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1. Journal of Management & Organization http://journals.cambridge.org/JMO Additional services for Journal of Management & Organization: Email alerts: Click here Subscriptions: Click here Commercial reprints: Click here Terms of use : Click here Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement: Creating a conceptual framework for management implications and research Robert J. Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk Journal of Management & Organization / Volume 21 / Issue 02 / March 2015, pp 125 - 144 DOI: 10.1017/jmo.2014.71, Published online: 14 January 2015 Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1833367214000716 How to cite this article: Robert J. Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk (2015). Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement: Creating a conceptual framework for management implications and research. Journal of Management & Organization, 21, pp 125-144 doi:10.1017/jmo.2014.71 Request Permissions : Click here Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/JMO, IP address: 39.44.48.174 on 26 Feb 2015

2. Journal of Management & Organization, 21:2 (2015), pp. 125144 2015 Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management doi:10.1017/jmo.2014.71 Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement: Creating a conceptual framework for management implications and research ROBERT J. BLOMME, BAS KODDEN AND ANNAMARIA BEASLEY-SUFFOLK Abstract During the past decade, a great deal of research has been carried out on the importance of employee engagement. In various studies, engagement is viewed as a positive state of mind of overwhelming satisfaction, which is characterized by feelings of vigour, dedication and absorption. In this article, vigour refers to a state of mind in which individuals feel energetic, t, strong and indefatigable. Dedication refers to a state of mind in which individuals feel highly engaged by their work, which inspires them, and makes them feel proud and enthusiastic. Absorption refers to a pleasant state of mind in which individuals are fully immersed in their work. This article provides an overview of a number of perspectives on leadership and discusses which leadership factors are likely to be the most effective in ensuring that employees remain engaged and productive. It also provides a conceptual model for further research on the relationship between leadership styles and work engagement. Keywords: work engagement, leadership, organizational culture, work-related resources, organizational performance Received 22 January 2013. Accepted 7 August 2014 INTRODUCTION During the past decade, the concept of work engagement has become an important topic in explaining the levels of motivation in members of an organization (Halbesleben, 2010; Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Cole, Walter, Bedeian, & OBoyle, 2011). Many studies have demonstrated a link between work engagement and organizational performance (e.g., Salanova, Agut, & Peir, 2005; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Heuven, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2008a; Van Schalkwyk, Du Toit, Bothma, & Rothmann, 2010). Work engagement does not only affect organizational performance. It is a much broader concept that concerns what allows individuals to decide when and where to translate their cognitive, affective and physical energy into activities (Kahn, 1990; Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010). These perceived opportunities for choice are displayed by individual levels of self-efcacy, which can be dened as ones beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (e.g., Bandura, 1997, 1999). Several studies have shown that engaged employees show high levels of self-efcacy in terms of directing their own career and investing energy in it (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008; Bakker, 2009; Halbesleben, 2010). When engaged employees do not feel sufciently Centre for Leadership and Management Development, Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen, The Netherlands Corresponding author: [email protected] JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 125

3. challenged in their jobs, for example, they tend to change employers more easily, thus creating their own positive feedback by means of a positive attitude and a wide radius of action. In addition, longitudinal research has indicated that individuals who ultimately become engaged will remain engaged (Bakker, 2009; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009), a very valuable conclusion for those who wish to develop a positive state of mind. Although work engagement may seem to be specically (and perhaps uniquely) related to single individuals, various studies show that personal and work-related resources have a positive inuence on work engagement per se (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Xanthopoulou et al., 2008a; Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010). Available studies show that certain work-related resources the social support of colleagues and managers, development opportunities and work variation are positively related to work engagement (e.g., Hakanen, Bakker, & Demerouti, 2005; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Heuven, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2008b). A study conducted among Finnish dentists (Hakanen, Bakker, & Demerouti, 2005), for example, concluded that there is a positive relationship between work-related resources creative and varied work, positive feedback from patients or task identity and work engagement. Other studies report a strong positive relationship between the social support offered by direct superiors and the work engagement of employees (Bakker, Demerouti, & Verbeke, 2004; Haq et al., 2010; Wiley, 2010). For example, a study conducted by Xanthopoulou et al. (2009) shows that there is a direct positive relationship between daily coaching (energy source) and the daily engagement of employees. The provision of these work-related resources may stimulate employees to deal with time pressure, a high workload and high levels of job responsibility and to regard these as challenging (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000). Meeting these challenges will result in higher levels of engagement (Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). Studies on engagement from a psychological contract perspective also demonstrate that higher levels of employer contract fullment, including expected work-related resources, lead to higher levels of engagement (Chambel & Oliveira-Cruz, 2010; Bal, De Cooman, & Mol, 2013; Bal, Kooij, & De Jong, 2013). Furthermore, studies suggest that the relationship between employer contract fullment and engagement may differ, not only in terms of gender (Blomme, Van Rheede, & Tromp, 2010), but also among age categories (Bal, De Lange, Ybema, & Van Der Velde, 2011) and generations (Lub, Blomme, & Bal, 2011; Lub, Bijvank, Bal, Blomme, & Schalk, 2012), which demonstrates that the ways in which high levels of engagement are reached may differ among these three employee categories. In addition, a study conducted by Bal, De Cooman, and Mol (2013) indicates that people with high levels of engagement are able to negotiate a better psychological contract with their employer, which brings about better work-related resources and, in turn, gives rise to even higher levels of engagement. As such, psychological contract theory contributes to our understanding that the relationship between work-related resources and engagement may differ among different employee categories and to our understanding of the mechanism through which engaged people will remain engaged. Conversely, Crawford, Lepine, and Rich (2010) found support for the notion that work-related resources that are lacking or that hinder employees in developing and attaining their goals may be viewed as hindrances, and thus become negatively associated with engagement. It is reasonable to suggest that managers, as formal leaders in an organization, play an important role in the provision of work-related resources, which produce higher levels of engagement. After all, it is managers who are chiey responsible for the level of autonomy an employee is granted. It is managers who give their employees feedback on the work done and who have a say in determining how much social support an employee receives. It could, therefore, be argued that managers play an important role in securing high levels of work engagement, particularly by providing work-related resources such as autonomy, social support and feedback (e.g., Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Xanthopoulou et al., 2008a). Although certain facets of leadership affecting work engagement have already been explored (e.g., Henderson, Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2008; Wiley, 2010; Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 126 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

