1. Journal of Management & Organization
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use : Click here Leadership theories and the concept of work
engagement: Creating a conceptual framework for management
implications and research Robert J. Blomme, Bas Kodden and
Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk Journal of Management & Organization
/ Volume 21 / Issue 02 / March 2015, pp 125 - 144 DOI:
10.1017/jmo.2014.71, Published online: 14 January 2015 Link to this
article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1833367214000716
How to cite this article: Robert J. Blomme, Bas Kodden and
Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk (2015). Leadership theories and the
concept of work engagement: Creating a conceptual framework for
management implications and research. Journal of Management &
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2. Journal of Management & Organization, 21:2 (2015), pp.
125144 2015 Cambridge University Press and Australian and New
Zealand Academy of Management doi:10.1017/jmo.2014.71 Leadership
theories and the concept of work engagement: Creating a conceptual
framework for management implications and research ROBERT J.
BLOMME, BAS KODDEN AND ANNAMARIA BEASLEY-SUFFOLK Abstract During
the past decade, a great deal of research has been carried out on
the importance of employee engagement. In various studies,
engagement is viewed as a positive state of mind of overwhelming
satisfaction, which is characterized by feelings of vigour,
dedication and absorption. In this article, vigour refers to a
state of mind in which individuals feel energetic, t, strong and
indefatigable. Dedication refers to a state of mind in which
individuals feel highly engaged by their work, which inspires them,
and makes them feel proud and enthusiastic. Absorption refers to a
pleasant state of mind in which individuals are fully immersed in
their work. This article provides an overview of a number of
perspectives on leadership and discusses which leadership factors
are likely to be the most effective in ensuring that employees
remain engaged and productive. It also provides a conceptual model
for further research on the relationship between leadership styles
and work engagement. Keywords: work engagement, leadership,
organizational culture, work-related resources, organizational
performance Received 22 January 2013. Accepted 7 August 2014
INTRODUCTION During the past decade, the concept of work engagement
has become an important topic in explaining the levels of
motivation in members of an organization (Halbesleben, 2010; Rich,
Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Cole, Walter, Bedeian, & OBoyle,
2011). Many studies have demonstrated a link between work
engagement and organizational performance (e.g., Salanova, Agut,
& Peir, 2005; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Heuven, Demerouti, &
Schaufeli, 2008a; Van Schalkwyk, Du Toit, Bothma, & Rothmann,
2010). Work engagement does not only affect organizational
performance. It is a much broader concept that concerns what allows
individuals to decide when and where to translate their cognitive,
affective and physical energy into activities (Kahn, 1990; Rich,
Lepine, & Crawford, 2010). These perceived opportunities for
choice are displayed by individual levels of self-efcacy, which can
be dened as ones beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments
(e.g., Bandura, 1997, 1999). Several studies have shown that
engaged employees show high levels of self-efcacy in terms of
directing their own career and investing energy in it (Bakker &
Schaufeli, 2008; Bakker, 2009; Halbesleben, 2010). When engaged
employees do not feel sufciently Centre for Leadership and
Management Development, Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen,
The Netherlands Corresponding author: [email protected] JOURNAL
OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 125
3. challenged in their jobs, for example, they tend to change
employers more easily, thus creating their own positive feedback by
means of a positive attitude and a wide radius of action. In
addition, longitudinal research has indicated that individuals who
ultimately become engaged will remain engaged (Bakker, 2009;
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009), a very
valuable conclusion for those who wish to develop a positive state
of mind. Although work engagement may seem to be specically (and
perhaps uniquely) related to single individuals, various studies
show that personal and work-related resources have a positive
inuence on work engagement per se (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007;
Xanthopoulou et al., 2008a; Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010).
Available studies show that certain work-related resources the
social support of colleagues and managers, development
opportunities and work variation are positively related to work
engagement (e.g., Hakanen, Bakker, & Demerouti, 2005;
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Heuven, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2008b). A
study conducted among Finnish dentists (Hakanen, Bakker, &
Demerouti, 2005), for example, concluded that there is a positive
relationship between work-related resources creative and varied
work, positive feedback from patients or task identity and work
engagement. Other studies report a strong positive relationship
between the social support offered by direct superiors and the work
engagement of employees (Bakker, Demerouti, & Verbeke, 2004;
Haq et al., 2010; Wiley, 2010). For example, a study conducted by
Xanthopoulou et al. (2009) shows that there is a direct positive
relationship between daily coaching (energy source) and the daily
engagement of employees. The provision of these work-related
resources may stimulate employees to deal with time pressure, a
high workload and high levels of job responsibility and to regard
these as challenging (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau,
2000). Meeting these challenges will result in higher levels of
engagement (Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). Studies on
engagement from a psychological contract perspective also
demonstrate that higher levels of employer contract fullment,
including expected work-related resources, lead to higher levels of
engagement (Chambel & Oliveira-Cruz, 2010; Bal, De Cooman,
& Mol, 2013; Bal, Kooij, & De Jong, 2013). Furthermore,
studies suggest that the relationship between employer contract
fullment and engagement may differ, not only in terms of gender
(Blomme, Van Rheede, & Tromp, 2010), but also among age
categories (Bal, De Lange, Ybema, & Van Der Velde, 2011) and
generations (Lub, Blomme, & Bal, 2011; Lub, Bijvank, Bal,
Blomme, & Schalk, 2012), which demonstrates that the ways in
which high levels of engagement are reached may differ among these
three employee categories. In addition, a study conducted by Bal,
De Cooman, and Mol (2013) indicates that people with high levels of
engagement are able to negotiate a better psychological contract
with their employer, which brings about better work-related
resources and, in turn, gives rise to even higher levels of
engagement. As such, psychological contract theory contributes to
our understanding that the relationship between work-related
resources and engagement may differ among different employee
categories and to our understanding of the mechanism through which
engaged people will remain engaged. Conversely, Crawford, Lepine,
and Rich (2010) found support for the notion that work-related
resources that are lacking or that hinder employees in developing
and attaining their goals may be viewed as hindrances, and thus
become negatively associated with engagement. It is reasonable to
suggest that managers, as formal leaders in an organization, play
an important role in the provision of work-related resources, which
produce higher levels of engagement. After all, it is managers who
are chiey responsible for the level of autonomy an employee is
granted. It is managers who give their employees feedback on the
work done and who have a say in determining how much social support
an employee receives. It could, therefore, be argued that managers
play an important role in securing high levels of work engagement,
particularly by providing work-related resources such as autonomy,
social support and feedback (e.g., Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007;
Xanthopoulou et al., 2008a). Although certain facets of leadership
affecting work engagement have already been explored (e.g.,
Henderson, Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2008; Wiley, 2010;
Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and
Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 126 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT &
ORGANIZATION
4. 2011; Wefald, Reichard, & Serrano, 2011), the literature
is scarce when it comes to answering the question regarding how
specic aspects of leadership styles impact work engagement.
