultry meat
Acc
essi
bili
ty o
f fo
od
Tran
spo
rt
faci
litie
s Absence of transport facilities in LDCs - Hinder food distribution - Prevents access to food
Lack of transport routes especially in rural areas of LDCs and congestion in LDCs like India - Decrease time for transport
Landslides like those from 1999 Taiwan earthquake - May make some areas inaccessible
Lower levels of food consumption in LDCs
Temporary cut-off of ability to obtain food needed
But improvements and additions in transport - Cross rivers by bridges and mountains by planes
Glo
bal
isat
ion
Advancements in trans.comm - Increase exchange of information, ideas, cultures and values - Companies expand food business by opening outlets abroad
Americans were introduced to sushi in the 1970s
Los Angeles chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi with cucumber, cooked crabmeat and avocado
Larger variety of food in DCs
More healthy food in DCs
Increased food consumption in the world
But access in LDCs often limited to urban areas - where there are more food outlets and better transport and communications networks in place.
In China, it is easier to find restaurants and fast food chains offering wide variety of food - In cities like Shanghai - Compared to rural regions like Inner Mongolia.
Trad
e People have greater access to food from around the world - Trade barriers limit trade between countries - Access to food will be affected
UN prohibited countries from trading w/Iraq aft ‘91 Gulf War
Significant decrease in imports of food and farming inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides into Iraq
Variety of food minimised temporarily
Food supply affected slightly
Foo
d
ou
tlet
s Few places selling food in LDCs - Limited variety and quantity of food - Grown locally or imported from other countries based on globalisation
3. Impacts of Variations of Food consumption
Description Effects
Starvation 70% of most Sub-Saharan African countries like Somalia
People do not receive enough energy from their diet due to severe shortage of food
Poor harvest and low purchasing power are factors
Bodies become skeletally thin
Muscle tissues burnt for energy
Organs may become permanently damaged
Malnutrition
Late 1990s Davao City in the Philippines, widespread deficiencies in iodine, iron and Vitamin A - Slow growth for children and low energy for adults
People consume an imbalanced amount of nutrients over a period of time.
Anorexia nervosa, starving oneself forcibly, and bulimia, vomiting everything that was just eaten by a person, are factors relating to this, including low purchasing power
Bodies are weakened
Lower resistance to common illnesses
Damage to internal organs due to low vitamin D, calcium that result in poor teeth and deformed bones
Inevitable eventual death
Rickets and anaemia due to low iron levels
Obesity 400 million obese, USA has 32% adults obese
People consume much more nutrients than a body can use, body fat exceeds one-third of one’s weight
This can be attributed to growing affluence in LDCs
High blood pressure
Diabetes
Heart disease
4. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production
Effective Ineffective (*or problems)
Po
litic
al
Go
vern
men
t p
olic
ies
High technology farming - Aeroponics and hydroponics, more efficient, less pollution, higher out per unit area
Examples Limitations in fish catch (both sides) - Country’s amount and type of fish is regulated, fish caught limited, ensures enough fish in future
Examples
Oh Chin Huat farms, Singapore
European Union adopted Common Fisheries Policy
Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to help farmers resettle in new farm areas
Federal Land Development Authority, Malaysia
Bans on GM Food - Farmers will lose chance to increase income and food supply
Zambia rejected GM food imports, fear health impact
Tech
no
logi
cal
#G
M F
oo
d C
rop
s (L
OR
Ms)
Increases income for farmers - GM food crops are generally fresher and more resistant to pests and low rainfall
Pest resistant corns created with Bt, fewer crops damaged, more output, income
*Potential health risks - Some food substances may cause unknown allergies as they are not natural
Some people fear that they may unknowingly consume potatoes containing Lectin, which prevents successful aphid attacks.
GM Pea caused health problems in research mice.
Increases food supply - Some GM crops are able to produce higher outputs than non-GM
Super Rice produces double the output of normal rice
*Loss of biodiversity - More species become endangered and extinct, greater loss of variety of living things in an ecosystem
Monarch butterflies which fed on plants that were dusted with Bt corn pollen had larvae growing slower and dying at a faster rate than butterflies which did not, possibly affect animals higher up the food chain
Reduces environmental pollution - Pest-resistant GM Crops, less use of chemicals, like non-ozone-friendly ones
Lowa, USA, eutro-phication due to high amounts of fertilisers
Effective Ineffective (*or problems) Te
chn
olo
gica
l
^GM
Fo
od
Improves nutritional value - Nutrients and vitamins added to prevent common illnesses and diseases
Golden Rice enriched with beta-carotene, more Vitamin A, hinders blindness and death
*Loss of natural species - Some GM crops genetically pollute natural crops that are not GM, may result in superweeds
A herbicide-resistant strain of the Charlock weed was compatible to and therefore genetically polluted by herbicide-resistant rapeseed plant
Ch
emic
als
(G R
ev)
Fertilisers - Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth
*Eutrophication of water bodies - Excess fertilisers in water bodies cause rapid growth of algae, reducing oxygen supply
Lowa, USA, Algae grows rapidly on surface, blocking of oxygen and sunlight
Pesticides - Toxic chemicals destroying pests which affect crop growth
Arsenic is used by farmers in India to poison rats attacking rice crops
*Water pollution - Contaminates water bodies, reducing quality of water, harming aquatic plants and animals, and animals which consume them and the water
Distribution of drinking water from a dam near Rennes, France, was stopped by public health authorities due to pesticide contamination
Herbicides - Toxic chemicals destroying weeds competing for nutrients in the soil
*Imbalance of soil nutrients - Chemical fertilisers supply 2-3/>20 essential nutrients, which excludes humus, unable to restore nutrients loss, lowering soil fertility
Mo
der
n Ir
riga
tio
n (
G R
ev) Overcomes physical limitations -
Water is supplied to land through artificial means. Dams, canals divert water from rivers and reservoirs to farms.
Farmers in India, with seasonal, irregular rainfall, can grow 2 to 3 crops instead of 1 per year
*Salinisation of soil - Salts are built up within the soil through flood irrigation, use of dams and groundwater when water contains natural dissolved salts
Aswan High Dam across River Nile, Egypt, disrupts flow of water, causing minerals trapped in reservior to dissolve into water, salinity of soil will be too high for crop growth
Increases crop output - Automated irrigation systems may use water sprinklers and sluice gates to control water usage
Farmers in Turkey use spray irrigation, drip amounts of water just sufficient for healthy crop growth, save water
*Waterlogging - Too much water used in fields, soil becomes saturated with water - Air and nutrients unable to reach crops - They wither and die
Pakistan and India, farmers use excess water to deal with salinisation but this over-irrigates the fields
HYV
s (G
Rev
) Cross breeding a range of rice, wheat, cereal strains - More pest resistant or shorter growth durations, higher yield and outputs per unit area
China’s rice output >doubled from 1961 to 1992 & Indonesia’s rice output increased 80% from 1970 to 1990.
Sophisticated - Cultivation and maturing process complicated - Farmers unable to follow procedures accurately
Although cereal crops increased significantly in LDCs like Mexico and India, it has increased rural unemployment due to less manual labour needed
Expensive - Large quantities of chemicals have to be used - Less well-off farmers cannot afford
Blu
e R
ev.
Encourages fish farming - Farmers rear fish in ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions promoting growth instead of catching fish from oceans
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture in India - 500 hatcheries and laboratories - conduct research on species like prawns and carp - 30% of fish harvest is supplied commercially
Medicines and vaccines - Medicines and vaccines have to be used to improve the health & nutrition of fish since viruses can spread rapidly if present
Thousands of kilometres of destroyed in Philippines, Indonesia and Ecuador to create fish and shrimp farms *Destruction of coastal mangroves - Mangroves
are replaced by farms - coastal erosion more likely
Ineffective [*or effective of inverse (boxed up) ] Effective P
hys
ical
Rel
ief
*Steep relief - In this way, soil is better drained, for proper tea cultivation of certain crops
Tea plantations are a common sight in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia
Gentle and flat - Soil erosion less likely, nutrients not lost easily, land remains fertile - Tractors and harvesters operated with ease - No labour needed for terraces
Canadian Prairies, Canada, farming
Soil erosion - In some countries that experience snow or earthquakes with steep relief - Nutrients is soil are washed away during soil erosion - Arable land is not enough for people to grow land to meet nutritional needs.
Nutrients in soil is washed away by constant melting snow and heavy rainfall in certain parts in the Himalayas, Andes. Two-thirds of total households suffer from malnutrition.
Soil
Fertility of soil - Floodplains, river deltas with large amounts of air, water essential for plant growth and nutrients like phosphorus, iron and zinc to help plant growth - Near volcanoes with ash rich in minerals
Volcanic ash deposited around Mount Mayon, Philippines, from time to time cause soil around the area to be fertile, favourable for cultivation of crops as less fallowing time is needed
Type of soil - Different types of soil are required by different types of crops
Wet rice is more likely to be found on floodplains and river deltas and wet and clayey soil is found. Bangladesh farmers grow wet rice on a flooded field and are able to produce two or more successive crops in the same year.
Clim
ate
*Low temperature and rainfall (cool and dry climate) - Temperature regions enable crops like wheat and potatoes to grow without too much water and fish like salmon to grow and reproduce well.
In Hunza, Pakinstan, potatoes are grown largely in farms where they are 2000m above sea level. Salmon farms are popular in Ireland and USA.
High temperature and rainfall (hot and wet) - Output is higher is general as conditions are favourable for plant growth.
Soci
al
Land
Frag
ment
ation
Father divides land into smaller plots equally among children traditionally - Resultant plots very small over generations - Limited output - Unprofitable for expensive machines
China and Korea, land fragmentation, more labour required, productivity low
Land
Ten
ure Farmers usually do not own land they
farm in LDCs - By governments or landlords - Farmers to give much of harvest - Little motivation for farmers to improve farming methods
Brazil, landlords make up 2% of population but own 42% of the land
Eco
no
mic
Dem
and
High demand for food - Encourage food producers to increase their output and productivity - More employment and more money is earned
Coffee is high in demand for ~25 mil people in LDCs, hence Brazil has many coffee plantations. 200 new employees are employed every day worldwide for this purpose.
Cap
ital
Large amount of capital - Needed for farming machines, fertilisers, pesticides, sonar for fish detection - More money to start or expand food production - Loans let farmers upgrade farming methods
Successful large-scale capital investments by the European Union in member countries have seen massive food surpluses of wheat, sugar beet, butter and wine being produced.