4. 2011; Wefald, Reichard, & Serrano, 2011), the literature is scarce when it comes to answering the question regarding how specic aspects of leadership styles impact work engagement. Therefore, the question arises as to how leadership stimulates or impedes work engagement. In this article, therefore, no distinction is made between managers and leaders, because managers can be regarded as the formal or administrative leaders in an organization (French & Raven, 1959; Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008; Blomme, 2012). Below, we shall examine the link between leadership and the concept of work engagement, and we shall explain how particular aspects of leadership inuence work engagement. We shall also discuss the specic function of organizational culture and personal characteristics in the relationship between leadership and work engagement. The outcomes are expected to yield a conceptual framework that can be used for managers who wish to become more effective in stimulating work engagement among their employees. In addition to elaborating upon the potential practical value of the outcome, we shall also discuss implications for further research. WORK ENGAGEMENT In 2001, Demerouti and her colleagues argued that there should be a new and more positive approach to human behaviour for use in labour and organizational psychology (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). Although previous research studies focused mainly on explaining negative phenomena such as burnout syndrome and depression (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Maslach & Leiter, 2008) as opposites of work engagement (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Halbesleben, 2010), it was the research done by Demerouti and her colleagues that prompted a new generation of researchers to pay greater attention to positive emotions. Demerouti and her colleagues argued that being happy and optimistic can be learned, and 10 years of thorough study has indeed shown that work engagement can in fact be developed. Employees who are mostly optimistic and who believe that life has a positive meaning for them often create more opportunities and are better equipped to seize them. These employees tend to be extremely enthusiastic and happy about the things they do, they take decisive action as soon as they notice that they are operating less effectively and they take pride in their jobs. In sum, their work is what makes them content. Following Kahns (1990) denition of engagement, Rich, Lepine, and Crawford (2010) argue that work engagement is an important motivational concept that is not only restricted to job performance per se, but also offers a wider perspective concerning the employee himself1 . This wider perspective paints a picture of individuals who are able to make their own decisions concerning the tasks and activities in which they wish to invest their physical, cognitive and affective energy. As such, engagement is a concept that describes how employees harness themselves in their organizational roles by converting their energy into affective, cognitive and physical labours (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010: 619). Schaufeli and his colleagues also add that it is precisely this process that can promote behaviours that will ultimately result in a persistent, positive affective-motivational state of fullment (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzlez- Rom, & Bakker, 2002). Because of their positive attitude and their high levels of activity, engaged employees create their own positive feedback in the form of appreciation, credit and success. Engaged employees also prove to be very active outside their jobs (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker, 2009). They are enthusiastic and positive, not only about their work but also about what they do in their leisure time, and they communicate their engagement to others. Proponents of this recent and more positive psychological approach do not claim to have discovered anything new, but simply underline the importance of further research on these positive employee characteristics (Luthans & Youssef, 2007). The reason why there has been a sharp increase in the number of studies on work engagement over the past few years is not uniquely related to todays 1 Masculine forms have been used here for stylistic purposes only. Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 127

5. increased interest in positive psychology that is, the scientic study of human strength and optimal functioning. The increase in the number of studies on the positive phenomena of intrinsic work motivation is mainly due to the frequently demonstrated relationship between work engagement and organizational performance (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Cole et al., 2011). A growing number of studies demonstrate the link between levels of work engagement and the level of service orientation (Salanova, Agut, & Peir, 2005; Xanthopoulou et al., 2008a), how engaged employees are assessed (Bakker, Demerouti, & Verbeke, 2004), the level of organizational commitment (Hallberg & Schaufeli, 2006; Llorens, Bakker, Schaufeli, & Salanova, 2006), and nally the link between levels of work engagement and the organizations sales (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Work engagement is characterized by vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002; Gonzlez-Rom, Schaufeli, Bakker, & Lloret, 2006). Vigour can be described as high levels of energy and mental resilience shown during work, the willingness to invest effort in work and the degree of persistence when work is difcult. Absorption refers to the state in which an individual is highly focused on and positively engrossed in work. When absorbed, people feel that time passes quickly and that it is difcult to stop working. Dedication refers to the state that people are in when they have a sense of their own signicance and are feeling inspired, challenged and enthusiastic. Dedication is related to a strong sense of commitment to and engagement with work: work is perceived as inspiring and evokes feelings of pride and enthusiasm (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). Bakker (2009) formulated four reasons why engaged employees perform better than non-engaged individuals. Engaged employees (1) frequently experience positive emotions such as happiness, pleasure and enthusiasm; (2) tend to have better health; (3) communicate their engagement to others and they also (4) take responsibility and the initiative for creating their own work-related and personal resources. It is especially the level of dedication, as a feature of their work engagement, which may be a highly important predictor of individual and organizational performance (Kodden, 2011). Although personal and work-related resources may initially be created by engaged employees themselves in specic situations, they are also important conditions for the maintenance of engagement (Bakker, 2009; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009; Halbesleben, 2010). Personal and work-related resources consist of permanent personal sources and work sources that protect employees against the negative effects of labour, such as burnout syndrome for instance. As indicated by Bakker (2009), these sources give individuals access to a wide range of physical, social and personal resources, which are particularly useful and effective in times of hardship and adversity. In addition, they contribute to the realization of work goals as well as the promotion of personal growth and development (Demerouti et al., 2001). The term personal resources in this case refers to personality traits such as an individuals degree of optimism, self-esteem, stress-resistance and self-efcacy. The more effectively individuals can access such personal resources, the more they will increase their control over certain situations, which will enable them to deal with demanding circumstances more easily (Hannah et al., 2008). This, in turn, reduces feelings of stress and increases the degree of engagement they experience. A study carried out in South Africa (Storm & Rothmann, 2003) demonstrated that engagement is also related in part to personality traits such as extraversion and emotional stability. A Dutch study (Mostert & Rothmann, 2006), moreover, indicated that the strong relationship between engagement and personality traits can also be seen in terms of a low degree of neuroticism, a high degree of extraversion and a high degree of agility (the ability to complete a large number of consecutive tasks). It might, therefore, be possible here to speak of an engaged personality type and argue that it is the employees themselves in particular who are responsible for their own engagement and job satisfaction by making use of a larger number of personal resources. In addition to personal resources, work-related resources are an important condition for the development of work engagement because they increase the potential work autonomy of individuals to take control over their own decisions and the organization of feedback, leading to higher levels of Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 128 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