Therefore, the question arises as to how leadership stimulates or
impedes work engagement. In this article, therefore, no distinction
is made between managers and leaders, because managers can be
regarded as the formal or administrative leaders in an organization
(French & Raven, 1959; Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms,
2008; Blomme, 2012). Below, we shall examine the link between
leadership and the concept of work engagement, and we shall explain
how particular aspects of leadership inuence work engagement. We
shall also discuss the specic function of organizational culture
and personal char- acteristics in the relationship between
leadership and work engagement. The outcomes are expected to yield
a conceptual framework that can be used for managers who wish to
become more effective in stimulating work engagement among their
employees. In addition to elaborating upon the potential practical
value of the outcome, we shall also discuss implications for
further research. WORK ENGAGEMENT In 2001, Demerouti and her
colleagues argued that there should be a new and more positive
approach to human behaviour for use in labour and organizational
psychology (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001).
Although previous research studies focused mainly on explaining
negative phenomena such as burnout syndrome and depression
(Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Maslach & Leiter,
2008) as opposites of work engagement (Maslach, Schaufeli, &
Leiter, 2001; Halbesleben, 2010), it was the research done by
Demerouti and her colleagues that prompted a new generation of
researchers to pay greater attention to positive emotions.
Demerouti and her colleagues argued that being happy and optimistic
can be learned, and 10 years of thorough study has indeed shown
that work engagement can in fact be developed. Employees who are
mostly optimistic and who believe that life has a positive meaning
for them often create more opportunities and are better equipped to
seize them. These employees tend to be extremely enthusiastic and
happy about the things they do, they take decisive action as soon
as they notice that they are operating less effectively and they
take pride in their jobs. In sum, their work is what makes them
content. Following Kahns (1990) denition of engagement, Rich,
Lepine, and Crawford (2010) argue that work engagement is an
important motivational concept that is not only restricted to job
performance per se, but also offers a wider perspective concerning
the employee himself1 . This wider perspective paints a picture of
individuals who are able to make their own decisions concerning the
tasks and activities in which they wish to invest their physical,
cognitive and affective energy. As such, engagement is a concept
that describes how employees harness themselves in their
organizational roles by converting their energy into affective,
cognitive and physical labours (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010:
619). Schaufeli and his colleagues also add that it is precisely
this process that can promote behaviours that will ultimately
result in a persistent, positive affective-motivational state of
fullment (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzlez- Rom, & Bakker, 2002).
Because of their positive attitude and their high levels of
activity, engaged employees create their own positive feedback in
the form of appreciation, credit and success. Engaged employees
also prove to be very active outside their jobs (Demerouti et al.,
2001; Bakker, 2009). They are enthusiastic and positive, not only
about their work but also about what they do in their leisure time,
and they communicate their engagement to others. Proponents of this
recent and more positive psychological approach do not claim to
have discovered anything new, but simply underline the importance
of further research on these positive employee characteristics
(Luthans & Youssef, 2007). The reason why there has been a
sharp increase in the number of studies on work engagement over the
past few years is not uniquely related to todays 1 Masculine forms
have been used here for stylistic purposes only. Leadership
theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT
& ORGANIZATION 127
5. increased interest in positive psychology that is, the
scientic study of human strength and optimal functioning. The
increase in the number of studies on the positive phenomena of
intrinsic work motivation is mainly due to the frequently
demonstrated relationship between work engagement and
organizational performance (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010;
Cole et al., 2011). A growing number of studies demonstrate the
link between levels of work engagement and the level of service
orientation (Salanova, Agut, & Peir, 2005; Xanthopoulou et al.,
2008a), how engaged employees are assessed (Bakker, Demerouti,
& Verbeke, 2004), the level of organizational commitment
(Hallberg & Schaufeli, 2006; Llorens, Bakker, Schaufeli, &
Salanova, 2006), and nally the link between levels of work
engagement and the organizations sales (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009).
Work engagement is characterized by vigour, dedication and
absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002; Gonzlez-Rom, Schaufeli, Bakker,
& Lloret, 2006). Vigour can be described as high levels of
energy and mental resilience shown during work, the willingness to
invest effort in work and the degree of persistence when work is
difcult. Absorption refers to the state in which an individual is
highly focused on and positively engrossed in work. When absorbed,
people feel that time passes quickly and that it is difcult to stop
working. Dedication refers to the state that people are in when
they have a sense of their own signicance and are feeling inspired,
challenged and enthusiastic. Dedication is related to a strong
sense of commitment to and engagement with work: work is perceived
as inspiring and evokes feelings of pride and enthusiasm (Bakker
& Schaufeli, 2008). Bakker (2009) formulated four reasons why
engaged employees perform better than non-engaged individuals.
