Ancient Egypt: Power and Permeability
Natufians Catal Hoyuk Sumer and city-states Akkadian Empire
Babylonian Empire
Mesopotamia
Ancient EgyptPredynastic Early Dynastic Old Kingdom
Middle Kingdom New Kingdom
c. 3200 c. 2000 bce
Memphis
Thebes
Lower Egypt
Upper Egypt
Herakleopolis
First Intermediate Period
Nome
Nomarch
Predynastic: c. 3500 bce – 3100 bceEarly Dynastic: c. 3100 bce – 2686 bce
-Narmer and first unificationOld Kingdom: 2686 bce – 2181 bceFirst Intermediate Period: 2181 bce – 2055 bce
-rise of HerakleopolisMiddle Kingdom: 2055 bce – 1650 bceSecond Intermediate Period: 1650 – 1550 bceNew Kingdom: 1550 bce – 1069 bce
-Akhenaten and Atenism
This is the Narmer Palette (c. 3100 bce), which is commonly interpreted as depicting Narmer’s unification of lower and upper Egypt. With this unification began the Early Dynastic Period. For the next two thousand years, Egyptian history would frequently be shaped by the struggles between monarchs (“Pharaohs”) like Narmer, who fought for a unified Egyptian state and centralized power, and nomarchs, who often were a force for the “decentralization” of power, as they wanted to retain control of their respective nomes.
How was unification achieved, according to this palette? Violence is a clear and obvious answer, but are there any others?
Literacy rate from Old Kingdom to New Kingdom:
somewhere between 1 – 5%With different potential “levels” of literacy, and literacy (very, very) slowly spreading
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy rate.
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy rate.2. Concentrated power
Statue of Djoser, monarch c. 2670 bce
Statue of Khufu, monarch c. 2590 bce Statue of Ramesses II, monarch c. 1280 bce
Illustrations of Egyptian Creation Myths
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy rate.2. Concentrated power3. Elaborate religious mythology which, until Akhenaten’s attempt at changing it, was
polytheistic
Djoser Step Pyramid, c. 2600bce
Mastaba, or “house for eternity”-existed during Naqada culture and predynastic period
Khufu Pyramid, c. 2500 bce
Abu Simbel, c. 1300 bce
How might this combination of factors help explain the creation of monumental architecture (yes, including the pyramids), which was done under the command of and for use by elite rulers?
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy
rate.2. Concentrated power3. Elaborate religious mythology which, until Akhenaten’s attempt at changing
it, was polytheistic
Papyrus of Ani – Negative Confessions
Immortality and the afterlife were pivotal ideas within Egyptian religious mythology. What might have occurred these ideas intersected with concentrated power, an emphasis on language, and a low literacy rate?
Boat of Pharaoh Khufu
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy
rate.2. Concentrated power3. Elaborate religious mythology which, until Akhenaten’s attempt at changing
it, was polytheistic
Examples of a complex theory of the afterlife, with immortality initially only accessible to those with intellectual and material privileges.
Thoth, a god believed to have invented writing
Statue of Scribe Nykara and His Family, ca. 2455– 2350B.C.E. [Old Kingdom], Brooklyn Museum
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy
rate.2. Concentrated power3. Elaborate religious mythology which, until Akhenaten’s attempt at changing
it, was polytheistic
“direct your heart to writing…nothing excels writing”-Satire of the Trades, Middle Kingdom
How might this combination of factors help explain the spiritual power attributed to writing, as well as the earthly power attributed to “scribes”?
Some crucial concepts in Egyptian intellectual/religious life:
• Ma’at – the divinely authorized “order,” “justice,” or “peace” the universe. All Pharaohs responsible for keeping it.
• Ka - the divine energy or life force that flowed through the universe and especially through the Pharaoh, which he breathed into all things on behalf of the gods Re & Osiris.
