12 Core Human Geography Topical Notes (Incomplete) Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011 20
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12
Core Human Geography Topical Notes (Incomplete)
Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011
20
TOPIC 1: DEVELOPMENT
1. Development terminologies
Development Improvements in quality of life and standard of living
Standard of living Living conditions or conditions in which people live
Quality of life A measurement of the satisfaction with one’s living conditions and lifestyle
Core Region that has a high concentration of people, wealth and standard of living
Periphery Region that has a low concentration of people, little wealth and sol.
Cumulative causation
Increase in wealth of the core due to more economic activities from the movement of people and resources from the periphery
Multiplier effect Result of the initial development of the core that comes with benefits to drive development
Backwash effect Flow of labour and other resources from the periphery to the core
Spread effect Spread of wealth and knowledge from the core to periphery, assisting economic development in the periphery
2. Core Periphery Theory
Core (or DCs) Spread
Backwash
Periphery (or LDCs)
1 Availability of jobs 1 Fewer jobs, services and investments
2 High concentration of secondary and tertiary industries
2 High concentration of primary industries
3 Urbanised with good infrastructure 3 Limited infrastructure like roads and piped water
4 High concentration of wealth 4 Weak and poor economy
High standard
of living Full access to healthcare and education
Low percentage of population have access to healthcare and education
Low standard of living
High quality of life
Good infrastructure with many transport and communication systems
Poor infrastructure with few transport and communication lines and constant congestion
Low quality of life
Good social benefits with health plans and tax rebates
Lack of social benefits
Access to leisure facilities High pollution, little access to leisure facilities
Backwash Cumulative causation Spread Centrifugal growth
Singapore 1. Attracted workers from periphery
countries like Bangladesh and Philippines
2. Developed quickly 3. Periphery drained of labour,
hindering development in the periphery countries
1. Thailand developed automobile industry in late 1990s 2. Japanese car manufacturing companies moved their factories to
Thailand to reduce manufacturing costs 3. Local people picked up knowledge and skills in automobile
manufacturing from Japanese counterparts
4. Investments from Japan helped Thailand’s economy grow (spread)
5. Japanese car manufacturers benefited with cheap labour costs by employing Thai workers (centrifugal growth)
3. Explaining development indicators
Effective Ineffective
Eco
no
mic
Emp
loym
ent
stru
ctu
re
Industrial level - High availability of industries - Wide variety of services and food - Potentially generate more income for citizens
Level of wealth - Tertiary and secondary industries involve manufacturing machines and trained workers, creation of the various industries require money - Countries with this wealth can
Wealth of citizens - Trained and knowledgeable workers will gain higher salary - Goods produced in tertiary and secondary generate more income as It is more value-added
Only a ratio - A country may have a less people employed in the SAT industry compared to another, but more people by proportion to primary industry - Inaccurate to conclude that the country is more developed
Labour and raw
materials
Finished products, investments, wealth,
knowledge
Effective *Ineffective Ec
on
om
ic
Inco
me
per
cap
ita Industrial level - More developed country - Added goods and
services from secondary and tertiary industries - Finished products instead of raw materials - Generate more income - Higher GNP per capita
Higher standard of living - More money Greater ability to build education, healthcare and sanitation facilities - Higher quality of life for people
Average GNP per capita figure - May appear large although majority of country’s citizens are living in poverty - Large income gap between the extremely rich and the extremely poor
Informal economic activities - Activities such as tutoring services, street hawking are not registered with the government - GNP per capita appears lower
Social and environmental costs - E.g. Increasing income gap between the rich and poor - E.g. Air pollution which came with development
Emp
loym
ent
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
Purchasing power - High levels of wealth of people - Demand for good and services high - Expansion of businesses and infrastructure seen to generate revenue - High employment opportunities - Lower long-term employment levels in workforce
Hea
lth
Life
exp
ect-
ancy
Level of healthcare and sanitation - People can live longer due to availability of healthcare and proper sanitation resulting in proper hygiene levels.
Level of wealth - Countries with higher life expectancy are usually DCs - Government can afford to build healthcare facilities and proper sanitation - People can afford to pay for such services \
Infa
nt
mo
rtal
ity
rate
Sanitation & healthcare systems - Easier accessibility to sanitation and healthcare services - Higher availability of such services
Wars or droughts in LDCS - Cause a shortage of food - Babies die from famine or malnutrition
Wat
er
sup
ply
&
san
itat
ion
Wealth of country - Country able to provide proper sanitation and safe water supply for its citizens
Edu
cati
on
Lite
racy
rate
Wealth of country - Many financial resources of a country available to meet educational needs of its people - More schools built, more teachers can be trained - Cost of education can be subsidised
Unable to compare between LDCs - Social customs in LDC may result in limited female’s access to education - Lower literacy rate - Few schools are built as children have to help out on the farms.
4. Cumulative Causation
Development of new industry in core Further development of commercial and economic activities Greater demand for goods and services
Jobs created Employment
level Demand of goods and
services Businesses Wealth level
Public services and facilities
Support for goods and services
Industrial growth
A. Creation of jobs result in more income
B. Attracts youthful workers from the periphery in search of jobs
A. Full employment opportunities
B. Wide range of skills and youthful workers
C. Population required increases
A. Increase in income, affordability and purchasing power
B. Increase in size of domestic market
C. Greater secondary and tertiary activities like in health, entertainment, education and retail sectors
Increases across research and development and within goods and super marts
A. Increases due to higher paying jobs
B. Higher standard of living
C. Government collect more taxes
A. Transport and healthcare expands
B. Improved infrastructure like more community centres built
A. Linkages to support production and distribution established for exports to overseas world markets
B. Allow for more innovation and invention
Old industries revamped to more tertiary and quaternary industries
5. Factors influencing level of development
Factors Description Examples
His
tori
cal
Co
lon
ial h
isto
ry
Colonial powers tend to develop countries colonised to obtain raw materials with basic infrastructure like railway system and industries like mining and rubber plantations
Outflow of natural resources resulted in colonies being unable to develop their economy fully as they were very dependent on their colonial government politically & economically
The Portuguese colonised Angola in 1500s to set up cotton, coffee and cocoa plantations by exploiting favourable physical conditions and availability of labour.
Cash crops exported to Europe for sale at high prices.
Countries that were colonised because of their strategic locations for control of important trade routes in the past were able to develop faster
As compared to countries that were colonised because of their raw materials.
Singapore was colonised by the British due to its location along the Straits of Malacca.
The British developed its port and city by setting up schools , building infrastructure & investing in businesses.
Ph
ysic
al R
aw
mat
eria
ls Countries that have plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries that have
few or no materials.
Money earned from selling the raw materials, like timber and crude oil, can be spent on projects to develop the country
Norway, ranked first in HDI, is well-endowed with na-tural resources like oil from the North Sea off its shore
Able to use money generated to improve infrastructure like roads, housing and water treatment plants
Clim
ate
Temperate climate usually favours the growth of crops
People grow these crops on a large scale for sale in their countries and export overseas
Cool and moist climate in Canada and USA is suitable for growing many important crops like wheat and oat
Harsh climates with constant disasters result in people having to constantly rebuild their homelands and hindering development and revenue from tourism
China experiences floods every year along major rivers, killing 1000 and losses of US$12.6 billion in 2005
Factors Description Examples Ec
on
om
ic
Cu
mu
lati
ve
cau
sati
on
Investments in industries create jobs that encourage an inflow of workers and
triggering a local demand for goods and services.