Engaged employees (1) frequently experience positive emotions such
as happiness, pleasure and enthusiasm; (2) tend to have better
health; (3) communicate their engagement to others and they also
(4) take responsibility and the initiative for creating their own
work-related and personal resources. It is especially the level of
dedication, as a feature of their work engagement, which may be a
highly important predictor of individual and organizational
performance (Kodden, 2011). Although personal and work-related
resources may initially be created by engaged employees themselves
in specic situations, they are also important conditions for the
maintenance of engagement (Bakker, 2009; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009;
Halbesleben, 2010). Personal and work-related resources consist of
permanent personal sources and work sources that protect employees
against the negative effects of labour, such as burnout syndrome
for instance. As indicated by Bakker (2009), these sources give
individuals access to a wide range of physical, social and personal
resources, which are particularly useful and effective in times of
hardship and adversity. In addition, they contribute to the
realization of work goals as well as the promotion of personal
growth and development (Demerouti et al., 2001). The term personal
resources in this case refers to personality traits such as an
individuals degree of optimism, self-esteem, stress-resistance and
self-efcacy. The more effectively individuals can access such
personal resources, the more they will increase their control over
certain situations, which will enable them to deal with demanding
circumstances more easily (Hannah et al., 2008). This, in turn,
reduces feelings of stress and increases the degree of engagement
they experience. A study carried out in South Africa (Storm &
Rothmann, 2003) demonstrated that engagement is also related in
part to personality traits such as extraversion and emotional
stability. A Dutch study (Mostert & Rothmann, 2006), moreover,
indicated that the strong relationship between engagement and
personality traits can also be seen in terms of a low degree of
neuroticism, a high degree of extraversion and a high degree of
agility (the ability to complete a large number of consecutive
tasks). It might, therefore, be possible here to speak of an
engaged personality type and argue that it is the employees
themselves in particular who are responsible for their own
engagement and job satisfaction by making use of a larger number of
personal resources. In addition to personal resources, work-related
resources are an important condition for the development of work
engagement because they increase the potential work autonomy of
individuals to take control over their own decisions and the
organization of feedback, leading to higher levels of Robert J
Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 128 JOURNAL OF
MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
6. engagement. This notion is supported by a number of research
studies, which show that work-related resources such as the social
support provided by colleagues and superiors, growth opportunities
and a varied use of competencies correlate positively with
engagement (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2007;
Cole et al., 2011; Kodden, 2011). The possibility to create work-
related resources and the availability of these are often an
outcome of organizational culture (Wilderom, 2011), organizational
policies (Kossek, Markel, & McHugh, 2003) and leadership style
(Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011; Wilderom, van den Berg,
& Wiersma, 2012). However, many studies also emphasize the
importance of the provision of work resources, but ample studies
have been conducted regarding the effects of leaders on employee
engagement (Blomme, 2012). The effects of leadership styles on the
level of engagement and the presence of resources would seem to be
obvious, as it is managers who carry the main responsibility for
the degree of autonomy that employees are granted. It is the
managers who are responsible for performance feedback and who, in
co-operation with others, determine the amount of social support
that employees are offered in their work. In the following
sections, we shall discuss in greater detail how leadership styles
affect the number of work- related and personal resources that
employees have at their disposal, all of which determine the extent
to which individual engagement increases or declines. We will use
Graen and Uhl-Biens (1995) taxonomy of leadership, which
categorizes leadership theories based on their primary focus. Graen
and Uhl-Bien introduced the following three perspectives on
leadership: the leader-centred, the follower- centred and the
relationship-centred approach. THE LEADER-CENTRED APPROACH IN
RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT Although as yet little is known about the
precise effects of leadership styles on engagement, the
effectiveness of leadership behaviour has been researched for many
decades (Blomme, 2012). In the leader-centred approach, the
traditional concept of leadership can be dened as mutual inuencing
(Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2007). Yukl (1989) denes leadership as the
way in which individuals (leaders) purposefully inuence other
individuals to obtain dened outcomes. However, mutual inuence is
not necessarily related to the concept of leadership (Cialdini
& Trost, 1998). Inuence is an important feature of a
relationship of co-operation. For instance, if an employee asks a
colleague for a favour and the colleague agrees, he may agree to
the request either because he simply likes this particular
colleague or because he is afraid of him. In this case, compliance
is stimulated by an appeal to either sympathy or respect. The
person asking for the favour can also appeal to an existing
implicit or explicit company standard, which tolerates the granting
of favours. In this case, an appeal is made to an obligation to
comply with the norm (Turner, 1991). Yet, in both cases, what
happens is not a question of leadership (cf. Chemers, 2001). Only
when the person making the request actually manages to persuade the
other of the necessity of co-operation and only when both actors
agree on a standard set of values can we speak of leadership.
Leadership is involved when one or more individuals play an
important role in dening collective norms and values, and in this
context leadership is viewed as a group-oriented rather than a
mutual process (cf. Hogg, 2001). Leadership behaviour may be termed
effective when a leader succeeds in developing a collective set of
norms and in setting goals to meet these norms. A contrast
frequently cited in leadership literature is the contrast between
transactional and trans- formational leadership (Yukl, 1989; Bass,
1997). With regard to our current perspective of engage- ment, Lord
(2008) points to a possible contrast between these two types of
leadership as seen in leadership theories. In transactional
leadership, the focus is on inuencing followers by submitting them
to rules, by presenting extrinsic incentives, by closely monitoring
results and by granting rewards if the outcome of follower
behaviour is in line with the goals of the organization.
