Chapter 28
Revolutions and National
States in the Atlantic World
1
Popular Sovereignty
Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of heaven,” “divine right of kings”
Challenged by Enlightenment ideas about “natural rights” of the individual
Kings to be made responsible to subject populations John Locke (1632-1704)
Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) Argues that government derives power from consent
of ruled Individuals retain personal rights, give political rights
to government that Locke calls a “Common-wealth” (which is not necessarily a democracy)
2
Individual Freedoms
Voltaire (pen name of François-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778) Championed religious freedom and
freedom of expression Écrasez l’infame: His slogan, “Let us
crush the infamous thing!” referred to the Catholic authorities; he was a deist
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Argued for equality of all individuals,
regardless of class, before the law The Social Contract (1762), argues that
society is collectively the sovereign
3
Revolution in America
Little indication of forthcoming revolution in mid-eighteenth century
Thirteen colonies regarded themselves as British subjects
Long cultural and personal connections with England Mutually profitable economic relationship between
colonies and England with little governmental oversight: historians often refer to the first half of the 1700s as a period “benign neglect”
4
French and Indian War, 1754-1763
Expensive, extensive Overlapped with
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) Conflict in Europe,
India & Caribbean British victory ensured
global dominance, North Americanprosperity
5
Increased Taxation in 1760s
Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War Tax burden falls to the colonies
Sugar Act (1764): Actually lowered the tax on molasses, but created an enforcement mechanism to crack down on rampant smuggling: tried not before a jury of peers, but naval officers.
Stamp Act (1765): First times the colonies try to coordinate their protests against British authorities with the Stamp Act Congress.
Quartering Act (1765): Housing of British troops Tea Act (1773): British East India Company can sell tea
directly to colonies at a lower rate; infuriates colonial merchants.
6
The Declaration of Independence British products boycotted, officials attacked Protests
Boston Tea Party (1773), tea dumped into Boston harbor in protest against Tea Act
“Sons of Liberty” initiate protests, often dressed as Indians Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’
resistance to British policies April 19, 1775: Battle of Lexington and Concord June 14, 1775: Congress creates Continental Army; appoints
Washington as its commander the following day July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence “Articles of Confederation” adopted; creates weak national
government Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights, sovereignty
based on consent of the ruled
7
Divided Loyalties
Patriots Those who supported revolution, in majority
Loyalists (Tories) Estimated 20 percent of white population that remained loyal to
British monarchy; many in New York City, which was occupied by the British for most of the war.
Neutrals Quakers: Their pacifism did not allow them to fight; patriots
came to revile them because of this. Divided
Native Americans, African-Americans: British offer emancipation to slaves if they fight for their side
8
Revolutionary War
Colonies: Logistical advantage;
fighting on home turf Popular support Support of British rivals George Washington
(1732-1799) proves a charismatic leader, if not a militarily gifted one.
Britain: Strong central
government Most powerful navy in
the world, highly trained army
Loyalist population tended to be wealthy and influential
9
The American Revolution
10
Building an Independent State
War-weariness sets in by 1780 British forces surrounded at Yorktown, Virginia
French Navy prevents British Navy from intervening Cornwallis surrenders on October 19, 1781
Treaty at Peace of Paris concluded in 1783 Recognition of American independence Tremendously favorable to the U.S.
1787 Constitution of the United States drafted Political and legal equality for men of property
11
Building an Independent State 1787 Constitution of the United States drafted in
Philadelphia Ratified in 1788, leading to first presidential election held from
Dec. 15, 1788 to Jan. 10, 1789; Washington unopposed Replaces the weak Articles of Confederation government, which
had no executive branch or means to collect taxes. Emphasizes political and legal equality for men of property For the purpose of determining political representation in the
House of Representatives, it counts slaves as “three-fifths” of a human being.
Bill of Rights proposed by James Madison in First Congress in 1789 and were ratified as the first ten amendments to the Constitution by 1791
12
Building an Independent State
Bill of Rights (adopted 1791)• First - Free Speech• Second - State militias and right to bear arms• Third - Protection from quartering troops• Fourth - Protection from unreasonable search and seizure• Fifth - Requiring due process, disallows double jeopardy or self-incrimination, and
requires compensation for eminent domain.• Sixth - Pertains criminal trials: right to trial by jury, rights of the accused, and right to
counsel• Seventh - Civil trial procedure• Eighth - Prohibits excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment• Nine - Protection of rights not enumerated in the Constitution: if there not there, it doesn’t
mean they don’t exist.• Tenth - Rights not given to the U.S. government in the Constitution are given over the
states.
13
The French Revolution
Serious fiscal problems in France War debts crush French economy in 1780s
Fifty percent of tax revenues to war debts Twenty-five percent of tax revenues to military
Greater degree of social inequality in France than in the thirteen colonies that became the U.S.