6. engagement. This notion is supported by a number of research studies, which show that work-related resources such as the social support provided by colleagues and superiors, growth opportunities and a varied use of competencies correlate positively with engagement (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2007; Cole et al., 2011; Kodden, 2011). The possibility to create work- related resources and the availability of these are often an outcome of organizational culture (Wilderom, 2011), organizational policies (Kossek, Markel, & McHugh, 2003) and leadership style (Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011; Wilderom, van den Berg, & Wiersma, 2012). However, many studies also emphasize the importance of the provision of work resources, but ample studies have been conducted regarding the effects of leaders on employee engagement (Blomme, 2012). The effects of leadership styles on the level of engagement and the presence of resources would seem to be obvious, as it is managers who carry the main responsibility for the degree of autonomy that employees are granted. It is the managers who are responsible for performance feedback and who, in co-operation with others, determine the amount of social support that employees are offered in their work. In the following sections, we shall discuss in greater detail how leadership styles affect the number of work- related and personal resources that employees have at their disposal, all of which determine the extent to which individual engagement increases or declines. We will use Graen and Uhl-Biens (1995) taxonomy of leadership, which categorizes leadership theories based on their primary focus. Graen and Uhl-Bien introduced the following three perspectives on leadership: the leader-centred, the follower- centred and the relationship-centred approach. THE LEADER-CENTRED APPROACH IN RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT Although as yet little is known about the precise effects of leadership styles on engagement, the effectiveness of leadership behaviour has been researched for many decades (Blomme, 2012). In the leader-centred approach, the traditional concept of leadership can be dened as mutual inuencing (Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2007). Yukl (1989) denes leadership as the way in which individuals (leaders) purposefully inuence other individuals to obtain dened outcomes. However, mutual inuence is not necessarily related to the concept of leadership (Cialdini & Trost, 1998). Inuence is an important feature of a relationship of co-operation. For instance, if an employee asks a colleague for a favour and the colleague agrees, he may agree to the request either because he simply likes this particular colleague or because he is afraid of him. In this case, compliance is stimulated by an appeal to either sympathy or respect. The person asking for the favour can also appeal to an existing implicit or explicit company standard, which tolerates the granting of favours. In this case, an appeal is made to an obligation to comply with the norm (Turner, 1991). Yet, in both cases, what happens is not a question of leadership (cf. Chemers, 2001). Only when the person making the request actually manages to persuade the other of the necessity of co-operation and only when both actors agree on a standard set of values can we speak of leadership. Leadership is involved when one or more individuals play an important role in dening collective norms and values, and in this context leadership is viewed as a group-oriented rather than a mutual process (cf. Hogg, 2001). Leadership behaviour may be termed effective when a leader succeeds in developing a collective set of norms and in setting goals to meet these norms. A contrast frequently cited in leadership literature is the contrast between transactional and transformational leadership (Yukl, 1989; Bass, 1997). With regard to our current perspective of engagement, Lord (2008) points to a possible contrast between these two types of leadership as seen in leadership theories. In transactional leadership, the focus is on inuencing followers by submitting them to rules, by presenting extrinsic incentives, by closely monitoring results and by granting rewards if the outcome of follower behaviour is in line with the goals of the organization. Transactional leadership involves the denition of follower interests in terms of successful transactions with the (work) environment, and it is here that we can see a limitation: a limitation concerning control over Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 129