Transactional leadership involves the denition of follower
interests in terms of successful transactions with the (work)
environment, and it is here that we can see a limitation: a
limitation concerning control over Leadership theories and the
concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
129
7. contractual obligations. This means that a manager is
predominantly concerned with dening targets and steering employees
within existing frameworks. This is what Den Hartog calls
maintenance management (Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman,
1997), in which a managers guidance and leadership are
characterized by steering when performance deviates from the
accepted standards. The basis of transactional leadership lies in
social interaction (Hollander, 1995). Both the manager and the
employee build psychological credit through the process of social
interaction. Psychological credit is closely related to the
advantages to be obtained in engaging in exchanges and
co-operation. Followers tend to follow leaders when co-operation
yields sufcient benets. An important condi- tion for followers is
not only that they reap the benets but also that the leader is seen
to be fair when distributing them (Cropanzano, 1993; Cropanzano
& Greenberg, 1997; Colquitt, 2001; Folger & Cropanzano,
2001). Followers need to see the rewards to be gained as justied in
relation to the amount of effort that needs to be spent on reaping
these rewards (Haslam, Reicher, & Platow, 2011). If followers
consider the benets to be unreasonable in relation to the level of
investment needed to achieve them, they will experience
psychological stress and anxiety (Folger & Cropanzano, 2001).
Followers are motivated to reduce these tensions, either by
reducing investments (i.e., doing less), or by trying to increase
the number of benets (in co-operation with the manager), or by
ultimately ending the partnership (leaving the organization)
(Walster, Berscheid, & Walster, 1973). Perceived fairness not
only depends on perceived costs and benets but also on the
perceived performance and posi- tioning of leaders themselves. If
followers are under the impression that managers are dragging their
feet or that they are being paid excessively high salaries, this
will inuence their sense of fairness in a number of ways (Bruins,
Platow, & Ng, 1995). Effective transactional leadership in a
business environment is thus aimed at obtaining psychological
credit and maintaining a fair balance between costs and benets as
perceived by employees. If these work-related resources are not
provided in the exchange process between leaders and followers,
employees may consider this to be unfair and a hindrance, impeding
not only the attainment of their goals but also personal growth and
learning. Research shows that hindrances in obtaining work-related
resources have a negative effect on levels of engagement (Crawford,
Lepine, & Rich, 2010). This leads us to our rst proposition:
Proposition 1: Lower levels of transactional leadership are related
to lower levels of engagement. Compared with transactional
leadership, transformational leadership is not so much focused on
the balance between costs and benets but focused on the initiation
and management of change. Transformational leadership has four
components as follows (Bass, 1997; Bass & Riggio, 2006):
idealized inuence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation and individual consideration. The rst component of
transformational leadership, idealized inuence, deals with the
importance of charismatic and inspirational leadership: to maintain
their motivation, the leader must convince his followers of the
need for change and explain why change is necessary. Furthermore,
this charismatic aspect instils pride, faith and respect, as well
as promotes an articulated sense of mission, which leads to a
followers dependence on the charismatic acts of a leader (Lowe,
Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). The second component,
inspirational motivation, concerns how leaders articulate a mission
and a vision that appeals to and inspires followers. The
supposition behind this leadership aspect is that followers are
motivated to act when they have a strong sense of purpose. This
vision, which encom- passes high standards, optimism about future
goals and the provision of meaning for the followers individual
tasks, generates this strong sense of purpose. Inspirational
motivation requires clear com- munication on the part of the leader
in order to make a vision understandable, precise and engaging. The
third component, intellectual stimulation, concerns the need to
challenge followers intellectually, which includes providing
feedback and challenging tasks in order to promote and develop
problem- solving abilities. In terms of content, positive feedback
can assist the employee in exploring various elements of the work
at hand, which may lead not only to the improvement of quality but
also to the Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria
Beasley-Suffolk 130 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
8. stimulation of creativity and problem-solving skills.
Finally, individualized consideration concerns the way in which the
leader addresses the specic needs, competencies and ambitions of
the followers in order to support them in their endeavours to meet
their own needs, to develop their individual competencies and to
achieve their ambitions. In this respect, transformational leaders
can offer their employees their appreciation and support by
focusing on personal needs. Positive feedback from a relational
perspective may reinforce this sense of support, because this
places a special emphasis not only on the appreciation for the
employee but also on the acknowledgement of the degree of his
investment. Thus, transformational leadership emphasizes the
ability of leaders to challenge and inspire their followers in such
a way that they become willing to help the organization achieve its
goals and that they identify themselves with its mission and
vision. This element of transformational leadership may generate a
positive attitude among employees and produce the energy that is
needed to complete the various organizational tasks. Accordingly,
the four elements of transformational leadership listed above offer
employees access to resources such as support, specic feedback and
energy in order to develop engagement. These work-related resources
are an important condition to be able to cope with stressful
demands and to label these as challenging stressors in pursuing
personal mastery, learning and future gains (Crawford, Lepine,
& Rich, 2010). We, therefore, propose the following:
Proposition 2: Higher levels of transformational leadership are
related to higher levels of engagement. Reduced engagement, reduced
emotional commitment and mental stress may be caused by har-
assment and the deprivation of autonomy on the part of the
employee. These phenomena can also result from a downward shift (to
employees) of task-related responsibilities that should in actual
fact reside with the manager (Hoel, Glas, Hetland, Cooper, &
Einarsen, 2009). Various studies (Einarsen, Hoel, & Notelaers,
2009; Hoel et al., 2009) have shown that harassment is associated
with autocratic leadership. A number of authors (Block, 1987;
Conger & Kanungo, 1988) maintain that autocratic leadership
concerns behaviour that is aimed at broadening and enhancing a
managers position of power and at increasing dependency on the part
of employees. Tourish (2011) claims that when transformational
aspects of leadership are solely used by a leader to establish and
expand the position of power, resulting in increasing follower
dependency, transformational leadership turns into what he terms
cultic leadership, which has features similar to those seen in
autocratic leadership. For example, when leaders consider
themselves to be the sole source of key ideas and vision and when
dissent expressed by followers is punished, or when agreement with
these key ideas is crucial for group membership and rewards,
transformational leadership may turn into autocratic leadership
(Tourish & Pinnington, 2002; Tourish, 2011). In this process,
followers may perceive autocratic managers as micromanagers or
superiors who offer little to no social support and who are merely
focused on the execution of certain tasks and the subsequent
attainment of business goals. The act of shifting responsibilities
is in line with Den Hartogs denition of passive leadership (Den
Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997). This failure on the part
of the manager to take responsibility leads to reduced involvement
on the part of employees and to the latters perceived lack or
absence of support in the execution of their business tasks.