Leads to revolution more radical than the American one Repudiation of many aspects of the ancien régime Execution of the king and anti-Church violence
14
The Estates General
Estates General founded 1303, but had not met since 1614 Louis XVI calls it into session on May 5, 1789, to address
massive financial problems and unwillingness of nobility to pay taxes.
Three Estates First estate: Roman Catholic clergy
100,000 Second estate: nobles
400,000 Third estate: everyone else
24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents One vote per estate
15
1789: The Revolution Underway
Third estate demands greater social change First and Second refuse to budge In June, third estate secedes from Estates General
Renamed “National Assembly” In July, mob attacks the
Bastille in Paris, a hated symbol of royal authority; bloody battle won by mob
16
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
Adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789
American influence Equality of men
Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie Gouze) unsuccessfully attempts to redress this in 1791 (eventually guillotined)
Sovereignty resides in the people Individual rights articulated and written down
17
Radicalization of Revolution “Liberty, equality, fraternity” becomes revolutionary
slogan New constitution created in 1791 that retains the
king, but subject to legislative authority and convenes a new Legislative Assembly: constitutional monarchy
June 1791: The King and Queen try to flee to Austria, but are captured; increasingly the left—the Jacobins—see them as traitors
New Legislative Assembly seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians
April 1792: Guillotine introduced a more humane and socially equalizing method of execution
18
Radicalization of Revolution Ending the Monarchy: In August 1792, a Parisian mob invades the
royal palace in Paris, the Tuileries, and demands the monarchy end Convention: In response, the Legislative Assembly calls for a
convention to create a new constitution without a king. This body is elected by universal male suffrage and becomes revolutionary France’s executive power, and is more radical than its previous legislative bodies
Country at War: In 1792, France declares war on Austria, and soon Prussia joins Austria; Prussian and Austrians invade France in August, but are turned back by the French in September at Valmy.
Levée en masse: Government encourages mass conscription for war; beginnings of a true French nationalism to defend la patrie
1793 Executions: King Louis is executed in January and Queen Marie Antoinette follows him October; these acts turn all of Europe against France. Britain and Netherlands join the fight against France.
19
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)
“The Incorruptible,” leader of the Committee of Public Safety Leader of Jacobin party Dominated Convention, 1793-1794 Churches closed, priests forced to
marry Promoted “cult of reason” as secular
alternative to Christianity Calendar reorganized: Ten-day weeks, 1792 is proclaimed
Year I Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000
20
Execution and Terror
21
Execution of Louis XVI on Jan. 21, 1792 Anti-Robespierre political cartoon: Robespierre executing the executioner
Revolutionary Calendar
Names of Months: Autumn: Vendémiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire Winter: Nivôse, Pluviôse,Ventôse Spring: Germinal, Floréal, Prairial Summer: Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor
British Parody: Autumn: Wheezy, Sneezy, Freezy Winter: Slippy, Drippy, Nippy Spring: Showery, Flowery, Bowery Summer: Hoppy, Croppy, Poppy
22
The Directory (1795-1799)
French population tire of Robespierre’s “Reign of Terror”; want more stability
1794 Robespierre arrested and beaten, then sent to guillotine
Men of property take power in the form of the Directory
Unable to solve economic and military problems of revolutionary France
23
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
From minor Corsican noble family Army officer under King Louis XVI,
general at age 24 Brilliant military strategist Overthrew Directory in 1799 Established new government, the Consulate Crowned himself emperor in 1802
24
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
25Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807) by Jacques Louis-David
Napoleonic France
Agreement with Pope: Concordat (1801) France retains church lands, but pay salaries to clergy Freedom of religion, also for Protestants, Jews
1804 promulgates Napoleonic Code Patriarchal authority: made father the ruler of the
household, also made property rights absolute Became model for many civil codes in conquered areas
across Europe Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police
26
Napoleon’s Empire
Conquered Iberian, Italian peninsulas, Netherlands Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies force
Napoleon to abdicate in 1814 Exiled to Mediterranean Island of Elba, escaped to take
power again for 100 days Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to remote South
Pacific island of St. Helena and dies there in 1821
27
Napoleon’s Empire in 1812
28
The Revolution in Haiti
Only successful slave revolt Island of Hispaniola
Spanish colony Santo Domingo in east (now Dominican Republic)
French colony of Saint-Domingue in west (now Haiti) Rich Caribbean colony
Sugar, coffee, cotton Almost one-third of France’s overseas trade
29
Society in Saint-Domingue
40,000 white French settlers Dominated social structure
28,000 gens de couleur (free people of color, i.e. mixed-race, freed slaves) Holders of small plots
500,000 slaves High mortality rate, many flee to mountains “Maroons,” escaped slaves
30
The Revolt Inspired by American and French revolutions
500 gens de couleur sent to fight British in American War of Independence
1789 white settlers demand self-rule, but with no equality for gens de couleur
1791 civil war breaks out Slaves revolt under Vodou priest named Boukman French, British, Spanish forces attempt to intervene French forces dealt major setback by Toussaint and Yellow
Fever in 1798
31
François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803) Renames himself Louverture (“the
opening”) in 1791 Descendant of slaves, freed in 1776 Helped his original owners escape,
then joined rebel forces Built army of 20,000, eventually dominated Saint-Domingue 1801 promulgated constitution of equality 1802 forced to surrender to Napoleon’s forces and was
captured, died in the dungeon of a remote fortress in France in 1803
French troops driven out, 1804 Haiti declares independence
32
Latin American Society
30,000 peninsulares, colonial officials from Iberian peninsula
3.5 million criollos (creoles), born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese descent Privileged class, but grievances with peninsulares 1810-1825 led movements for creole-dominated
republics 10 million others
African slaves, mixed-race populations
33
Mexican Independence
Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies
Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolt Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues
Creole general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares independence in 1821 Installs self as emperor, deposed in 1823, republic
established Southern regions form federation, then divide into Guatemala,
El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
34
Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) Led independence movement
in South America Native of Caracas (Venezuela),
influenced by Enlightenment, George Washington Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into hiding Forms alliances with many creole leaders
José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1850) Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842)
Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825
35
Gran Colombia
Bolívar hoped to form a U.S.-style federation Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador form Gran
Colombia Attempts to bring in Peru and Bolivia
Strong political differences force Gran Colombia to begin to disintegrate in 1826: “All who have served the Revolution have plowed the sea.”