7. contractual obligations. This means that a manager is predominantly concerned with dening targets and steering employees within existing frameworks. This is what Den Hartog calls maintenance management (Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997), in which a managers guidance and leadership are characterized by steering when performance deviates from the accepted standards. The basis of transactional leadership lies in social interaction (Hollander, 1995). Both the manager and the employee build psychological credit through the process of social interaction. Psychological credit is closely related to the advantages to be obtained in engaging in exchanges and co-operation. Followers tend to follow leaders when co-operation yields sufcient benets. An important condition for followers is not only that they reap the benets but also that the leader is seen to be fair when distributing them (Cropanzano, 1993; Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997; Colquitt, 2001; Folger & Cropanzano, 2001). Followers need to see the rewards to be gained as justied in relation to the amount of effort that needs to be spent on reaping these rewards (Haslam, Reicher, & Platow, 2011). If followers consider the benets to be unreasonable in relation to the level of investment needed to achieve them, they will experience psychological stress and anxiety (Folger & Cropanzano, 2001). Followers are motivated to reduce these tensions, either by reducing investments (i.e., doing less), or by trying to increase the number of benets (in co-operation with the manager), or by ultimately ending the partnership (leaving the organization) (Walster, Berscheid, & Walster, 1973). Perceived fairness not only depends on perceived costs and benets but also on the perceived performance and posi- tioning of leaders themselves. If followers are under the impression that managers are dragging their feet or that they are being paid excessively high salaries, this will inuence their sense of fairness in a number of ways (Bruins, Platow, & Ng, 1995). Effective transactional leadership in a business environment is thus aimed at obtaining psychological credit and maintaining a fair balance between costs and benets as perceived by employees. If these work-related resources are not provided in the exchange process between leaders and followers, employees may consider this to be unfair and a hindrance, impeding not only the attainment of their goals but also personal growth and learning. Research shows that hindrances in obtaining work-related resources have a negative effect on levels of engagement (Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). This leads us to our rst proposition: Proposition 1: Lower levels of transactional leadership are related to lower levels of engagement. Compared with transactional leadership, transformational leadership is not so much focused on the balance between costs and benets but focused on the initiation and management of change. Transformational leadership has four components as follows (Bass, 1997; Bass & Riggio, 2006): idealized inuence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. The rst component of transformational leadership, idealized inuence, deals with the importance of charismatic and inspirational leadership: to maintain their motivation, the leader must convince his followers of the need for change and explain why change is necessary. Furthermore, this charismatic aspect instils pride, faith and respect, as well as promotes an articulated sense of mission, which leads to a followers dependence on the charismatic acts of a leader (Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). The second component, inspirational motivation, concerns how leaders articulate a mission and a vision that appeals to and inspires followers. The supposition behind this leadership aspect is that followers are motivated to act when they have a strong sense of purpose. This vision, which encom- passes high standards, optimism about future goals and the provision of meaning for the followers individual tasks, generates this strong sense of purpose. Inspirational motivation requires clear com- munication on the part of the leader in order to make a vision understandable, precise and engaging. The third component, intellectual stimulation, concerns the need to challenge followers intellectually, which includes providing feedback and challenging tasks in order to promote and develop problem- solving abilities. In terms of content, positive feedback can assist the employee in exploring various elements of the work at hand, which may lead not only to the improvement of quality but also to the Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 130 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

8. stimulation of creativity and problem-solving skills. Finally, individualized consideration concerns the way in which the leader addresses the specic needs, competencies and ambitions of the followers in order to support them in their endeavours to meet their own needs, to develop their individual competencies and to achieve their ambitions. In this respect, transformational leaders can offer their employees their appreciation and support by focusing on personal needs. Positive feedback from a relational perspective may reinforce this sense of support, because this places a special emphasis not only on the appreciation for the employee but also on the acknowledgement of the degree of his investment. Thus, transformational leadership emphasizes the ability of leaders to challenge and inspire their followers in such a way that they become willing to help the organization achieve its goals and that they identify themselves with its mission and vision. This element of transformational leadership may generate a positive attitude among employees and produce the energy that is needed to complete the various organizational tasks. Accordingly, the four elements of transformational leadership listed above offer employees access to resources such as support, specic feedback and energy in order to develop engagement. These work-related resources are an important condition to be able to cope with stressful demands and to label these as challenging stressors in pursuing personal mastery, learning and future gains (Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). We, therefore, propose the following: Proposition 2: Higher levels of transformational leadership are related to higher levels of engagement. Reduced engagement, reduced emotional commitment and mental stress may be caused by harassment and the deprivation of autonomy on the part of the employee. These phenomena can also result from a downward shift (to employees) of task-related responsibilities that should in actual fact reside with the manager (Hoel, Glas, Hetland, Cooper, & Einarsen, 2009). Various studies (Einarsen, Hoel, & Notelaers, 2009; Hoel et al., 2009) have shown that harassment is associated with autocratic leadership. A number of authors (Block, 1987; Conger & Kanungo, 1988) maintain that autocratic leadership concerns behaviour that is aimed at broadening and enhancing a managers position of power and at increasing dependency on the part of employees. Tourish (2011) claims that when transformational aspects of leadership are solely used by a leader to establish and expand the position of power, resulting in increasing follower dependency, transformational leadership turns into what he terms cultic leadership, which has features similar to those seen in autocratic leadership. For example, when leaders consider themselves to be the sole source of key ideas and vision and when dissent expressed by followers is punished, or when agreement with these key ideas is crucial for group membership and rewards, transformational leadership may turn into autocratic leadership (Tourish & Pinnington, 2002; Tourish, 2011). In this process, followers may perceive autocratic managers as micromanagers or superiors who offer little to no social support and who are merely focused on the execution of certain tasks and the subsequent attainment of business goals. The act of shifting responsibilities is in line with Den Hartogs denition of passive leadership (Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997). This failure on the part of the manager to take responsibility leads to reduced involvement on the part of employees and to the latters perceived lack or absence of support in the execution of their business tasks. Moreover, it is not only the lack of work-related resources that hinders employees in pursuing their goals and that leads to lower levels of engagement. One important relationship that can be distinguished here is the negative relationship between anxiety and engagement. Feelings of stress may manifest themselves in the form of psychological tension, and subsequently in the form of reduced cognitive functioning and depressed mood (Gross, 1970). Reduced levels of engagement and emotional commitment, as well as strain-induced stress, may be caused by the style of leadership a manager adopts towards his employees (Hoel, Faragher, & Cooper, 2004; Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, 2011). More in particular, it is especially autocratic leadership styles that directly lead to strain-induced stress among employees, hindering them in developing mastery and personal growth Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 131

9. (Stetz, Stetz, & Bliese, 2006; Bloisi & Hoel, 2008; Hoel et al., 2009), and as such hindering them in becoming engaged. Hence, we propose the following: Proposition 3: Autocratic leadership is negatively related to employee engagement. Besides transactional, transformational and autocratic leadership, a fourth approach can be distinguished: laissez-faire leadership. This particular style is characterized by a passive attitude: managers remain inactive or uninvolved and do not take responsibility when it is desirable or when they are required to do so. Den Hartog, Van Muijen, and Koopman (1997) call this style of leadership passive as opposed to transactional and transformational leadership, which they term active. Laissez-faire leadership would seem to be incompatible with the outcomes of earlier research on engagement and the proven prerequisite of providing followers with sufcient coaching assistance, feedback and social support. This leads us to the following proposition: Proposition 4: A passive attitude on the part of managers is negatively related to employee engagement. Available literature on transactional and transformational leadership states that leadership is concerned with relationships of social exchange, but it fails to indicate in which situations followers actually engage in such relationships or in which situations managers are considered to be charismatic or transformational. In situations where managers merely assume that employees are loyal to the organizations goals and in situations where radical change is taking place, this particular style of leadership can produce negative emotions and feelings of stress among followers (cf. Carey, 1992; Terry, 2003), thus resulting in low engagement (Jetten, OBrien, & Trindall, 2002). Furthermore, Kerr and Jermier (1978, in Vecchio, 1987) argue that different situational factors including the cohesion of work groups (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2005), clarity of tasks and relating goals as provided by the organization (Howell & Dorfman, 1981), as well as a strong inter-dependence between members of a work group (Villa, Howell, Daniel, & Dorfman, 2003), may enhance, neutralize or become a substitute for leader behaviours as followers become less dependent on leaders (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2005; Avolio, Walumbwa, Weber, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2009). Furthermore, Erdogan, Kraimer, and Liden (2004) argue that employees demon- strating high work value congruence do not require a leader or other types of social support to achieve job and career satisfaction. As such, this suggests that the organizational context plays an important role in determining whether leadership styles have a positive or negative effect on employee engagement. For example, when the organizational context provides a work context that neutralizes and substitutes leader behaviours, a passive attitude on the part of managers may have a positive effect on followers engagement. THE FOLLOWER-CENTRED APPROACH IN RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT Besides the moderating effect of the organizational context on the relationship between leadership style and employee engagement, it can also be argued that followers tend to regard managers as less effective when they remain distant and fail to act as members of the team and the community of followers. In sum, in order to dene the conditions that allow leadership to become effective from the followers point of view, we should study it from a followers perspective, commonly addressed as the follower- centred approach. In our attempts, we shall distinguish two perspectives as follows: one provided by implicit leadership theory (ILT) and one provided by social identity theory. An important perspective in the study of leadership and the role of related stereotypes, and one that does in fact consider the position of followers, is ILT. This theory was initially developed by Meindl and colleagues in the 1990s as an alternative for theories and perspectives that place great weight on leaders and on the substantive signicance of their actions and activities (Meindl, 1995: 330). Lord and Maher (1990: 132) dene implicit leadership as the process of being perceived as a leader by Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 132 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

10. others. ILT proponents claim that the followers process of attribution is characterized by the category of leadership in which a leader is placed by the follower leaders should t an ideal stereotype accorded to them by followers and which adheres to certain domain specications (Van Knippenberg, Van Knippenberg, & Giessner, 2006; Giessner, Van Knippenberg, & Sleebos, 2009). This goes beyond the question of how followers perceive their leaders as seen in the leader-centred perspective; ILT considers how followers view their own roles and behaviours when engaging with their leaders and how leaders behaviour is aligned with these (cf. Meindl, 1995; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2005;Van Knippenberg, Van Knippenberg, & Giessner, 2006; Schyns, 2007). The more the leaders attitudes and behaviour are aligned with prototype attitudes and behaviour that correspond with a followers leader stereotypes, the more the follower feels trusted by, attached to and connected with the leader (Keller, 2003). As such, a follower will be able to demonstrate knowledge and competence to develop autonomous roles and show active participation in decision-making processes, and nally to act as effective members of the team and the community of followers (Howell & Mendez, 2008). As a consequence, followers will be able to develop higher levels of engagement. These considerations led us to postulate the following: Proposition 5: A high level of congruence between leader prototype and perceived leader characteristics is positively related to employee engagement. An extension of the ILT perspective and leaderfollower prototypicality to predict followers perceptions of leadership effectiveness is leadership approached from social identity theory (Giessner, Van Knippenberg, & Sleebos, 2009). Social identity theory puts forward the idea that followers wish to be part of a group (inclusion) in order to develop their social identity. Having a social identity means that people feel a sense of belonging. Being part of a social system gives meaning to an individuals activities as these are then related to a wider framework, something that will, in turn, lead to a more positive self- image (Hogg, 2001). This social system is embedded in the direct social network of a participant and is frequently described as the in-crowd (Hogg, 2001). Many researchers claim that this explains why people want to become part of a group or an organization (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Tajfel, 1982; Cornelissen, Haslam, & Balmer, 2007; Jetten, Haslam, Iyer, & Haslam, 2009). Being a member of a certain group allows the development of a social identity by searching for common features among group members and by contrasting these with characteristics shared by other groups (Tajfel, 1982; Hogg, 2001). This differentiation process aims to demonstrate that in-crowd features are deemed more positive than those of others. Being accepted by fellow in-crowd members and the development of a social identity based on shared characteristics are important needs that take priority over the execution of certain tasks (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Chemers, 2001). In this sense, the primary concern of individuals is to seek inclusion in a group, after which they can proceed to build their social identity through shared co-operation and interaction. Thus, the actions of an employee are primarily aimed at developing a social identity, and if it is not clear whether or not an individual is included in the group, it is the leader who will be held responsible rst (Hollander, 1985). A common identity shared by all group members creates social cohesion and co-operation. This, in turn, may bring about a sense of engagement among the team members, and it can in fact be argued that particularly social cohesion and co-operation give rise to a sense of social support and autonomy, which makes constructive feedback possible. We propose the following: Proposition 6: The presence of a leader who has been accepted by the group as a team member is positively related to employee engagement. THE RELATIONSHIP-CENTRED APPROACH IN RELATION TO ENGAGEMENT The third perspective on how leadership might inuence work engagement is that of the relationship between a leader and his subordinates. An important theory that concerns these relationships is Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 133

11. leadershipmembership exchange (LMX). This approach differs from the aforementioned leader- centred approaches, both of which presume that the relationships that leaders maintain with their subordinates are similar. LMX, originally coined by Dansereau and colleagues as vertical dyadic linkage, is a leadership theory that provides arguments why leaders differentiate between subordinates and why they create in-groups and out-groups. It follows their assumption that the time and resources needed to increase productivity are limited (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975). Graen and Uhl-Bien argue that in-group members have high-quality exchanges, leading to high levels of trust and obligation, whereas out-group members have low-quality exchanges, leading to lower levels of trust, respect and obligation (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Research studies on LMX demonstrate that individual in-group members show higher objective performance in their work, high levels of commitment, high levels of job satisfaction, strong feelings of empowerment and are less likely to leave the company (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Gerstner & Day, 1997; Cogliser, Schriesheim, & Castro, 1999). Dienesch and Liden (1986) describe the process of LMX as the initial interaction between leader and subordinate followed by leader delegation and starting with a rst assignment or a set of tasks (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Precisely how the subordinate responds with respect to task fullment determines how a leaders attributions are shaped in relation to this subordinate. These attributions will produce certain leader responses, which in turn will develop the subordinates attributes and subsequently produce certain responses to the leader. Thus, these steps can be characterized as a social exchange process (e.g., Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). This social interaction is characterized and inuenced by dimensions including the perceived contribution made by the leader and the subordinate to serve explicit and implicit mutual goals, mutual loyalty and affection (Dienesch & Liden, 1986), and nally mutual professional respect as developed in the relationship (Liden & Maslyn, 1998). Although LMX seems similar to transformational leadership, the difference is that LMX theory describes how the goals of a leader and a follower are merged (Krishnan, 2004). In this respect, LMX contributes to the aforementioned follower-centred approach, which describes how follower attributes determine whether leaders are accepted and included in in-groups in terms of helping them to develop a social identity. A strong presence of these dimensions will result in high-quality levels of LMX. With high levels of LMX, members will receive social support and feedback, as well as work-related resources, which will result in high levels of engagement. Therefore, we propose the following: Proposition 7: High levels of LMX are positively related to high levels of employee engagement. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS A MODERATOR During the last decade, studies on organizational theory and practice have paid considerable attention to organizational culture. In this respect, Schein denes organizational culture as the body of common beliefs, assumptions and values that are shared by members of an organization (Schein, 1983, 1993). Schein (1996) maintains that the deeper layer of organizational culture is shaped by norms and values, the underlying drivers of behaviour. It is precisely the importance of shared values determining organizational culture that makes them an extremely interesting variable where leadership styles are concerned (Frankel, Leonard, & Denham, 2006; Kavanagh & Ashkanasy, 2006; Asree, Zain, & Razalli, 2010; Wilderom, van den Berg, & Wiersma, 2012). Some authors assume that the effectiveness of leadership styles depends in part on the organizational culture within which business processes take place (Erez, 1994; Bass & Avolio, 1997). Contextual factors may enhance or weaken the effectiveness of a certain leadership style, as manifestations of organizational culture may vary from business to business and as the ways in which leadership traits are perceived by employees may differ, depending on the business climate concerned. In this respect, differences in business culture between Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 134 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

12. regions and countries, among individual rms and even within one single company can be distinguished. It is safe to say that an individual organization does not have one single company culture: within a rm, various groups of individuals are separated by departments, for instance, or simply by hierarchy (leaders and followers) (Smircich, 1983; Schein, 1993, 1996). There is often a set of group and department cultures that may show considerable variation. Den Hartog, Van Muijen, and Koopman (1997) also state that culture has certain moderating effects, because different types of culture inuence the effectiveness of the leader. In this light, we formulate the following proposition: Proposition 8: Organizational culture acts as a moderator in the relationship between leadership characteristics and employee engagement. DISCUSSION The question we have set ourselves is how leadership affects work engagement. In the preceding paragraphs, our main emphasis was on the importance of employee engagement for organizations. We referred to the positive outcomes of employee engagement as indicated by earlier research and named a number of conditions for the development of engagement, including work-related resources such as autonomy, feedback and social support, as well as personal resources such as optimism, self-efcacy and self- esteem. We also argued that managers play a vital role in increasing employee engagement because they exert a major inuence on the availability of these work-related issues. Finally, we identied organizational culture as an important moderator in the relationship between leadership styles and engagement. In Appendix, we have listed a conceptual model with all the propositions. The question remains which leadership styles contribute the most to high levels of engagement and which leadership styles impede engagement and increase stress. If we consider the propositions as stated in the preceding paragraphs, we can group the rst six propositions into three distinctive classes of leadership that impact the levels of engagement. The rst class of leadership, comprising Propositions 1 and 2, and which relate transactional and transformational leadership to engagement, will be characterized as rich leadership. Kelloway, Siva- nathan, Francis, and Barling (2005) coined this term to denote a leadership style that features transactional as well as transformational elements, and which may result in reduced levels of stress and subsequently lead to higher levels of engagement. Transactional leadership focuses on inuencing followers by submitting them to rules, by presenting extrinsic incentives, by closely monitoring results and by granting rewards if the outcome of follower behaviour is in line with organizational goals (Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997). This exchange process aims at obtaining psychological credit and maintaining a fair balance between the costs and benets as perceived by employees. Maintaining feelings of fairness among employees makes it possible for employees to perceive and label stressful situations such as high job demands as positive challenge stressors instead of negative hindrance stressors (e.g., Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). Seen in this light, transactional leadership does not contribute to higher levels of work engagement as such but presents a condition for transformational leadership to become effective, which is in line with the thoughts expressed by leading scholars (cf. Bass, 1985, 1997; Waldman & Bass, 1990). As was discussed in the preceding paragraphs, the focus of transactional leadership is on the stimulation of the needs, competencies and ambitions of the followers, on challenging followers intellectually and on charismatic and inspiring leadership, through which followers can be stimulated energetically. Transformational leadership provides followers with challenge stressors by which employees are stimulated to attain goals, perfect their personal skills and achieve mastery, even under conditions of high time pressure, high workloads and high levels of job responsibility (e.g., Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 135

13. The second class of leadership, comprising Propositions 3 and 4, can be characterized as a set of leadership styles that contribute to increased stress levels among employees. In contrast to rich leadership, this class of leadership style autocratic and passive sees high levels of stress and the impediment of engagement. Yet, it cannot be stated that low levels of this type of leadership contribute to higher levels of engagement. In the literature, this style of leadership is often qualied as poor leadership (Kelloway et al., 2005). Poor leadership is frequently associated with harassment and depriving employees of their autonomy or with transferring to the employees specic job-related tasks and responsibilities that actually belong to the leader (Hoel et al., 2009). Poor leadership leads to an increase in stress and reduced engagement among employees, as well as to a perceived lack or total absence of work-related resources in the execution of their business tasks. In sum, poor leadership as demonstrated by an autocratic and passive leadership style leads to reduced engagement. The third class of leadership, comprising Propositions 5, 6 and 7, sets the basic condition for the link between leadership and engagement. If followers do not identify with their leaders or do not accept their managers as their legitimate leaders, then the leaderfollower exchange processes will not take place. If this is the case, the level of engagement will not be directly inuenced by leadership behaviour. By denition, we can only speak of a manager effect on employee engagement levels if a leaderfollower relationship has been established. A leadership style aimed at the establishment of a leaderfollower exchange should, therefore, contain elements that correspond with implicit ideas held by employees concerning the prototype of the ideal leader, as a result of which leaders are accepted by their followers. An active contribution by the leader to the development of an employees social identity will create a social climate in which autonomy, social support and the exchange of feedback is facilitated, and it is this type of climate that will promote employee engagement. However, from an organizations perspective, a common identity that leads to high value congruence and that shuts down dialogue and debate will possibly lead to a lack of innovation and creativity (Erdogan, Kraimer, & Liden, 2004) and subsequently to a deterioration in organizational performance, innovation and adaptability to change when needed (Meglino & Ravlin, 1998; Schneider cited in Erdogan, Kraimer, & Liden, 2004), despite high levels of employee engagement. Therefore, in the social exchange process leading to high LMX, and thus to high employee engagement, leaders should take into account that in building high value congruence, diversity in social identities among their followers should be nourished and explored. We will label this class of leadership style as inclusive leadership. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS With our translation of the rst seven propositions into three classes of leadership, we can ask ourselves what the most important lessons would be for managers who act as formal leaders and who wish to create high levels of engagement among their employees. The practical implications of our proposed research model are important for everyday business practice. In the initial sections of this paper, we described the link between performance and work engagement. We postulated that a leader plays an important role in promoting engagement on the part of followers and that aspects of leadership are related to the level of engagement. Our proposed research model is expected to yield new knowledge for managers to improve the effectiveness of their leadership behaviour. We wish to stress that the classes of leadership styles dened above are features of actual leadership behaviour demonstrated by managers, which impact the engagement levels of their employees. Before we present concrete management implications, we wish to mention two other signicant implications. The rst is that the level of work engagement may well be indicative of the effectiveness of a managers leadership style. In this light, we wish to stress that from a leader-centred leadership perspective, a managers effectiveness depends on the degree to which work-related resources promoting engagement are made available. Managers may be convinced that they are providing an Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 136 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

14. abundance of such resources, but if these are not appreciated or even recognized by employees, as discussed in the follower-centred and relation-centred leadership perspectives, this will not result in higher levels of engagement. The second implication we wish to emphasize is that the relationship between leadership styles and work engagement may be inuenced by culture. Following the rst implication mentioned above, we can argue that expectations regarding effective leadership styles and expectations regarding the availability of resources may well depend on organizational culture. If we consider Quinn and Camerons concept of organizational culture (cf. Igo & Skitmore, 2006), appreciation and support may, in terms of resources, be more signicant for the development of engagement in a clan culture than they are in a goal-oriented culture, in which specic feedback and concrete aims would form more obvious conditions for work engagement. If we translate the outcomes of our investigations into managerial implications, we can formulate a number of important conclusions and suggestions for managers as well as formal leaders in business practice. These are as follows: Various studies have shown that engaged employees are more productive and more successful than less-engaged or non-engaged employees. Engagement may be attained by tapping into personal as well as work-related resources. Personal resources concern traits such as optimism, positive self-esteem, stress-resistance and self- efcacy. It is the employees themselves who are responsible for applying these resources. Work-related resources concern issues such as autonomy, social support, effective and appropriate coaching and nally job feedback. It is the leader who is responsible for providing these resources. Leadership styles affect the way in which employees perceive the availability of work-related resources. A leadership style must contain inclusive elements for establishing a leaderfollower exchange relationship between managers and employees as a condition for engagement. We assume that inclusive and rich styles of leadership have a positive effect on employee engagement. Poor leadership styles are assumed to have a negative inuence on employee engagement. In order to be effective, leaders should be able to adapt their own leadership style and convert it into a style that offers their workers more and better resources, thus generating increased engagement. In this perspective, we can also conclude that organizational culture has a direct inuence on the relationship between leadership, work engagement and performance. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH In the past decade, considerable academic evidence has been found concerning the value of work engagement for achieving organizational goals (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker & Demerouti, 2004, 2007; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007; Blomme, 2012). Yet, relatively little is known about how different leadership styles inuence work engagement. However, the available literature does provide strong evidence that there is a relationship between different aspects of leadership and work engagement. We have found support for the idea that organizational culture acts as a moderator variable in this relation. A study of the literature reveals that effective leaders must use a combination of inclusive and rich leadership styles to effectively promote engagement. Our suggestion for further research on the effectiveness of leadership in terms of work engagement would be to study specic aspects of leadership and leadership styles together and to take organizational culture and personal character traits into account as moderator variables. This conceptual framework may then be used to conduct further empirical research in order to test whether the propositions formulated in the preceding paragraphs can in fact be accepted, and to assess whether perceived organizational culture and the character traits of employees truly act as moderators in the relationship between leadership characteristics and work engagement. By reconsidering and incorporating within the Leadership theories and the concept of work engagement JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION 137

15. framework the outcomes of engagement such as improved levels of personal and group performance, as indicated by earlier studies, current research on work engagement can be expanded and enhanced. CONCLUSION In this article, we examined the possible links between work engagement and leadership styles. We considered the literature on engagement, and with the help of the literature on leadership we dened propositions leading to a conceptual framework. We discussed potential contributions to the literature, and we also elaborated upon the consequences for managers acting as the formal leaders in an organization. We saw in earlier studies that engaged professionals were more willing to put extra effort into their work than their less-engaged colleagues, and we saw that that engaged employees were less eager to change jobs and move to another rm. In addition, we found that work engagement levels correlated positively with work quality and the employees ability to communicate to clients the unique selling points of their companies. Available resources were also mentioned. Personal resources include being optimistic and stress- resistant and having positive self-esteem. Work-related resources refer to the physical, social or organizational aspects of work. They are intrinsically motivating when basic needs are met, such as the need for autonomy, the need for appropriate as well as effective feedback and the need for social support. Following our elaboration of work engagement, we developed a conceptual framework with eight propositions elaborating the relationship between leadership styles and engagement with organizational culture as a moderator variable. We discussed how the different leadership styles inuence engagement, and dened three classes of leadership styles as follows: inclusive, poor and rich. We stated that a rich leadership style will lead to higher levels of engagement, but we also argued that an inclusive leadership style is a sine qua non in terms of establishing a leadershipfollower exchange process. The integration of poor leadership style elements will lead to deterioration in engagement and an increase in perceived stress. In sum, with this paper, we hope to have contributed to a better understanding of the ways in which leadership inuences engagement. As such, we conclude that our research model, containing eight propositions in combination with empirical research where these have been applied, may offer signicant added value to todays business practice. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank associate editor Yuka Fujimoto and two anonymous reviewers for constructive comments on previous versions of this article. References Asree, S., Zain, M., & Razalli, M. R. (2010). Inuence of leadership competency and organizational culture on responsiveness and performance of rms. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22(4), 500516. Avolio, B., Walumbwa, F., Weber, T. J., Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 421449. Bakker, A., & Demerouti, E. (2004). Using the job demands & resources model to predict burnout and performance. Human Resource Management, 43(1), 83104. Bakker, A. B. (2009). Building engagement in the workplace. Oxon: Routledge. Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Verbeke, W. (2004). Using the job demands-resources model to predict burnout and performance. Human Resource Management, 43(1), 83104. Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 309328. Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 138 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

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21. APPENDIX +/+ P1: Transformational Leadership P2: Transactional Leadership P3: Autocratic Leadership P4: Laissez Faire Leadership P6: Acceptance of a leader as team member P5: Congruence between leader prototype and perceived leader P7: Leader-Membership Exchange characteristics P8: Organizational Culture +/+ +/+ -/- -/- +/+ +/+ Engagement FIGURE A1. CONCEPTUAL MODEL LEADERSHIP STYLES AS A PREDICTOR FOR ENGAGEMENT Robert J Blomme, Bas Kodden and Annamaria Beasley-Suffolk 144 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & ORGANIZATION

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