Moreover, it is not only the lack of work-related resources that
hinders employees in pursuing their goals and that leads to lower
levels of engagement. One important relationship that can be
distinguished here is the negative relationship between anxiety and
engage- ment. Feelings of stress may manifest themselves in the
form of psychological tension, and subse- quently in the form of
reduced cognitive functioning and depressed mood (Gross, 1970).
Reduced levels of engagement and emotional commitment, as well as
strain-induced stress, may be caused by the style of leadership a
manager adopts towards his employees (Hoel, Faragher, & Cooper,
2004; Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, 2011). More in particular, it is
especially autocratic leadership styles that directly lead to
strain-induced stress among employees, hindering them in developing
mastery and personal growth Leadership theories and the concept of
work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 131
9. (Stetz, Stetz, & Bliese, 2006; Bloisi & Hoel, 2008;
Hoel et al., 2009), and as such hindering them in becoming engaged.
Hence, we propose the following: Proposition 3: Autocratic
leadership is negatively related to employee engagement. Besides
transactional, transformational and autocratic leadership, a fourth
approach can be dis- tinguished: laissez-faire leadership. This
particular style is characterized by a passive attitude: managers
remain inactive or uninvolved and do not take responsibility when
it is desirable or when they are required to do so. Den Hartog, Van
Muijen, and Koopman (1997) call this style of leadership passive as
opposed to transactional and transformational leadership, which
they term active. Laissez-faire leadership would seem to be
incompatible with the outcomes of earlier research on engagement
and the proven prerequisite of providing followers with sufcient
coaching assistance, feedback and social support. This leads us to
the following proposition: Proposition 4: A passive attitude on the
part of managers is negatively related to employee engagement.
Available literature on transactional and transformational
leadership states that leadership is concerned with relationships
of social exchange, but it fails to indicate in which situations
followers actually engage in such relationships or in which
situations managers are considered to be charismatic or
transformational. In situations where managers merely assume that
employees are loyal to the organizations goals and in situations
where radical change is taking place, this particular style of
leadership can produce negative emotions and feelings of stress
among followers (cf. Carey, 1992; Terry, 2003), thus resulting in
low engagement (Jetten, OBrien, & Trindall, 2002). Furthermore,
Kerr and Jermier (1978, in Vecchio, 1987) argue that different
situational factors including the cohesion of work groups (Den
Hartog & Koopman, 2005), clarity of tasks and relating goals as
provided by the organization (Howell & Dorfman, 1981), as well
as a strong inter-dependence between members of a work group
(Villa, Howell, Daniel, & Dorfman, 2003), may enhance,
neutralize or become a substitute for leader behaviours as
followers become less dependent on leaders (Den Hartog &
Koopman, 2005; Avolio, Walumbwa, Weber, Avolio, & Walumbwa,
2009). Furthermore, Erdogan, Kraimer, and Liden (2004) argue that
employees demon- strating high work value congruence do not require
a leader or other types of social support to achieve job and career
satisfaction. As such, this suggests that the organizational
context plays an important role in determining whether leadership
styles have a positive or negative effect on employee engagement.
For example, when the organizational context provides a work
context that neutralizes and substitutes leader behaviours, a
passive attitude on the part of managers may have a positive effect
on followers engagement. THE FOLLOWER-CENTRED APPROACH IN RELATION
TO ENGAGEMENT Besides the moderating effect of the organizational
context on the relationship between leadership style and employee
engagement, it can also be argued that followers tend to regard
managers as less effective when they remain distant and fail to act
as members of the team and the community of followers. In sum, in
order to dene the conditions that allow leadership to become
effective from the followers point of view, we should study it from
a followers perspective, commonly addressed as the follower-
centred approach. In our attempts, we shall distinguish two
perspectives as follows: one provided by implicit leadership theory
(ILT) and one provided by social identity theory. An important
perspective in the study of leadership and the role of related
stereotypes, and one that does in fact consider the position of
followers, is ILT. This theory was initially developed by Meindl
and colleagues in the 1990s as an alternative for theories and
perspectives that place great weight on leaders and on the
substantive signicance of their actions and activities (Meindl,
1995: 330). Lord and Maher (1990: 132) dene implicit leadership as
the process of being perceived as a leader by Robert J Blomme, Bas
Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 132 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT
& ORGANIZATION
10. others. ILT proponents claim that the followers process of
attribution is characterized by the category of leadership in which
a leader is placed by the follower leaders should t an ideal
stereotype accorded to them by followers and which adheres to
certain domain specications (Van Knippenberg, Van Knippenberg,
& Giessner, 2006; Giessner, Van Knippenberg, & Sleebos,
2009). This goes beyond the question of how followers perceive
their leaders as seen in the leader-centred perspective; ILT
considers how followers view their own roles and behaviours when
engaging with their leaders and how leaders behaviour is aligned
with these (cf. Meindl, 1995; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2005;Van
Knippenberg, Van Knippenberg, & Giessner, 2006; Schyns, 2007).