Bolívar goes was about to go into exile in Europe, but dies of tuberculosis in 1830 at age 47
36
Brazilian Independence
Napoleon’s invasion sends Portuguese royal court to exile in Rio de Janeiro
1821, king returns to Portugal, his son Pedro left behind as regent
Pedro negotiates with creoles, declares independence of Brazil—no violent revolution Becomes Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1834)
Social structure remains largely intact
37
Latin America in 1830
38
Emergence of Ideologies
Reactions and responses to French Revolution largely create our modern thinking about political ideology
Conservatism Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797) Disavowed rapid revolutionary change; horrified by French Revolution
but in favor of the American one Favored slow evolution of society
Liberalism Sees conservatives as defenders of an illegitimate status quo Advocates managing, not stifling, social change John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873): formulated a theory of liberty,
advocated human rights, women’s rights, and stood against slavery
39
The End of the Slave Trade Campaign to end slavery begins in eighteenth century
Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797) Gains momentum after American, French and Haitian
revolutions William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833),
philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament outlaw slave trade, 1807
Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues until 1867
40
End of the Institution of Slavery
Haiti: slavery ends with revolution Mexican slavery abolished 1829
Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based cotton industry in Mexico
1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers compensation to former owners
Other states follow, but offer freedom without equality Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block voting
41
Enlightenment Ideals and Women
Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rights Rousseau argues women should receive education to
prepare for lives as wives and mothers Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that women
essentially born into slavery; uses Lockean argument Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797)
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): Women could contribute as much to society as women if they were given the same access to education
42
Women and Revolution
Women active in all phases of French revolution Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for food Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of Paris with
firearms Yet hold few official positions of authority Revolution grants equality in education, property, legalized
divorce Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of nineteenth century
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902): Was first an abolitionist, but then became a crusader for women’s rights when she was denied entrance to a abolitionist conference in London
43
Nations and Nationalism
“Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in nineteenth century
Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities Usually based on shared language, customs,
values, historical experience Sometimes common religion
Idea of nation has immediate relationship with political boundaries
44
Types of Nationalism
Cultural nationalism Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the
Volk (“people”) Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist:
“spirit of the people” Political nationalism
Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities
Unification of national lands Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”
45
Nationalism and Anti-Semitism
Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in
Russian empire beginning 1881: Jews excluded from the “nation”
Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling
military secrets to Germany, convicted in 1894
Eventually exonerated, but great debate on loyalty of Jews in European societies
46
Zionism
Theodor Herzl (Austria, 1860-1904) journalist at Dreyfus trial
Observed intense anti-Semitism of mobs in Paris, concluded that the Enlightenment and revolution could not solve this human ill
Worked to create refuge for Jews by re-establishing Jewish state in Palestine Zion synonymous with Jerusalem
1897 convened first World Zionist Organization
47
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 1773-
1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire
Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of nationalism
among multi-national empires like the Austrian
48
Nationalist Rebellions
Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence from Ottoman Turks in 1821 With European help, Greece achieves independence in
1830 Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848
Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees But rebellions put down by 1849 France: Napoleon III stages a coup d’état by 1851.
49
Unifications of Italy and Germany
Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical states Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous
jurisdictions Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under King Vittore Emmanuele II
50
Unifications of Italy and Germany
Idealized image of Giuseppe Garibaldi
51
The Unification of Italy and Germany
52
Unifications of Italy and Germany
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) advances Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”), and uses wars with neighbors to unify Germany
Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named emperor
53