Revenue gained from expansion of industries allows government to improve infrastructure
With a multiplier effect, investors from urban centres who seek to provide their goods and services are attracted, enhancing the economic activities and wealth generated in the area
Thailand development of a automobile industry in late 1990s attracted Japanese car manufacturing companies to shift factories to there to reduce manufacturing costs
Soci
al
Edu
cati
on
Lack of trained teachers and facilities in LDCs result in lower percentage of population able to get the necessary education and low literacy rates
People with little formal education face difficulties learning new skills and embracing modern technology
Shortage of skilled labour hinders development of industries
Italy has a high GDP per capita of about US$28 000 in 2005 and 98.5% literacy rate
Due to long history of placing a strong emphasis on education - Has wealth to build schools and train teachers to educate its people
Sierra Leone has a low literacy rate of 30% as it has little money to spend on education with a GDP per capita of only US$548.
Much of the population is involved in agriculture, little effort to provide opportunities for rural people to learn to read and write
Po
pu
lati
on
gr
ow
th r
ate
Effects of high birthrates cause development of country to slow down as more resources have to be given to provide healthcare, food and education for the youthful population
Less resources available for improving quality of life for the general population
Populations of Kenya, Nigeria and Ethiopia increase approximately 3% per year at a much faster rate than DCs like Norway and Japan of 0.5% per year.
Fewer children show a higher cost of living, higher standard of living and changing lifestyle preferences
Po
litic
al C
on
flic
t
Stable government attracts more MNCs by creating stable and peaceful environment for business to develop.
Investments will not be at risk in changes of political leadership with no internal struggles for power
Assured that no bribes will be needed to set up businesses in the country.
Sierra Leone has experienced political conflict and social instability due to a civil war in the 1970s that killed 1.7 million people.
Sierra Leone being one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The HDI of Sierra Leone was ranked second from the bottom in 2005.
Long history of political stability and peace.
Local businesses have flourished with foreign investors having confidence in setting up businesses.
Switzerland had a GDP of US$30 552 in 2005.
Lead
ersh
ip
Countries that are progressing well in their economic, health and education sectors are run by efficient and development-oriented governments.
These governments are forward-looking and dedicated to meeting the needs and aspirations of their people, ensuring maximum development.
Norwegian government set a profit cap for petroleum producers
The rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway
Ensures that wealth generated from Norway’s petroleum industry is shared among its people.
Norway ranked first in HDI in 2005
6. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally
Way Org Description Example Effectiveness
Inte
rnat
ion
al o
rgan
isat
ion
s
Wo
rld
Ban
k
1. Aid to less developed countries
2. Social or Economical help 3. Aid and money 4. Including loans with low or
no interest
1. Kecamatan Development Programme in Sleepy Tirtomoyo, Indonesia
2. Provides financial aid and water 3. Locals to dig wells to tap on underground water
sources and build pipelines.
1. Some countries in need might not voice out 2. Not agree to some of the ways they should handle
problems 3. Sudden rise of food prices in the world in January 2011,
countries like Thailand and Africa tended to impose import taxes on foreign goods to get money
4. Did not realise this selfish acts will only aggravate the malnutrition situation in the world
Asi
an D
evel
op
men
t
Ban
k
1. Alleviate development 2. Reduces poverty 3. Increases quality of life 4. 67 member countries in the
Asia-Pacific region 5. Monetary loans and
technical assistance.
1. Bridge of Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project of Bangladesh
2. Connects less developed northwestern region to more developed regions
3. Financial and technical support include roads, railways, gas pipelines and telecommunication lines
4. Less traffic congestion allows farmers to transport their produce to markets for sale.
1. Greater industrailisation from alleviating development 2. At the expense of degradation of the environment such
as deforestation, depletion of minerals, and environmental pollution
3. Global warming will be more fatal to the world than issues of poverty in the long run.
Inte
rnat
ion
al a
gree
men
ts
UN
Mill
enn
ium
Dev
elo
pm
ent
Go
als 1. International agreement
2. Other countries pledged their commitment
3. Aim to help LDCs get out of poverty by 2015
4. Encompass social, demographic and economic goals
1. Poverty and hunger-stricken Vietnam 2. Increased access to basic social services for the poor 3. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty
in the country 4. Pressure on the government to create jobs and
increase income
1. Conflicts of interest present 2. Most investments made in the country trap farmers and
their children to work on the farms with low wages 3. They cannot afford to send their children to schools for
education
UN
Co
nve
nti
on
on
th
e
Law
of
the
Sea
1. Adopted by more than 160 countries
2. Control usage of seas and oceans in the world for sustainable use them
3. So that they will not be depleted
1. Coastal LDC Peru 2. Fishing industry is important to its economy 3. Law disallows larger fishing boats from surrounding
DCs, that can spot and collect fish underwater easily, from fishing at Peru’s seas without permission
4. Allows the poor fishermen to make a living and maintain their livelihood
1. Landlocked countries like Bolivia in South America do not benefit from it
2. Allows other American countries to develop at a faster rate than it
3. Alleviation of development between LDCs and DCs would not be complete
7. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally
Social Demographic Economic Water supply and Sanitation Education Population control Job creation
Pla
n
Parivartan Slum Networking Programme in Ahmedabad of Gurjarat, India
Hill Tribe Education Project in Thailand One Child Policy in China KALAHI ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’
in the Philippines
Res
ult
s
Besides general underdeveloped characteristics, the area lacks basic minimum education and insufficient skills with low income and poor standard of living.
Water supply to individual households. Underground sewerage connection to
individual households. Toilets to individual households. Training was provided to teach
villagers proper usage of new facilities
Northern hill tribes like Karen and Yao were introduced to formal and informal education programmes to suit the needs of their communities.
A community learning centre was built in each village open to children and adults.
To promote literacy, the Thai language, Mathematics and life and social skills were taught.
The Chinese government discovered in the 1970s that there was an increasing rate of population growth that could result in overpopulation to hinder further development.
Therefore, the One Child policy was implemented to limit every couple to have only one child.
Volunteers were recruited to promote late marriages, late childbearing and teach proper contraception methods to keep birth rates low.
Fertility rates in China fell, especially in urban areas
Pro-poor policies were implemented to help more people set up and run small businesses, usually run by families.
The ultra-poor were given interest free loans and leadership and self-employment training to help them run businesses effectively.
The government also obliged banks to allocate part of their credit loans to be given to poor farmers and entrepreneurs.
Lim
ita
tio
ns
The slums were not developed on priority basis.
The slum networking basically deals with notified slum and not with the other poor settlements, and because of lack of funds the project could only be carried out in phases. It took 5 years for death rates to drop by almost half.
While it benefited some slums, majority are still deprived of clean water and sanitation facilities
Hill tribes live in small communities and in geographical isolation.
It is difficult for the government to reach out to the large population in the community.
Communication barriers between the hill tribes and lack of volunteer teachers have been time consuming and a great challenge to this project.
It is more difficult to implement this policy in the rural areas of China as couples in the region required more children for additional help their farms to make a living.
Many of the couples would want a son and hence tend to continue bearing until they succeeded in having a son.
With more males than females eventually, gender imbalance might not allow sufficient people to take care of the elderly in the future.
Products and skills of the poor not diversified as yet.
The poor requires greater market access in order to get more people to purchase their goods and services, as competition still exists among the poor.
More volunteers are needed to reach out to those living in areas that are difficult to reach.
TOPIC 2: GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD
1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution
LDCs Description Evidence DCs Description Evidence
Ch
angi
ng
foo
d p
refe
ren
ces
Less carbo-hydrates in diets
Mainly obtained from staple food making up important part of diet
Decreasing in proportion although still makes up large proportion
76% carbohydrates in 1971 to 1973 in LDCs
68% carbohydrates in 1999 to 2001 in LDCs
More healthy food
Increasing levels of health-consciousness
Moving away from high-fat products
Olive oil reducing risks of heart disease
Organic food found to be healthier choice
Though high consumption of meat
Proportion of fats in USA diet fell from 33% to 26% from 1950s to 2000
Consumption and imports of olive oil more than doubled from 1995 to 2005
Sales of organic food tripled over the last five years in UK
More non-staple food
More non-staple food like meat, fish and coffee
Consists largely of proteins and fats
More common in urban areas
5% to 10% proteins
10% to 15% fats from 1972 to 2000
High-fat diet urban China citizens from 33% to 61% 1991 to 1997
Larger variety of food
People in DCs becoming more exposed to different types of food around the world
Globalisation has increased due to faster transports and advanced communications
Fusion food popular
Asian person exposed to American fast food may choose to eat more bread or potato than rice
Thai food in UK, Mediterranean food in Canada is common
Americans introduced to sushi in the 1970s, LA chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi
Leve
ls o
f fo
od
co
nsu
mp
tio
n
LDCs consume less food than DCs
Poorest 20% in the world’s population
Consumes only about 5% of meat and fish in the world
Food consumption per capita of Africa
Lower than 2200 kCal/person/day
DCs consume more food than LDCs
Richest 20% in the world’s population
Consumes nearly half meat and fish in the world
Food consumption per capita of North America & Europe
Exceeds 3400 kCal/person/day
Increased food con-sumption in the world
Efforts to increase supply of food
Green revolution
General increase on amount of food consumed
Mid-1960s to 1990s
Sub Saharan African region
Increased by 137 kCal/person/day
Increased food con-sumption in the world
Efforts to increase supply of food
Green revolution
General increase on amount of food consumed
Mid-1960s to 1990s
East Asian region
Increased by 964 kCal/person/day
2. Reasons for variations of food production
Reason Description Examples Result
Aff
ord
abili
ty
Pu
rch
asin
g p
ow
er
People in DCs generally have higher incomes - Greater purchasing power - More likely to be able to buy enough food - Meet basic nutritional needs -Wider variety of food - LDCs improving financial conditions in urban areas by cumulative causation
East Asia food consumption - Increased 827 kCal/person/day more than Sub-Saharan Africa did - Mid-1960s to 1990s
High-fat diet urban China citizens - Increased 33% to 61% from 1991 to 1997
Greater consumption of food
Non-staple food, since more expensive, increasing in consumption than staple food in urban areas of LDCs
Sto
ck
pili
ng
DCs can set aside and store food - Economically well-to-do - Buy extra food and storage facilities - Control food supply in market - Less effect during crop failure or food disruption - Low risk
East Asian Emergency Rise Reserve (EAERR) started in 2004 - Member countries like Vietnam and Singapore contribute certain quantity of rice to a reserve - Used during emergencies like disasters
Improved food security
Better stability of food in DCs
DCs not self-sufficient able to tackle food emergencies
Stab
ility
of
foo
d s
up
ply
Co
nfl
icts
an
d r
iots
Conflicts among nations - Crops and livestock destroyed - Farmers abandon fields - Threaten food supply and security
Second Congo War in Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 - 3.6 million dead from starvation and easily preventable diseases
Unstable food supply
Lower food security - People unable to obtain enough food of acceptable quality and variety readily
Countries not self-sufficient like Singapore and Japan which rely on food imports affected adversely
Nat
ura
l ca
use
s Droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes - Wipe out entire harvests easily - Severe food shortages - Lower food supply
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - Destroyed much farmland and livestock in southwestern USA - Left people without food
Spread of bird flu in Asia in late 2003 - Over 20 million poultry destroyed by dying or being culled - Shortage of poultry meat
Acc
essi
bili
ty o
f fo
od
Tran
spo
rt
faci
litie
s Absence of transport facilities in LDCs - Hinder food distribution - Prevents access to food
Lack of transport routes especially in rural areas of LDCs and congestion in LDCs like India - Decrease time for transport
Landslides like those from 1999 Taiwan earthquake - May make some areas inaccessible
Lower levels of food consumption in LDCs
Temporary cut-off of ability to obtain food needed
But improvements and additions in transport - Cross rivers by bridges and mountains by planes
Glo
bal
isat
ion
Advancements in trans.comm - Increase exchange of information, ideas, cultures and values - Companies expand food business by opening outlets abroad
Americans were introduced to sushi in the 1970s
Los Angeles chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi with cucumber, cooked crabmeat and avocado
Larger variety of food in DCs
More healthy food in DCs
Increased food consumption in the world
But access in LDCs often limited to urban areas - where there are more food outlets and better transport and communications networks in place.
In China, it is easier to find restaurants and fast food chains offering wide variety of food - In cities like Shanghai - Compared to rural regions like Inner Mongolia.
Trad
e People have greater access to food from around the world - Trade barriers limit trade between countries - Access to food will be affected
UN prohibited countries from trading w/Iraq aft ‘91 Gulf War
Significant decrease in imports of food and farming inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides into Iraq
Variety of food minimised temporarily
Food supply affected slightly
Foo
d
ou
tlet
s Few places selling food in LDCs - Limited variety and quantity of food - Grown locally or imported from other countries based on globalisation
3. Impacts of Variations of Food consumption
Description Effects
Starvation 70% of most Sub-Saharan African countries like Somalia
People do not receive enough energy from their diet due to severe shortage of food
Poor harvest and low purchasing power are factors
Bodies become skeletally thin
Muscle tissues burnt for energy
Organs may become permanently damaged
Malnutrition
Late 1990s Davao City in the Philippines, widespread deficiencies in iodine, iron and Vitamin A - Slow growth for children and low energy for adults
People consume an imbalanced amount of nutrients over a period of time.