The more the leaders attitudes and behaviour are aligned with
prototype attitudes and behaviour that correspond with a followers
leader stereotypes, the more the follower feels trusted by,
attached to and connected with the leader (Keller, 2003). As such,
a follower will be able to demonstrate knowledge and competence to
develop autonomous roles and show active participation in
decision-making processes, and nally to act as effective members of
the team and the community of followers (Howell & Mendez,
2008). As a consequence, followers will be able to develop higher
levels of engagement. These considerations led us to postulate the
following: Proposition 5: A high level of congruence between leader
prototype and perceived leader char- acteristics is positively
related to employee engagement. An extension of the ILT perspective
and leaderfollower prototypicality to predict followers per-
ceptions of leadership effectiveness is leadership approached from
social identity theory (Giessner, Van Knippenberg, & Sleebos,
2009). Social identity theory puts forward the idea that followers
wish to be part of a group (inclusion) in order to develop their
social identity. Having a social identity means that people feel a
sense of belonging. Being part of a social system gives meaning to
an individuals activities as these are then related to a wider
framework, something that will, in turn, lead to a more positive
self- image (Hogg, 2001). This social system is embedded in the
direct social network of a participant and is frequently described
as the in-crowd (Hogg, 2001). Many researchers claim that this
explains why people want to become part of a group or an
organization (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Tajfel, 1982; Cornelissen,
Haslam, & Balmer, 2007; Jetten, Haslam, Iyer, & Haslam,
2009). Being a member of a certain group allows the development of
a social identity by searching for common features among group
members and by contrasting these with characteristics shared by
other groups (Tajfel, 1982; Hogg, 2001). This differentiation
process aims to demonstrate that in-crowd features are deemed more
positive than those of others. Being accepted by fellow in-crowd
members and the development of a social identity based on shared
characteristics are important needs that take priority over the
execution of certain tasks (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Chemers,
2001). In this sense, the primary concern of individuals is to seek
inclusion in a group, after which they can proceed to build their
social identity through shared co-operation and inter- action.
Thus, the actions of an employee are primarily aimed at developing
a social identity, and if it is not clear whether or not an
individual is included in the group, it is the leader who will be
held responsible rst (Hollander, 1985). A common identity shared by
all group members creates social cohesion and co-operation. This,
in turn, may bring about a sense of engagement among the team
members, and it can in fact be argued that particularly social
cohesion and co-operation give rise to a sense of social support
and autonomy, which makes constructive feedback possible. We
propose the following: Proposition 6: The presence of a leader who
has been accepted by the group as a team member is positively
related to employee engagement. THE RELATIONSHIP-CENTRED APPROACH
IN RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT The third perspective on how leadership
might inuence work engagement is that of the relationship between a
leader and his subordinates. An important theory that concerns
these relationships is Leadership theories and the concept of work
engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 133
11. leadershipmembership exchange (LMX). This approach differs
from the aforementioned leader- centred approaches, both of which
presume that the relationships that leaders maintain with their
subordinates are similar. LMX, originally coined by Dansereau and
colleagues as vertical dyadic linkage, is a leadership theory that
provides arguments why leaders differentiate between subordinates
and why they create in-groups and out-groups. It follows their
assumption that the time and resources needed to increase
productivity are limited (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975).
Graen and Uhl-Bien argue that in-group members have high-quality
exchanges, leading to high levels of trust and obligation, whereas
out-group members have low-quality exchanges, leading to lower
levels of trust, respect and obligation (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995). Research studies on LMX demonstrate that individual in-group
members show higher objective performance in their work, high
levels of commitment, high levels of job satisfaction, strong
feelings of empowerment and are less likely to leave the company
(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Gerstner & Day, 1997; Cogliser,
Schriesheim, & Castro, 1999). Dienesch and Liden (1986)
describe the process of LMX as the initial interaction between
leader and subordinate followed by leader delegation and starting
with a rst assignment or a set of tasks (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995). Precisely how the subordinate responds with respect to task
fullment determines how a leaders attributions are shaped in
relation to this subordinate. These attributions will produce
certain leader responses, which in turn will develop the
subordinates attributes and subsequently produce certain responses
to the leader. Thus, these steps can be characterized as a social
exchange process (e.g., Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). This social
interaction is characterized and inuenced by dimensions including
the perceived con- tribution made by the leader and the subordinate
to serve explicit and implicit mutual goals, mutual loyalty and
affection (Dienesch & Liden, 1986), and nally mutual
professional respect as developed in the relationship (Liden &
Maslyn, 1998). Although LMX seems similar to transformational
leadership, the difference is that LMX theory describes how the
goals of a leader and a follower are merged (Krishnan, 2004). In
this respect, LMX contributes to the aforementioned
follower-centred approach, which describes how follower attributes
determine whether leaders are accepted and included in in-groups in
terms of helping them to develop a social identity. A strong
presence of these dimensions will result in high-quality levels of
LMX. With high levels of LMX, members will receive social support
and feedback, as well as work-related resources, which will result
in high levels of engagement. Therefore, we propose the following:
Proposition 7: High levels of LMX are positively related to high
levels of employee engagement. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS A
MODERATOR During the last decade, studies on organizational theory
and practice have paid considerable attention to organizational
culture. In this respect, Schein denes organizational culture as
the body of common beliefs, assumptions and values that are shared
by members of an organization (Schein, 1983, 1993). Schein (1996)
maintains that the deeper layer of organizational culture is shaped
by norms and values, the underlying drivers of behaviour. It is
precisely the importance of shared values determining
organizational culture that makes them an extremely interesting
variable where leadership styles are concerned (Frankel, Leonard,
& Denham, 2006; Kavanagh & Ashkanasy, 2006; Asree, Zain,
& Razalli, 2010; Wilderom, van den Berg, & Wiersma, 2012).
Some authors assume that the effec- tiveness of leadership styles
depends in part on the organizational culture within which business
processes take place (Erez, 1994; Bass & Avolio, 1997).
Contextual factors may enhance or weaken the effectiveness of a
certain leadership style, as manifestations of organizational
culture may vary from business to business and as the ways in which
leadership traits are perceived by employees may differ, depending
on the business climate concerned. In this respect, differences in
business culture between Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria
Beasley-Suffolk 134 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
12. regions and countries, among individual rms and even within
one single company can be dis- tinguished. It is safe to say that
an individual organization does not have one single company
culture: within a rm, various groups of individuals are separated
by departments, for instance, or simply by hierarchy (leaders and
followers) (Smircich, 1983; Schein, 1993, 1996). There is often a
set of group and department cultures that may show considerable
variation. Den Hartog, Van Muijen, and Koopman (1997) also state
that culture has certain moderating effects, because different
types of culture inuence the effectiveness of the leader. In this
light, we formulate the following proposition: Proposition 8:
Organizational culture acts as a moderator in the relationship
between leadership characteristics and employee engagement.