• Ba – the unique qualities of each individual “soul’ or “spirit”
Some defining aspects of Egyptian civilization:1. An emphasis on the power of language and text, combined with a low literacy
rate.2. Concentrated power3. Elaborate religious mythology which, until Akhenaten’s attempt at changing
it, was polytheistic
How might some of these concepts assist in the concentration of power? How might some of these concepts undermine the concentration of power?How do these concepts relate to the ideas of fluidity and permeability?
“Magic Knife,”, ca. 1769 – 1630 B.C.E. [Middle Kingdom], Brooklyn Museum
Some examples of permeability in Egyptian culture
This object, when touched to certain parts of the body, was believed to promote health inviting positive spirits into the body
A person’s “ba” leaving the body. The ba, or individual spirit, was believed to be able to fly between the realm of the living and the realm of the dead.
I have heard those songs that are in the ancient tombs,And what they tellExtolling life on earth and belittling the region of the dead.Wherefore do they thus, concerning the land of eternity,The just and the fair,Which has no terrors?
Wrangling is its abhorrence; no man there girds himself against his fellow.It is a land against which none can rebel.All our kinsfolk rest within it, since the earliest day of time;The offspring of millions are come hither, every one.For none may tarry in the land of Egypt,None there is who has not passed yonder.
The span of earthly things is as a dream;But a fair welcome is given him who has reached the West.
“Harper’s Song,” believed to promote passage into immortality
Another example of permeability: Song and Speech
Beginning in the Old Kingdom, elites tried to promote the idea that immortality was a privilege reserved for a select few. Over time, though, non-elites began to assert their own ability to access the permeable realm.
A commonly held, although also commonly debated, opinion among Egyptologists is that by the New Kingdom, while few regular citizens could afford to build elaborate pyramids for themselves, many began to pay to be buried in coffins that were covered in sacred texts—such as the Negative Confessions--that would help them navigate the afterlife.
Power and Permeability
Akhenaten worshipping Light, Relief from altar, Amarna Period, ca. 1350 bce
The pharaoh Akhenaten (New Kingdom, reign: c. 1354 – 1336 bce), however, attempted to put and end to this proliferation of gods, goddesses, and cults. He decide that only one god, Aten, should be worshipped. He even went so far as to outlaw other religions and make “Atenism” the mandatory state religion. His efforts would ultimately fail, but it is potentially one of the earliest examples of monotheism, as well as one of the earliest examples of a state religion
Power and Permeability
Many argue that growing access to sacred texts and sacred burials helped “democratize” the afterlife in Egypt. Another factor that might have helped democratize access to the spiritual realm was polytheism, as cities, families, and individuals could choose which gods to prioritize and which to disregard.
Oh…and one more thing
We should remind ourselves that Egypt, though relatively stable from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom, did not exist in a vacuum. Indeed, by the New Kingdom, Egypt is very involved in the “international affairs” of the region. This manifested itself in trade, in diplomacy, and in war.
Painting of Ramesses II attacking Nubians
Map of foreign relations during the New Kingdom
Here’s a map of the main civilizations in the region during the New Kingdom
fin
Assyria and Achaemenid Persia: Two Models of Empire
Assyrian Empire Achaemenid Empire
c. 934 – 609 BCE c. 550 - 330 BCE
Map of Assyria and Surrounding Civilizations
Assur
Some emperors: Ashurnasipal II, Sennacherib, Ashurbanipal
Nineveh
Nineveh: the prosperous center
“The old men dance, the young men sing, the women and girls are happy; women are married, adorned with earrings, boys and girls are brought forth, the births thrive…Those who were sick for many years have got well, the hungry have been sated, the parched have been anointed with oil, the needy have been covered with garments.”
-Letter to King Ashurbanipal (668 – 627)
"By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, and there we wept when we remembered Zion. On the willows there we hung up our harps. For there our captors asked us for songs, and our tormentors asked for mirth, saying, 'Sing us one of the songs of Zion!' But how could we sing the Lord's song in a foreign land? If I forget you, O Jerusalem, let my right hand wither! Let my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth, if I do not remember you, if I do not set Jerusalem above my highest joy!" (Psalm 137)
Nineveh: the prosperous center
But at what cost?
Assyrian relief, c. 800 BCE Assyrian tribute bearer, c. 700 BCE – ivory/bone, 5 – 5/16in
Assyrian, Cavalrymen along a Stream, c. 700 BCE – stone, 20 x 33 in.
Assyrian, Armor plate, c. 700 BCE – IRON, 2 x 3 in.
Deportees leaving the Judean city of Lachish after its capture by Sennacherib's troops, as shown on the wall decoration of Sennacherib's Southwest Palace at Nineveh
Assyrian, Procession of Captives, c. 700 BCE – stone, 16 x 15 in.
Assyrian, Procession of Captives, c. 660BCE – stone, 20 x 18 in.
Assyrian, Youth Thrusting a Sword, c. 700 BCE – ivory, 1.38 x 1.65 in.
“I felled 3,000 of their fighting men with the sword. I carried off prisoners, possessions, oxen and cattle from them. I burnt many captives from them. I captured many troops alive, I cut off some of their hands and arms; I cut off of others noses, ears, and extremities. I gouged out the eyes of many troops. I made one pile of the living and one of heads. I hung their heads on trees around the city. I burnt their adolescent boys and girls. I razed, destroyed, burnt and consumed the city.”
-Assyrian Royal Annals
Persian Empire: Major Rulers and Their Capitals
Ruler
Cyrus [reign: roughly 546 – 529 bce]
City
Pasargadae
Cambyses [reign: 529 – 522 bce] Susa
Darius [reign: 521 – 486 bce] Persepolis
Persepolis
Persian Empire: Internal Harmony and Unification
Satrapie :: Persia as Nomarch :: Egypt
Satrap :: Persia as Nome :: Egypt
"I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of the land of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters, son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, progeny of an unending royal line, whose rule Bel and Nabu cherish, whose kingship they desire for their hearts' pleasures. When I, well-disposed, entered Babylon, I established the seat of government in the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk, the great God, caused the big-hearted inhabitants of Babylon to...me. I sought daily to worship him. My numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon. I did not allow any to terrorize the land of Sumer and Akkad. I kept in view the needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well-being. The citizens of Babylon ... I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored. I put an end to their misfortunes.I strove for peace in Babylon and in all his [other] sacred cities. As to the inhabitants of Babylon ... I abolished forced labour ... From Nineveh, Assur and Susa, Akkad, Eshnunna, Zamban, Me-Turnu and Der until the region of Gutium, I returned to these sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which [used] to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I [also] gathered all their [former] inhabitants and returned [to them] their habitations.
Persian Empire: Internal Harmony and Unification
“Charter of the Rights of Nations”
Persian Empire: Internal Harmony and Unification
Religion: Zoroastrianism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster
Central Deity: Ahura Mazda
Creation myth of Zoroastrianism: both man and woman emerge from plant, with same features.
Possible link to [relative] gender equality seen in the empire?
Women on record as receiving equal types of employment, equal wages.
Saith Darius, the king:
Thereupon that Phraortes fled thence with a few horsemen to a
district in Media named Raga. Then did I send the army against
them. Phraortes was taken and brought unto me. I cut off his nose,
and his ears, and his tongue, and I put out his eyes, and he was
kept in fetters in my court, and all the people beheld him. Then did I
crucify him in Ecbatana, and the men who were his chief followers I
imprisoned in the stronghold in Ecbatana.
-Darius the Great, from the Rock of Bishtun
“While I was in Persia and in Media, the Babylonians revolted from me a second time.”
…
“While I was in Babylon, these provinces revolted from me: Persia,
Susiana, Media, Assyria, Egypt, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia, and
Scythia.”
…
Persian Empire: Internal Discord and Rebellion