Anorexia nervosa, starving oneself forcibly, and bulimia, vomiting everything that was just eaten by a person, are factors relating to this, including low purchasing power
Bodies are weakened
Lower resistance to common illnesses
Damage to internal organs due to low vitamin D, calcium that result in poor teeth and deformed bones
Inevitable eventual death
Rickets and anaemia due to low iron levels
Obesity 400 million obese, USA has 32% adults obese
People consume much more nutrients than a body can use, body fat exceeds one-third of one’s weight
This can be attributed to growing affluence in LDCs
High blood pressure
Diabetes
Heart disease
4. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production
Effective Ineffective (*or problems)
Po
litic
al
Go
vern
men
t p
olic
ies
High technology farming - Aeroponics and hydroponics, more efficient, less pollution, higher out per unit area
Examples Limitations in fish catch (both sides) - Country’s amount and type of fish is regulated, fish caught limited, ensures enough fish in future
Examples
Oh Chin Huat farms, Singapore
European Union adopted Common Fisheries Policy
Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to help farmers resettle in new farm areas
Federal Land Development Authority, Malaysia
Bans on GM Food - Farmers will lose chance to increase income and food supply
Zambia rejected GM food imports, fear health impact
Tech
no
logi
cal
#G
M F
oo
d C
rop
s (L
OR
Ms)
Increases income for farmers - GM food crops are generally fresher and more resistant to pests and low rainfall
Pest resistant corns created with Bt, fewer crops damaged, more output, income
*Potential health risks - Some food substances may cause unknown allergies as they are not natural
Some people fear that they may unknowingly consume potatoes containing Lectin, which prevents successful aphid attacks.
GM Pea caused health problems in research mice.
Increases food supply - Some GM crops are able to produce higher outputs than non-GM
Super Rice produces double the output of normal rice
*Loss of biodiversity - More species become endangered and extinct, greater loss of variety of living things in an ecosystem
Monarch butterflies which fed on plants that were dusted with Bt corn pollen had larvae growing slower and dying at a faster rate than butterflies which did not, possibly affect animals higher up the food chain
Reduces environmental pollution - Pest-resistant GM Crops, less use of chemicals, like non-ozone-friendly ones
Lowa, USA, eutro-phication due to high amounts of fertilisers
Effective Ineffective (*or problems) Te
chn
olo
gica
l
^GM
Fo
od
Improves nutritional value - Nutrients and vitamins added to prevent common illnesses and diseases
Golden Rice enriched with beta-carotene, more Vitamin A, hinders blindness and death
*Loss of natural species - Some GM crops genetically pollute natural crops that are not GM, may result in superweeds
A herbicide-resistant strain of the Charlock weed was compatible to and therefore genetically polluted by herbicide-resistant rapeseed plant
Ch
emic
als
(G R
ev)
Fertilisers - Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth
*Eutrophication of water bodies - Excess fertilisers in water bodies cause rapid growth of algae, reducing oxygen supply
Lowa, USA, Algae grows rapidly on surface, blocking of oxygen and sunlight
Pesticides - Toxic chemicals destroying pests which affect crop growth
Arsenic is used by farmers in India to poison rats attacking rice crops
*Water pollution - Contaminates water bodies, reducing quality of water, harming aquatic plants and animals, and animals which consume them and the water
Distribution of drinking water from a dam near Rennes, France, was stopped by public health authorities due to pesticide contamination
Herbicides - Toxic chemicals destroying weeds competing for nutrients in the soil
*Imbalance of soil nutrients - Chemical fertilisers supply 2-3/>20 essential nutrients, which excludes humus, unable to restore nutrients loss, lowering soil fertility
Mo
der
n Ir
riga
tio
n (
G R
ev) Overcomes physical limitations -
Water is supplied to land through artificial means. Dams, canals divert water from rivers and reservoirs to farms.
Farmers in India, with seasonal, irregular rainfall, can grow 2 to 3 crops instead of 1 per year
*Salinisation of soil - Salts are built up within the soil through flood irrigation, use of dams and groundwater when water contains natural dissolved salts
Aswan High Dam across River Nile, Egypt, disrupts flow of water, causing minerals trapped in reservior to dissolve into water, salinity of soil will be too high for crop growth
Increases crop output - Automated irrigation systems may use water sprinklers and sluice gates to control water usage
Farmers in Turkey use spray irrigation, drip amounts of water just sufficient for healthy crop growth, save water
*Waterlogging - Too much water used in fields, soil becomes saturated with water - Air and nutrients unable to reach crops - They wither and die
Pakistan and India, farmers use excess water to deal with salinisation but this over-irrigates the fields
HYV
s (G
Rev
) Cross breeding a range of rice, wheat, cereal strains - More pest resistant or shorter growth durations, higher yield and outputs per unit area
China’s rice output >doubled from 1961 to 1992 & Indonesia’s rice output increased 80% from 1970 to 1990.
Sophisticated - Cultivation and maturing process complicated - Farmers unable to follow procedures accurately
Although cereal crops increased significantly in LDCs like Mexico and India, it has increased rural unemployment due to less manual labour needed
Expensive - Large quantities of chemicals have to be used - Less well-off farmers cannot afford
Blu
e R
ev.
Encourages fish farming - Farmers rear fish in ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions promoting growth instead of catching fish from oceans
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture in India - 500 hatcheries and laboratories - conduct research on species like prawns and carp - 30% of fish harvest is supplied commercially
Medicines and vaccines - Medicines and vaccines have to be used to improve the health & nutrition of fish since viruses can spread rapidly if present
Thousands of kilometres of destroyed in Philippines, Indonesia and Ecuador to create fish and shrimp farms *Destruction of coastal mangroves - Mangroves
are replaced by farms - coastal erosion more likely
Ineffective [*or effective of inverse (boxed up) ] Effective P
hys
ical
Rel
ief
*Steep relief - In this way, soil is better drained, for proper tea cultivation of certain crops
Tea plantations are a common sight in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia
Gentle and flat - Soil erosion less likely, nutrients not lost easily, land remains fertile - Tractors and harvesters operated with ease - No labour needed for terraces
Canadian Prairies, Canada, farming
Soil erosion - In some countries that experience snow or earthquakes with steep relief - Nutrients is soil are washed away during soil erosion - Arable land is not enough for people to grow land to meet nutritional needs.
Nutrients in soil is washed away by constant melting snow and heavy rainfall in certain parts in the Himalayas, Andes. Two-thirds of total households suffer from malnutrition.
Soil
Fertility of soil - Floodplains, river deltas with large amounts of air, water essential for plant growth and nutrients like phosphorus, iron and zinc to help plant growth - Near volcanoes with ash rich in minerals
Volcanic ash deposited around Mount Mayon, Philippines, from time to time cause soil around the area to be fertile, favourable for cultivation of crops as less fallowing time is needed
Type of soil - Different types of soil are required by different types of crops
Wet rice is more likely to be found on floodplains and river deltas and wet and clayey soil is found. Bangladesh farmers grow wet rice on a flooded field and are able to produce two or more successive crops in the same year.
Clim
ate
*Low temperature and rainfall (cool and dry climate) - Temperature regions enable crops like wheat and potatoes to grow without too much water and fish like salmon to grow and reproduce well.
In Hunza, Pakinstan, potatoes are grown largely in farms where they are 2000m above sea level. Salmon farms are popular in Ireland and USA.
High temperature and rainfall (hot and wet) - Output is higher is general as conditions are favourable for plant growth.
Soci
al
Land
Frag
ment
ation
Father divides land into smaller plots equally among children traditionally - Resultant plots very small over generations - Limited output - Unprofitable for expensive machines
China and Korea, land fragmentation, more labour required, productivity low
Land
Ten
ure Farmers usually do not own land they
farm in LDCs - By governments or landlords - Farmers to give much of harvest - Little motivation for farmers to improve farming methods
Brazil, landlords make up 2% of population but own 42% of the land
Eco
no
mic
Dem
and
High demand for food - Encourage food producers to increase their output and productivity - More employment and more money is earned
Coffee is high in demand for ~25 mil people in LDCs, hence Brazil has many coffee plantations. 200 new employees are employed every day worldwide for this purpose.
Cap
ital
Large amount of capital - Needed for farming machines, fertilisers, pesticides, sonar for fish detection - More money to start or expand food production - Loans let farmers upgrade farming methods
Successful large-scale capital investments by the European Union in member countries have seen massive food surpluses of wheat, sugar beet, butter and wine being produced.
TOPIC 3: THE INDUSTRIAL WORLD
1. Types of Industries
Industry Examples Capital In. Labour In.
Primary Directly involved with natural resources Fishing, forestry, farming, mining Pay More Less
Secondary Processing and transforming raw materials obtained from
primary industries or packaging of manufactured goods Light Heavy Capital intensive Labour intensive Capital Mac, Tech People
TV sets Oil refineries Garments, Toys Workers Less More
Tertiary Selling and exchanging good and services (may be basic or premium) Banking, education, tourism, healthcare People Low High
Quaternary Handling, processing information & knowledge, developing new products R&D, education, consultancy, bank « IT Produce
2. Factors affecting Industrial Location
Terms and Conditions Examples
Ph
ysic
al
Lan
d Space in which people carry out their activities Singapore, Jurong industrial estate
Level land, Manufacturing industries China, Chengdu airframe plant
11 km from city
Levelness of land
Price of land (away from city)
Congestion of activities (away from city)
Size of land
Raw
M. Naturally occuring or partially processed physical substances used as inputs for production or manufacturing
Weight-losing industries closer to their bulkier raw materials (in comparison to the finished products)
Perishable raw materials (tins) more likely to be located near food processing industries for freshness
Thailand, Kanchanaburi Province,
Tin and tungsten industries
Near ore extraction points
Ener
gy Power needed to run machines, including computers, lighting and air-conditioning Switzerland, Swiss Alps
Melting glaciers, Hydroelectricity,
Aluminium smelting and electrochemical plants Steady rate of flow of energy
Properness of infrastructure
Distance from energy source
Nature of energy source (wind, water)
Hu
man
C
apit
al Financial resources needed to set up and run a business or industry
Cost of buildings and machinery
Availability of loans from banks and financial institutions
Singapore, AMK & Ubi
Pre-built flatted factories
Provide companies space, saving money and time
Lab
ou
r Group of workers employed to run operations, normally paid wages
Readily available, low-cost labour, usually found in LDCs where the demand for pay is relatively lower
Distance away from source of labour for collaboration Higher productivity levels of the company
South Korea, Sewon company
Relocated manufacturing activities to China
S$7000 yearly worker wages saved
Mar
ket Group of individuals or businesses who have a demand for certain services or products
Weight-gaining industries closer to their markets to save costs and time from transportation
Perishable products (fish, sugar, meat) and fragile products (porcelain) more likely to be located near markets for freshness and ensuring good condition respectively
Japan, Toyota Motor Corporation
Factories all around the world to cater to local markets
Raw materials obtained from other factories in the world like wheels from Canadian Autoparts TIF
NOTE: “Factors influencing location of NIEs” and “Challenges
faced by electronics industries of NIEs” will NOT be discussed.
Terms and Conditions Examples H
um
an
Go
vern
men
ts Group of people who looks into the way a country is run
Decides on types of industries suitable for economy as well as location and extent of growth (e.g. to prevent pollution)
Financial incentives like tax exemptions or bank loans with low interest rates
Singapore Secondary - Jurong Island for petrochemical industries Quaternary - Biopolis biomedical research hub - Worldwide research organisations Incentive packages - 1970/80s - Japanese electronics companies attracted to invest - Further industrialisation
*Tr
ansp
ort
Movement of goods and people from one place to another through the use of vehicles
If efficient it will decrease the hassle of weight-losing/gaining industries in deciding how far to locate from raw materials and markets
Goods exported & delivered to countries worldwide
Enables workers to get to work fast
Kenya and Europe
36 hours to transport flowers from the fields of Kenya to the markets of Europe
Chicago, USA
Well-connected transport systems with network of buses, trains and taxis with two major airports
*Te
chn
olo
gy
Knowledge, skills and tools people use to meet their needs
Energy electricity can be transferred by electricity over long distances with electromagnetic induction technology
Cheaper and faster transport and communications
USA and India Companies in the USA employ workers in India to provide business functions and handle company phone calls without the need for branches in India
3. Trends of Transference
Definition Description of trend
Global shift in locations of large-scale manufacturing activities and the resulting change in types of industries from the 1960s to 1990s
1960s High labour costs in DCs and incentives in LDCs
Manufacturing industries move out of DCs and LDCs
1970-80s Capital replaced labour intensive industries in some LDCs due to growth trade, investment and technology
1980-90s LDCs became wealthier and more educated
More technological industries
Required more specialised knowledge and skills and more expensive equipment
Mid 1990s
More companies outsourcing, contracted out parts of production process to other companies
Companies could now operate in more than one country
4. Characteristics of NIEs
Shift terms Evidences of NIEs doing so Evaluation
Manufacturing share of GDP
NIEs developing rapidly with
manufacturing industries take a
significant share of at least 20% GDP
1. High proportion of GDP from manufacturing industries - New NIEs like China vels of GDP contribution from manufacturing - of the industries still has room for improvement from manufacturing is falling - Mature NIEs - Less intensive industries - Service sector expanding
2. Still relatively low le Economic development
3. GDP contribution
labour-
Share of total employment in manufacturing
Percentage share of employment in manufacturing
industry of NIE Brazil’s total employment
Time lapse: 1950 to 1980
NIEs have seen their manufacturing sectors expand rapidly over the last few decades. This growth in manufacturing also means that the level of employment in industries and its share of total employment in NIEs has risen accordingly.
Percentage increase: 14.1% to 23.9%
Rising share of manufactures in visible exports
Share of world’s merchandise exports
of first-tier NIEs
Time lapse: 1970 to 2003
This shows that NIEs have huge growth in manufacturing industries - Major exporters of manufactured products - Caters the output of for both local market and international market
Percentage increase: 2% to 4%
Fast growth in real per capita income
Annual per capita income of South Korea increased
Time lapse: 1963 to 2007
With the success in their industrialisation process - Wealth generated by each person in NIEs increases - NIEs generate more economic wealth - Able to narrow gap between themselves and DCs
Percentage increase: US$100 to US$24 500
5. Reasons for Trends of Transference
Reasons Description Examples
Competitive advantages Advantages (e.g. market, labour government and literacy rates) one location has over another for the production of a good or provision of a service
Market
Expansion of towns and facilities draws rural migrants to urban centres seeking for better standard of living, allowing them to be exposed to the variety and availability of goods and services
Economies of China and India has been growing rapidly - Middle class markets predicted to rise from the current 50 million people to 250 million in 2015
Labour
Larger populations with low standard and cost of living in LDCs - Lower labour costs as people will not demand higher wages - Companies can keep their prices competitive and maximise profits
The large pool of available workers in Sri Lanka may expect to be paid US$0.48 per hour while US factory workers with the same skills may expect to be paid US$19.76 per hour, hence cheaper for labour-intensive industries.
Growth of agri-business and agro technology increases efficiency of the primary sector with more mechanization and less labour intensive
80 Indian agricultural businesses invested in Ethiopia with the support of the government, supplying them with the capital and
technology to raise crops then sold to India - More lucrative
Govern- ment
Government policy and incentives like tax exemption and large loan redemption encourage growth of the industrial sector, leading to job opportunities
Malaysian federal policy enforces Promotion of Investments Act - Projects involving heavy investments, use of high technology - May be completely exempted from income tax - Foreign firms may be allowed to borrow up to RM 10 million from financial institutions
Education More education facilities resulting in higher adult literacy rates cause a greater development of skills relevant to urban activities
Space shrinking technologies Technologies reducing time and cost of moving raw materials, goods and people over long distances
Transport
Advancements in technology of transport like commercial jet aircrafts and cargo ships helped decrease time travel between countries for conventions and goods to be transported quickly from one place to another
With the current development of the jet engine, travel from London to Bangkok could be completed in ten hours with a capacity of 400 passengers
Contai- nerisation
Use of standard-sized containers to hold goods - Loading and unloading of goods is now faster and more efficient compared to the previous slow and laborious manual process, shortening time that ships have to dock at a port
Industries in Japan did not have to be located near or at sources of raw materials - Iron and steel plants were able to remain at their locations despite the depletion of iron and coal resources there - Due to huge markets and containerisation for imports
Communications Transmission of information from one individual or group to another
Internet technology such as e-mail and video-conferencing have allowed faster communication between countries. Headquarters of industries are better able to monitor and coordinate with their branches found in LDCs.
Optical fibre systems made up of glass can transmit digitised voices, videos or computer signals at extremely high speeds has largely increased the speed of communication.
Outsourcing Production of components or goods away from a company’s main operation, often overseas to another company
Large firms place orders with smaller companies to produce particular goods or components at a set price and quality - Outsourcing in areas of low labour costs - Lower costs of assemblage of raw materials, lower taxes and greater speed than the main manufacturing plants - Parent company may become an assembly point for outsourced companies.
Outsourcing of machine parts for USA’s aerospace industry involves manufacturing in Mexico, where labour costs are lower. Delivery time of finished products is now faster.
Increasing number of European, Canadian and Australian companies are outsourcing parts of their production like textile manufacturing to Chinese manufacturers
6. Strategies for sustainable growth
Strategy Success Example Limitations
Managing depleting resources
The United Nations has implemented policies and guidelines to regulate land use and manage land resources, as well as promote sustainable human settlement development.
The UN works with India to reduce deterioration of urban areas and the disappearance of natural vegetation and environments caused by population growth of two per cent each year and the steady migration of people into cities.
NIEs are constantly competing fiercely with other countries that are rapidly industrialising as well
Some NIEs like India face a shortage of component parts from local sources
Easy to neglect such measures due to tough competition.
Recycling
Recycling can be effective as efforts by many government authorities and organisations have now placed greater emphasis on reducing wastage of materials used such as e-waste.
Many recycling plants can convert waste into useful materials like waste paper, cans, plastic.
In Bangalore, India, Ash Recyclers adopt methods to reduce, reuse and recycle e-waste, ensuring that industrial development there is environmentally compatible.
Difficult to manage with rapid industrialisation and urbanisation as the rate of wastage is very high.
Illegal dumping is generally the easy way out for waste disposal.
Sometimes much cheaper to dump wastes rather than sort and recycle waste materials.
E-waste, if not discarded properly, may be environmentally hazardous.
Appropriate technology
Use of appropriate technology is effective as the technological advancements have helped to minimise potentially damaging human activities on the environment.
Tax holidays and infrastructure provisions from TNCs can also encourage further investment, expansion of electronics industry and proper use of suitable technology
In Jharia coalfield of India, contemporary techniques such as the use of remote sensing has helped to locate coal deposits more accurately so as to reduce the scale of mining and the degree of environmental
Expensive and governments may not spend money on such technology as the money could be spent on other industrial activities.
In India, mining of minerals like coal, iron ore and copper has still generated excessive amounts of waste and caused environmental degradation instead.
damage. Kualiti Alam, a private toxic
waste disposal facility in Penang, Malaysia, collects toxic waste from the state’s major companies.
Social responsibility and education
Various TNCs play a role in ensuring efficient production and minimal emission of pollutants.
Companies can engage in R&D for efficient production methods and to develop better and more effective means of production.
Training and employment of local workers at all levels of production, as well as education in schools, will also play a part in extending this form of education.
Penang’s Skills Development Corporation of Malaysia oversees training courses for thousands of employees in the high-tech industry, enabling many to move into better paid positions.
However, the high costs of such R&D may deter some companies from social responsibility of finding more effective means of production.
Governments may be unwilling to provide incentives like tax subsidies to encourage such forms of research and development
The money may be better spent to tackle problems of infrastructure such as a unsteady energy supply and heavy daily traffic congestions
TOPIC 4: TOURISM 1. Terminologies
Disposable income Amount of money left for an individual to spend or be put aside as savings after taxes of which usage is influenced by economic conditions of a country
Leisure time Time available outside the demands of work or duty
Changing lifestyle Evolution of the way a person or a group chooses to live including patterns of social relations, consumption, work, entertainment and dressing
2. Reasons for growth of tourism
Description Examples
Dem
and
Le
isu
re
tim
e
With greater industrialisation, quality of life of people improves in both DCs and LDCs - More time is available for the average worker for leisure activities - People with more leisure time can take longer breaks and may be more inclined to travel.
Government ministries in Singapore have adopted the five- day work week - People may take opportunity to go on weekend trips to neighbouring countries. Average of four weeks of paid vacation for most employees in DCs like Australia, New Zealand and countries in the European Union.
Ch
angi
ng
lifes
tyle
People become better educated and well-informed - Fast-paced lifestyle - Stress gives reasons to travel to relax - Avenue for self-discovery - See places they learn about from books and mass media - More interested in interacting with people from other cultures - Different types of tourism result
Volunteer tourism where tourists spend their vacation doing volunteer work like building houses for the poor is growing as charity organisations like Habitat for Humanity help to organise such trips.
Dis
po
sab
le
inco
me
As the economic conditions improve in many countries around the world, people generally earn higher incomes and have more disposable income. With an increase in disposable income, there is more money available to spend on a luxury of leisure activities. Thus, the means to travel may increase as well.
Sup
ply
A
me
nit
ies
Att
rac-
tio
ns Presence of attractions within a country generally encourages international
and domestic tourism - Attracts visitors from other countries and allows locals to gain varied experiences conveniently
China has a variety of attractions, such as the Great Wall in Beijing, the ancient city of Dali in Yunnan and Mount Everest in Tibet
Faci
li-
ties
Facilities in a country like play a part in attracting tourists - Tourists more likely to travel to a place where there is a wide variety of facilities like hotels, restaurants and shops to choose from
Whole range of accommodation made available to suit tourists on different budgets from backpackers’ inns to high-end luxury hotels in Singapore
Acc
es-
sib
ility
Well-developed transport network - Comprises roads, tracks, railways, shipping lanes and other marked pathways - Facilitate movement from one place to another - Ensures arrival at a destination in the shortest time possible - International transport
Singapore - Transportation hub - Good transport network comprising land, sea and air routes - Mass Rapid Transit lines run all across the island - Large fleets of buses, make it easy to travel around the country.
Aff
ord
a-b
ility
In recent years, air travel has become cheaper, especially with the entry of low-cost carriers offering low ticket prices as these carriers do not automatically provide passenger services that are offered on flights of conventional ones.
A round trip between Perth and Singapore costs as little as S$400, compared to more than S$600 previously with low-cost carriers like Air Asia, Tiger Airways.
NOTE: “Importance of tourism to a country’s industry”, “Specific
impacts of growth of tourism” and “Role of tour operators and
tourists” will NOT be discussed.
Description Examples Su
pp
ly
Serv
ices
Su
bsi
dia
ry Marketing, reservation and coordination among the different tour agencies
operating within a country
Tourism board set up to promote tourism and help coordinate efforts
Singapore Visitors Centre - Conveniently at major tourist area Orchard Road - Provides information like travel routes, transport modes and attractions available to help tourists with queries.
Qu
alit
y
Quality service would leave a favourable impression on tourists. Pleasant experiences might prompt tourists to make repeat visits or even recommend the country to their friends.
Governments of countries also encourage service providers in the tourism industry to provide quality service to attract tourists.
Important as more countries are competing for a share of the tourism market
Hotel and retail management worldwide are sending staff for training or hiring consultants to help train employees. Singapore Tourism Board rolled out the Go-the-Extra-Mile-for-Service (GEMS) movement in 2003, which is a national effort aimed at improving service levels among service providers in the country.
Oth
ers
Med
ia p
reva
len
ce
Att
ract
ive
adve
rtis
ing
A country or place may promote itself as a favoured tourist destination by advertising through the various media. Advertisements may be on television, radio, top of taxi cabs or on sides of buses to reach a wider audience.
A bus stop can be been turned into an eye-catching advertisement for the Singapore Zoological Gardens.
Some places may market themselves using their association with popular movies or television shows, as fans of these movies or shows may be interested in visiting the filming locations.
Korea’s tourism industry exploited the success of such shows by promoting filming locations to tourists as tourist destinations - Mini-series ‘Jewel in the Palace’ was filmed in different parts of Korea - Turned filming location of Yangjoo in Gyunggi into a theme park to draw fans of the series
Ava
ilab
ility
o
f in
fo Through the media, readers and viewers may get information on places
and their attractions.
Advancements in IT has helped make information more readily available and accessible, keeping them available and up-to-date.
Useful information like local weather and local cuisine may be found on the Internet and in travel guides - Places of interest and popular shopping or eating spots recommended - Planning holidays are easier
Trav
el
bo
oki
ng Travel booking is now made easier with technology.
Travel arrangements can be easily made via phone bookings or by fax.
Transport and accommodation can usually be arranged through the use of IT as well, for example, through Internet bookings.
Mee
tin
g an
d
con
ven
tio
ns
With increased globalisation, business travel in the form of attending meetings and conventions has also been making an impact on the growth of global tourism by Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions (MICE) travel.
Often, these events are held at different venues in different countries. Business travellers may make use of the opportunity to take a holiday.
International Monetary Fund meeting and World Bank convention are held annually at various venues - Singapore in 2006 - Delegates from all over the world discuss issues related to world finance - Before and during the period of the convention, many hotels will be fully booked - F&B and retail sector, usually experience better sales.
Red
uct
ion
of
po
litic
al b
arri
ers
Erosion of political barriers
Boosted tourist travel into and out of countries which previously had strict travel restrictions
Citizens of these countries are also discovering tourism themselves and heading abroad for holidays
Collapse of the ‘Iron Curtain’ - Increased tourism in countries in Eastern Europe - Tourists from other parts of the world can now explore Eastern Europe more freely
European Union - Single market between member states with a common trade policy and currency - EU citizens are allowed to freely invest, live, travel, and work in other member states - Encouraged domestic travel for EU citizens.
3. Possible approach to assess the impacts of tourism in LDCs, asked as LORMs
Positive Negative
Eco
no
mic
Tourism being a tertiary industry provides economic benefits in the form of the creation of jobs and the boosting of the local economy through earnings from foreign exchange.
Since tourism is a service industry, it is labour-intensive, hence many jobs are created in the hotels, food outlets, retail trade and transport services.
When tourists purchase local goods, they spend money and there is a flow of foreign exchange into the developing country, which can be used to pay for the construction of amenities such as roads and infrastructure.
Economic problems arise when money borrowed to develop tourism may cause debts as some profits may be ploughed back into the foreign companies.
Social problems arise when there are behaviorial and drug smuggling activities, leading to a loss of local traditions and culture.
Production of commercial souvenirs may destroy traditional craft industries.
Enviro
nm
en
tal So
cial
Social benefits are such that locals can use new facilities if they can afford them like golf courses, theme parks.
There is also social contact between the locals and foreigners, giving rise to cultural exchange.
However, environmental degradation may result as habitats of flora and fauna are destroyed as vegetation is cleared to make way for development projects like building roads, hotels, shopping centres.
Pollution occurs when rapid development and tourists leave rubbish behind as their waste disposal systems are not well developed yet.
Socio
-eco
no
mic
In conclusion, tourism brings more benefits than problems because it is a viable solution to boost economic growth by bringing in much-needed foreign exchange and creating jobs for the many unemployed. However, the developing country must take care in conserving their natural habitats or they might disappear with rapid
development. Only when they have reached a developed stage, then will they have the resources to attend to the environmental problems.
4. Measures to tackle side effects of growth
Effective Examples Ineffective Examples
Pla
nn
ing
auth
ori
ties
Local governments or national government agencies - Control rate and scale of development in tourist areas - Authorities may restrict tourism development and visitor numbers - High-value, low-volume tourism maximises economic benefits and minimise environmental damage.
North Sulawesi, Indonesia - Bunaken National Marine Park - Scuba diving spot - Banned use of cyanide and dynamite for fishing - Tourists required to pay an entrance fee - 30 per cent is channelled to local community - Ensure continued tourist arrivals in the long term
Some countries face difficulties enforcing laws and regulations on proper tourist behaviour - Planning authorities in LDCs lack sufficient funds to employ park rangers to patrol protected reserves, or to train more park personnel
Malaysia Gunung Mulu National Park - Penang became form of attraction - Nomadic Penang people displaced - Lost rights to live and use natural resources - Resettled into longhouses in designated locations - Changed their traditional customs and lifestyles
No
n-g
ove
rnm
enta
l o
rgan
isat
ion
s
Usually run by independent private non-profit groups - Regularly conduct research and evaluate whether an area will be subjected to potential harm by tourists - If area is under threat of development by government corporations, NGOs may conduct campaigns, petitions or protests to exert pressure on them
WWF is concerned with conserving the natural environments and ensuring the sustainable use of renewable natural resources.
The Nature Society in Singapore has worked successfully to protect mangrove and bird populations in Sunge Buloh.
However, governments and society may not treat NGOs with the appropriate degree of importance.
Suggestions may not be taken up and the policies may not be implemented.
Hence NGOs’ efforts come to nothing and are ineffective.
There may also be a lack of funds and expertise to carry out research.
Public support may be inadequate as there is a lack of awareness of NGOs amongst the public.
5. Sustainable tourism
Successes Examples Limitations Examples
Eco
tou
rism
Res
po
nsi
ble
tra
vel t
o n
atu
ral a
rea
s co
nse
rves
th
e en
viro
nm
ent
an
d im
pro
ves
wel
l-b
ein
g o
f lo
cal p
eop
le
Much effort is put in to minimise volume of waste generated and using recycled materials.
Ecotourism activities normally are conducted in small groups.
Revolve around places under careful management of authorities.
These contribute to the economy and development of local community.
Phang Nga Bay in Thailand is popular for sea canoe rowing to explore of limestone caves.
Each canoe is led by a local guide educating tourists about the place, providing employment to the people.
As the canoes are not motorised, there is no water or noise pollution, maximising conservation.
Some profess trips to be ecotourism in nature carelessly
Lack of regulations to protect ecotourism places may result in disturbances of peace to ecosystem
In Gabon, west central Africa, frequent hunting and poaching of elephants and gorillas occur due to its variety of wildlife and low levels of law regulation.
Many escape not liable to the damage inflicted on the natural environment.
Many tour guides in ecotourism are reluctant to impose rules of correct behaviour if they see it as a way to gain more income.
Sustainability of Kampong Kuantan mangroves of Malaysia threatened when tour guides replaced small boats with motor boats and some allowed tourists to catch fireflies in the region.
Many previously untouched natural environments have been opened up as alternatives.
Mass of human activities threaten sustainability of these environments.
Forests in Zanzibar, Tanzania, allow visitors to get close to the surroundings while causing minimal impact, but increase in visitors expose sensitive environments to human activity.
Co
mm
un
ity
bas
ed
to
uri
sm
Sup
po
rt b
y lo
cal p
op
ula
tio
n in
ca
rryi
ng
ou
t to
uri
sm in
th
e
cou
ntr
y in
stea
d o
f a
ffec
tin
g th
em n
ega
tive
ly
Tour operators and government authorities may consult the local community on tourism projects.
Work towards agreeing on guidelines to manage the impacts of tourism on communities
National Tourism Authority of Lao and Phou Khoa Khouay nature reserves management conduct meetings with local communities regularly
To make decisions and evaluate views on various tourist projects.
If certain parties fail to share in the ideals of community-based tourism, the environment and livelihood of others may be jeopardised.
Communities may still lack the knowledge to manage the development of tourism in a sustainable manner even though they participate in sustainable tourism
In Phuket, Thailand, locals are reported to have hunted down gibbons in their natural habitat to train them as performers for tourists.
Many tourists think that these endangered animals are bred for the tourism industry, and the locals do not feel the need to dispel this view.
Local people can be trained to take control over tourist activities like jungle excursions and home stays.
Enables the local community to promote their authentic culture and heritage.
Villagers in Northwest Province, Cameroon, earn income as guides for visiting tourists through NGO Heritage Tours Cameroon
More jobs and money to improve facilities and living conditions of the people
Tourists likely to have used up most of expenditure on air travel or on foreign tour operators.
Less revenue for local communities to earn from tourists as compared to mass tourism.
Small portion of a expenditure goes to the local community.
Revenue insufficient to fund certain community-based tourism projects.
Visitors who embark on community-based tourism without a good understanding of what it involves may also have unrealistic expectations of their trips.
They may become dissatisfied with the conditions of the rural settings and make unreasonable demands to the people there, resulting in conflict with the local communities.
Importance of tourism to a country’s industry
Impacts of growth of tourism
Positive economic impacts Examples Negative economic impacts Examples
Contribution to revenue
[1] Revenue source for the treasury from tourist spending in the form of taxes on goods and services levied at point of spending
[1] Profits earned from tourists might go to foreign owners of tour companies and hotels instead of local workers
[2] Leakage and outflow of money and development opportunities from the destination country to other countries
Loss of income and development
Infrastructure development
[1] Multiplier effect of infrastructure built to serve the tourists like roads
[2] Locals greater transport facilities [3] More places of interests to go for
recreation [4] Speed up movement of goods and
services within the country
[1] Tourism requires large capital input to develop the industry
[2] Such as building hotels and transport networks
High infrastructure costs
Foreign investment
[1] Increase in foreign investors when they like the country they have visited
[2] Multiplier effect of tourist spending as more jobs and business transactions are created
[1] Influx of tourists leads to competition for local demand for basic goods and services
[2] An increase in prices of goods and services to tourists and the locals
Increase in prices
Job creation Singapore F1 Grand Prix
Thailand Unequal development of industries
NOTE: “Importance of tourism to a country’s industry”, “Specific impacts of growth of tourism” and “Role of
tour operators and tourists” will NOT be discussed. However, here are the remains of the section of notes I
gave up on. Just if you want to make your own notes on them. At least most of it came out last year.
Positive social and cultural impacts Examples Negative social and cultural impacts Examples
Exchange of values
[1] Presence of tourists provides opportunity for interaction between tourists and local people
[2] Promotes better understanding of cultures and social practices
[1] Development of pseudo culture [2] To meet demands for tourist souvenirs,
traditional craft will die naturally [3] People in the country will turn to machines to
fashion and produce souvenirs
Pseudo culture
Preservation of heritage
and customs
[1] Locals become more aware of their heritage as tourists show interest in their local culture and history
[2] Encourage the preservation of cultural, historical traditions and buildings and sites
[1] Shop keepers raise the prices of goods as tourist have more spending power
[2] Locals end up having to pay on par with tourists
[3] May lead to resentment of locals against the richer visitors
Increase in prices and economic inequality
Improvement of standard
of living
[1] Employment in the tourist industry [2] Locals can afford luxury goods [3] Standard of living of people improves
Increase in crime rates
Loss of local identity and culture
Positive environmental impacts Examples Negative environmental impacts Examples
Conservation of natural
areas
Environmental degradation
Measures to tackle side effects of growth
Effective Examples Ineffective
Tour operators
Tour operators act as intermediaries between tourists and service providers in tourist areas - Can help local communities make preparations for visitor arrivals, provide feedback on their service standards, and to improve the sustainability of their activities - Encourages tour operators to brief tourists on responsible behaviour - Maintains healthy interactions between tourists and local communities
International Tourism Partnership - Practical guidelines for hotels - Conserve energy and water - Educate guests and staff on environmental management - Means for guests for involvement in local community development projects - Tourists can purchase local products and employ local people where possible
Tour operators work with hotels and transport services to provide employment and generate revenue by acting as frequent points of contact between tourist and destination. Long-term success of tourism rely on the concept that economic gains should not be the only motivation for businesses.
Tourists - - -
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