DISCUSSION The question we have set ourselves is how leadership
affects work engagement. In the preceding paragraphs, our main
emphasis was on the importance of employee engagement for
organizations. We referred to the positive outcomes of employee
engagement as indicated by earlier research and named a number of
conditions for the development of engagement, including
work-related resources such as autonomy, feedback and social
support, as well as personal resources such as optimism,
self-efcacy and self- esteem. We also argued that managers play a
vital role in increasing employee engagement because they exert a
major inuence on the availability of these work-related issues.
Finally, we identied organizational culture as an important
moderator in the relationship between leadership styles and
engagement. In Appendix, we have listed a conceptual model with all
the propositions. The question remains which leadership styles
contribute the most to high levels of engagement and which
leadership styles impede engagement and increase stress. If we
consider the propositions as stated in the preceding paragraphs, we
can group the rst six propositions into three distinctive classes
of leadership that impact the levels of engagement. The rst class
of leadership, comprising Propositions 1 and 2, and which relate
transactional and transformational leadership to engagement, will
be characterized as rich leadership. Kelloway, Siva- nathan,
Francis, and Barling (2005) coined this term to denote a leadership
style that features transactional as well as transformational
elements, and which may result in reduced levels of stress and
subsequently lead to higher levels of engagement. Transactional
leadership focuses on inuencing followers by submitting them to
rules, by presenting extrinsic incentives, by closely monitoring
results and by granting rewards if the outcome of follower
behaviour is in line with organizational goals (Den Hartog, Van
Muijen, & Koopman, 1997). This exchange process aims at
obtaining psychological credit and maintaining a fair balance
between the costs and benets as perceived by employees. Maintaining
feelings of fairness among employees makes it possible for
employees to perceive and label stressful situations such as high
job demands as positive challenge stressors instead of negative
hindrance stressors (e.g., Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Crawford,
Lepine, & Rich, 2010). Seen in this light, transactional
leadership does not contribute to higher levels of work engagement
as such but presents a condition for transformational leadership to
become effective, which is in line with the thoughts expressed by
leading scholars (cf. Bass, 1985, 1997; Waldman & Bass, 1990).
As was discussed in the preceding paragraphs, the focus of
transactional leadership is on the stimulation of the needs,
competencies and ambitions of the followers, on challenging
followers intellectually and on charismatic and inspiring
leadership, through which followers can be stimulated
energetically. Transformational leadership provides followers with
challenge stressors by which employees are stimulated to attain
goals, perfect their personal skills and achieve mastery, even
under conditions of high time pressure, high workloads and high
levels of job responsibility (e.g., Crawford, Lepine, & Rich,
2010). Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 135
13. The second class of leadership, comprising Propositions 3
and 4, can be characterized as a set of leadership styles that
contribute to increased stress levels among employees. In contrast
to rich lea- dership, this class of leadership style autocratic and
passive sees high levels of stress and the impediment of
engagement. Yet, it cannot be stated that low levels of this type
of leadership contribute to higher levels of engagement. In the
literature, this style of leadership is often qualied as poor
leadership (Kelloway et al., 2005). Poor leadership is frequently
associated with harassment and depriving employees of their
autonomy or with transferring to the employees specic job-related
tasks and responsibilities that actually belong to the leader (Hoel
et al., 2009). Poor leadership leads to an increase in stress and
reduced engagement among employees, as well as to a perceived lack
or total absence of work-related resources in the execution of
their business tasks. In sum, poor leadership as demonstrated by an
autocratic and passive leadership style leads to reduced
engagement. The third class of leadership, comprising Propositions
5, 6 and 7, sets the basic condition for the link between
leadership and engagement. If followers do not identify with their
leaders or do not accept their managers as their legitimate
leaders, then the leaderfollower exchange processes will not take
place. If this is the case, the level of engagement will not be
directly inuenced by leadership behaviour. By denition, we can only
speak of a manager effect on employee engagement levels if a
leaderfollower relationship has been established. A leadership
style aimed at the establishment of a leaderfollower exchange
should, therefore, contain elements that correspond with implicit
ideas held by employees concerning the prototype of the ideal
leader, as a result of which leaders are accepted by their
followers. An active contribution by the leader to the development
of an employees social identity will create a social climate in
which autonomy, social support and the exchange of feedback is
facilitated, and it is this type of climate that will promote
employee engagement. However, from an organizations perspective, a
common identity that leads to high value congruence and that shuts
down dialogue and debate will possibly lead to a lack of innovation
and creativity (Erdogan, Kraimer, & Liden, 2004) and
subsequently to a deterioration in organizational performance,
innovation and adaptability to change when needed (Meglino &
Ravlin, 1998; Schneider cited in Erdogan, Kraimer, & Liden,
2004), despite high levels of employee engagement. Therefore, in
the social exchange process leading to high LMX, and thus to high
employee engagement, leaders should take into account that in
building high value congruence, diversity in social identities
among their followers should be nourished and explored. We will
label this class of leadership style as inclusive leadership.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS With our translation of the rst seven
propositions into three classes of leadership, we can ask ourselves
what the most important lessons would be for managers who act as
formal leaders and who wish to create high levels of engagement
among their employees. The practical implications of our proposed
research model are important for everyday business practice. In the
initial sections of this paper, we described the link between
performance and work engagement. We postulated that a leader plays
an important role in promoting engagement on the part of followers
and that aspects of leadership are related to the level of
engagement. Our proposed research model is expected to yield new
knowledge for managers to improve the effectiveness of their
leadership behaviour. We wish to stress that the classes of
leadership styles dened above are features of actual leadership
behaviour demonstrated by managers, which impact the engagement
levels of their employees. Before we present concrete management
implications, we wish to mention two other signicant implications.
The rst is that the level of work engagement may well be indicative
of the effectiveness of a managers leadership style. In this light,
we wish to stress that from a leader-centred leadership
perspective, a managers effectiveness depends on the degree to
which work-related resources pro- moting engagement are made
available. Managers may be convinced that they are providing an
Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 136
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION
14. abundance of such resources, but if these are not
appreciated or even recognized by employees, as discussed in the
follower-centred and relation-centred leadership perspectives, this
will not result in higher levels of engagement. The second
implication we wish to emphasize is that the relationship between
leadership styles and work engagement may be inuenced by culture.
Following the rst implication mentioned above, we can argue that
expectations regarding effective leadership styles and expectations
regarding the availability of resources may well depend on
organizational culture. If we consider Quinn and Camerons concept
of organizational culture (cf. Igo & Skitmore, 2006),
appreciation and support may, in terms of resources, be more
signicant for the development of engagement in a clan culture than
they are in a goal-oriented culture, in which specic feedback and
concrete aims would form more obvious conditions for work
engagement. If we translate the outcomes of our investigations into
managerial implications, we can formulate a number of important
conclusions and suggestions for managers as well as formal leaders
in business practice. These are as follows: Various studies have
shown that engaged employees are more productive and more
successful than less-engaged or non-engaged employees. Engagement
may be attained by tapping into personal as well as work-related
resources. Personal resources concern traits such as optimism,
positive self-esteem, stress-resistance and self- efcacy. It is the
employees themselves who are responsible for applying these
resources. Work-related resources concern issues such as autonomy,
social support, effective and appropriate coaching and nally job
feedback. It is the leader who is responsible for providing these
resources. Leadership styles affect the way in which employees
perceive the availability of work-related resources. A leadership
style must contain inclusive elements for establishing a
leaderfollower exchange relationship between managers and employees
as a condition for engagement. We assume that inclusive and rich
styles of leadership have a positive effect on employee engagement.
Poor leadership styles are assumed to have a negative inuence on
employee engagement. In order to be effective, leaders should be
able to adapt their own leadership style and convert it into a
style that offers their workers more and better resources, thus
generating increased engagement. In this perspective, we can also
conclude that organizational culture has a direct inuence on the
relationship between leadership, work engagement and performance.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH In the past decade, considerable
academic evidence has been found concerning the value of work
engagement for achieving organizational goals (Demerouti et al.,
2001; Bakker & Demerouti, 2004, 2007; Schaufeli & Salanova,
2007; Blomme, 2012). Yet, relatively little is known about how
different leadership styles inuence work engagement. However, the
available literature does provide strong evidence that there is a
relationship between different aspects of leadership and work
engagement. We have found support for the idea that organizational
culture acts as a moderator variable in this relation. A study of
the literature reveals that effective leaders must use a
combination of inclusive and rich leadership styles to effectively
promote engagement. Our suggestion for further research on the
effectiveness of leadership in terms of work engagement would be to
study specic aspects of leadership and leadership styles together
and to take organizational culture and personal character traits
into account as moderator variables. This conceptual framework may
then be used to conduct further empirical research in order to test
whether the propositions formulated in the preceding paragraphs can
in fact be accepted, and to assess whether perceived organizational
culture and the character traits of employees truly act as
moderators in the relationship between leadership characteristics
and work engagement. By reconsidering and incorporating within the
Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF
MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 137
15. framework the outcomes of engagement such as improved
levels of personal and group performance, as indicated by earlier
studies, current research on work engagement can be expanded and
enhanced. CONCLUSION In this article, we examined the possible
links between work engagement and leadership styles. We considered
the literature on engagement, and with the help of the literature
on leadership we dened propositions leading to a conceptual
framework. We discussed potential contributions to the literature,
and we also elaborated upon the consequences for managers acting as
the formal leaders in an organization. We saw in earlier studies
that engaged professionals were more willing to put extra effort
into their work than their less-engaged colleagues, and we saw that
that engaged employees were less eager to change jobs and move to
another rm. In addition, we found that work engagement levels
correlated positively with work quality and the employees ability
to communicate to clients the unique selling points of their
companies. Available resources were also mentioned. Personal
resources include being optimistic and stress- resistant and having
positive self-esteem. Work-related resources refer to the physical,
social or orga- nizational aspects of work. They are intrinsically
motivating when basic needs are met, such as the need for autonomy,
the need for appropriate as well as effective feedback and the need
for social support. Following our elaboration of work engagement,
we developed a conceptual framework with eight propositions
elaborating the relationship between leadership styles and
engagement with orga- nizational culture as a moderator variable.
We discussed how the different leadership styles inuence
engagement, and dened three classes of leadership styles as
follows: inclusive, poor and rich. We stated that a rich leadership
style will lead to higher levels of engagement, but we also argued
that an inclusive leadership style is a sine qua non in terms of
establishing a leadershipfollower exchange process. The integration
of poor leadership style elements will lead to deterioration in
engagement and an increase in perceived stress. In sum, with this
paper, we hope to have contributed to a better understanding of the
ways in which leadership inuences engagement. As such, we conclude
that our research model, containing eight propositions in
combination with empirical research where these have been applied,
may offer signicant added value to todays business practice.
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21. APPENDIX +/+ P1: Transformational Leadership P2:
Transactional Leadership P3: Autocratic Leadership P4: Laissez
Faire Leadership P6: Acceptance of a leader as team member P5:
Congruence between leader prototype and perceived leader P7:
Leader-Membership Exchange characteristics P8: Organizational
Culture +/+ +/+ -/- -/- +/+ +/+ Engagement FIGURE A1. CONCEPTUAL
MODEL LEADERSHIP STYLES AS A PREDICTOR FOR ENGAGEMENT Robert J
Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 144 JOURNAL OF
MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION