APEuropeanHistoryKeyConceptsReviewChartPeriod1:1450–1648KeyConcept1.1:TheworldviewofEuropeanintellectualsshiftedfromonebasedonecclesiasticalandclassicalauthoritytoonebasedprimarilyoninquiryandobservationofthenaturalworld.
I.Arevivalofclassicaltextsledtonewmethodsofscholarshipandnewvaluesinbothsocietyandreligion.
A. ItalianRenaissancehumanistspromotedarevivalinclassicalliteratureandcreatednewphilologicalapproachestoancienttexts.SomeRenaissancehumanistsfurtheredthevaluesofsecularismandindividualism.
B. HumanistrevivalofGreekandRomantexts,spreadbytheprintingpress,challengedtheinstitutionalpowerofuniversitiesandtheRomanCatholicChurchandshiftedthefocusofeducationawayfromtheologytowardthestudyofclassicaltexts.
C. AdmirationforGreekandRomanpoliticalinstitutionssupportedarevivalofcivichumanistcultureintheItaliancity-statesandproducedsecularmodelsforindividualandpoliticalbehavior.
II.Theinventionofprintingpromotedthedisseminationofnewideas.
A. Theinventionoftheprintingpressinthe1450saidedinspreadingtheRenaissancebeyondItalyandencouragedthegrowthofvernacularliterature,whichwouldeventuallycontributetothedevelopmentofnationalcultures.
B. Protestantreformersusedthepresstodisseminatetheirideas,whichspurredreligiousreformandhelpeditbecomewidelyestablished.
III.ThevisualartsincorporatedthenewideasoftheRenaissanceandwereusedtopromotepersonal,political,andreligiousgoals.
A. Princesandpopes,concernedwithenhancingtheirprestige,commissionedpaintingsandarchitecturalworksbasedonclassicalstylesandoftenemployingthenewlyinventedtechniqueofgeometricperspective.
B. Ahuman-centerednaturalismthatconsideredindividualsandeverydaylifeappropriateobjectivesofartisticrepresentationwasencouragedthroughthepatronageofbothprincesandcommercialelites.
C. ManneristandBaroqueartistsemployeddistortion,drama,andillusioninworks
commissionedbymonarchies,city-states,andthechurchforpublicbuildingstopromotetheirstatureandpower.
IV.Newideasinsciencebasedonobservation,experimentation,andmathematicschallengedclassicalviewsofthecosmos,nature,andthehumanbody,thoughfolktraditionsofknowledgeandtheuniversepersisted.
A. NewideasandmethodsinastronomyledindividualssuchasCopernicus,Galileo,andNewtontoquestiontheauthorityoftheancientsandreligionandtodevelopaheliocentricviewofthecosmos.
B. Anatomicalandmedicaldiscoveriesbyphysicians,includingWilliamHarvey,presentedthebodyasanintegratedsystem,challengingthetraditionalhumoraltheoryofthebodyanddiseaseespousedbyGalen.
C. FrancisBaconandReneDescartesdefinedinductiveanddeductivereasoningandpromotedexperimentationandtheuseofmathematics,whichwouldultimatelyshapethe“scientificmethod.”
D. Alchemyandastrologycontinuedtoappealtoelitesandtosomenaturalphilosophers,inpartbecausetheysharedwiththenewsciencethenotionofapredictableandknowableuniverse.Inoralcultureofpeasants,abeliefthatthecosmoswasgovernedbydivineanddemonicforcespersisted.
KeyConcept1.2:Thestruggleforsovereigntywithinandamongstatesresultedinvaryingdegreesofpoliticalcentralization.
I.Thenewconceptofthesovereignstateandsecularsystemsoflawplayedacentralroleinthecreationofnewpoliticalinstitutions.
A. Newmonarchieslaidthefoundationforthecentralizedmodernstatebyestablishingamonopolyontaxcollection,militaryforce,andthedispensingofjustice,andbygainingtherighttodeterminethereligionoftheirsubjects.
B. ThePeaceofWestphalia(1648),whichmarkedtheeffectiveendofthemedievalidealofuniversalChristendom,acceleratedthedeclineoftheHolyRomanEmpirebygrantingprinces,bishopsandotherlocalleaderscontroloverreligion.
C. AcrossEurope,commercialandprofessionalgroupsgainedinpowerandplayedagreaterroleinpoliticalaffairs.
D. Secularpoliticaltheories,suchasthoseespousedinMachiavelli’sThePrince,providedanewconceptofthestate.
II.Thecompetitivestatesystemledtonewpatternsofdiplomacyandnewformsofwarfare.
A. FollowingthePeaceofWestphalia(1648),religionnolongerwasacauseforwarfareamongEuropeanstates;instead,theconceptofthebalanceofpowerplayedanimportantroleinstructuringdiplomaticandmilitaryobjectives.
B. Advancesinmilitarytechnology(i.e.,the“militaryrevolution”)ledtonewformsofwarfare,includinggreaterrelianceoninfantry,firearms,mobilecannon,andmoreelaboratefortifications,allfinancedbyheaviertaxationandrequiringalargerbureaucracy.Technology,tactics,andstrategiestippedthebalanceofpowertowardstatesabletomarshalsufficientresourcesforthenewmilitaryenvironment.
III.ThecompetitionforthepowerbetweenmonarchsandcorporategroupsproduceddifferentdistributionofgovernmentalauthorityinEuropeanstates.
A. TheEnglishCivilWar,aconflictbetweenthemonarchy,Parliament,andotherelitesovertheirrespectiverolesinthepoliticalstructure,exemplifiedthiscompetition.
B. Monarchiesseekingenhancedpowerfacedchallengesfromnobleswhowishedtoretaintraditionalformsofsharedgovernanceandregionalautonomy.
KeyConcept1.3:ReligiouspluralismchallengedtheconceptofaunifiedEurope.
I.TheProtestantandCatholicReformationsfundamentallychangedtheology,religiousinstitutions,andculture.
A. Christianhumanism,embodiedinthewritingsofErasmus,employedRenaissancelearningintheserviceofreligiousreform.
B. ReformersMartinLutherandJohnCalvin,aswellasreligiousradicalssuchasAnabaptists,criticizedCatholicabusesandestablishednewinterpretationsofChristiandoctrineandpractice.
C. TheCatholicReformation,exemplifiedbytheJesuitOrderandtheCouncilofTrent,revivedthechurchbutcementedthedivisionwithinChristianity.
II.Religiousreformbothincreasedstatecontrolofreligiousinstitutionsandprovidedjustificationsforchallengingstateauthority.
A. Monarchsandprinces,suchastheEnglishrulersHenryVIIIandElizabethI,initiatedreligiousreformfromthetopdown(“magisterial”)inanefforttoexercisegreatercontroloverreligiouslifeandmorality.
B. SomeProtestants,includingJohnCalvinandtheAnabaptists,refusedtorecognize
subordinationofthechurchandstate.C. Religiousconflictsbecameabasisforchallengingthemonarchs’controlofreligious
institutions.
III.Conflictsamongreligiousgroupsoverlappedwithpoliticalandeconomiccompetitionwithinandamongstates.
A. Issuesofreligiousreformexacerbatedconflictsbetweenthemonarchyandthenobility,asintheFrenchWarsofReligion.
B. TheeffortsofHabsburgrulersfailedtorestoreCatholicunityacrossEurope.C. Statesexploitedreligiousconflictstopromotepoliticalandeconomicinterests.D. Afewstates,suchasFrancewiththeEdictNantes,allowedreligiouspluralismin
ordertomaintaindomesticpeace.○
KeyConcept1.4:Europeansexploredandsettledoverseasterritories,encounteringandinteractingwithindigenouspopulations.
I.Europeannationsweredrivenbycommercialandreligiousmotivestoexploreoverseasterritoriesandestablishcolonies.
A. Europeanstatessoughtdirectaccesstogoldandspicesandluxurygoodsasameanstoenhancepersonalwealthandstatepower.
B. Theriseofmercantilismgavethestateanewroleinpromotingcommercialdevelopmentandtheacquisitionofcoloniesoverseas.
C. ChristianityservedasastimulusforexplorationasgovernmentsandreligiousauthoritiessoughttospreadthefaithandcounterIslam,andasajustificationforthephysicalandculturalsubjugationofindigenouscivilizations.
II.Advancesinnavigation,cartography,andmilitarytechnologyallowedEuropeanstoestablishoverseascoloniesandempires.
III.Europeansestablishedoverseasempiresandtradenetworksthroughcoercionandnegotiation.
A. ThePortugueseestablishedacommercialnetworkalongtheAfricancoast,inSouthandEastAsia,andinSouthAmerica.
B. TheSpanishestablishedcoloniesacrosstheAmericas,theCaribbean,andthe
Pacific,whichmadeSpainadominantstateinEurope.C. TheAtlanticnationsofFrance,England,andtheNetherlandsfollowedby
establishingtheirowncoloniesandtradingnetworkstocompletewithPortugueseandSpanishdominance.
D. ThecompetitionfortradeledtoconflictsandrivalriesamongEuropeanpowers.
IV.Europe’scolonialexpansionledtoaglobalexchangeofgoods,flora,fauna,culturalpractices,anddiseases,resultinginthedestructionofsomeindigenouscivilizations,ashifttowardEuropeandominance,andtheexpansionoftheslavetrade.
A. TheexchangeofgoodsshiftedthecenterofeconomicpowerinEuropefromtheMediterraneantotheAtlanticstatesandbroughtthelatterintoanexpandingworldeconomy.
B. Theexchangeofnewplants,animals,anddiseases–theColumbianExchange–createdeconomicopportunitiesforEuropeansandfacilitatedEuropeansubjugationdestructionofindigenouspeoples,particularlyintheAmericas.
C. EuropeansexpandedtheAfricanslavetradeinresponsetotheestablishmentofaplantationeconomyintheAmericasanddemographiccatastrophesamongindigenouspeoples.
KeyConcept1.5:Europeansocietyandtheexperiencesofeverydaylifewereincreasinglyshapedbycommercialandagriculturalcapitalism,notwithstandingthepersistenceofmedievalsocialandeconomicstructures.
I.Economicchangeproducednewsocialpatterns,whiletraditionsofhierarchyandstatuspersisted.
A. Innovationsinbankingandfinancepromotedthegrowthofurbanfinancialcentersandofamoneyeconomy.
B. Thegrowthofcommerceproducedaneweconomicelite,whichrelatedtotraditionalelitesindifferentwaysinEurope’svariousgeographicregions.
C. Hierarchyandstatuscontinuedtodefinesocialpowerandperceptionsinruralandurbansettings.
II.MostEuropeansderivedtheirlivelihoodfromagricultureandorientedtheirlivesaroundtheseasons,thevillageormanor,althougheconomicchangesbegantoalter
A. Subsistenceagriculturewastheruleinmostareas,withthree-cropfieldrotationinthenorthandtwo-croprotationintheMediterranean;inmanycases,farmerspaidrentandlaborservicesfortheirlands.
B. Thepricerevolutioncontributedtotheaccumulationofcapitalandtheexpansionof
ruralproductionandpower. themarketeconomythroughthecommercializationofagriculture,whichbenefitedlargelandownersinwesternEurope.
C. AswesternEuropemovedtowardafreepeasantryandcommercialagriculture,serfdomwascodifiedintheeast,wherenoblescontinuedtodominateeconomiclifeonlargeestates.
D. Theattemptsoflandlordstoincreasetheirrevenuesbyrestrictingorabolishingthetraditionalrightsofpeasantsledtorevolt.
III.Populationshiftsandgrowingcommercecausedtheexpansionofcities,whichoftenfoundtheirtraditionalpoliticalandsocialstructuresstressedbygrowth.
A. Populationrecoveredtoitspre-GreatPlaguelevelinthe16thcentury,andcontinuingpopulationpressurescontributedtounevenpriceincreases;agriculturalcommoditiesincreasedmoresharplythanwages,reducinglivingstandardsforsome.
B. Migrantstothecitieschallengedtheabilityofthemerchantelitesandcraftguildstogovernandstrainedresources.
C. Socialdislocation,coupledwiththeweakeningofreligiousinstitutionsduringtheReformation,leftcitygovernmentswiththetaskofregulatingpublicmorals.
IV.ThefamilyremainedtheprimarysocialandeconomicinstitutionofearlymodernEuropeandtookseveralforms,includingthenuclearfamily.
A. Ruralandurbanhouseholdsworkedasunits,withmenandwomenengagedinseparatebutcomplementarytasks.
B. TheRenaissanceandReformationmovementsraiseddebatesaboutfemalerolesinthefamily,society,andthechurch.
C. Fromthelate16thcenturyforward,Europeansrespondedtoeconomicandenvironmentalchallenges,suchasthe“LittleIceAge,”bydelayingmarriageandchildbearing,whichrestrainedpopulationgrowthandultimatelyimprovedeconomicconditionoffamilies.
V.Popularculture,leisureactivities,andritualsreflectingthepersistenceoffolkideasreinforcedandsometimeschallengedcommunaltiesandnorms.
A. Leisureactivitiescombinedtobeorganizedaccordingtothereligiouscalendarandtheagriculturalcycleandremainedcommunalinnature.
B. Localandchurchauthoritiescontinuedtoenforcecommunalnormsthroughritualsofpublichumiliation.
C. Reflectingfoldideasandsocialandeconomicupheaval,accusationsofwitchcraft
peakedbetween1580-1650.
Period2:1648–1815KeyConcept2.1:Differentmodelsofpoliticalsovereigntyaffectedtherelationshipamongstatesandbetweenstatesandindividuals.
I.InmuchofEurope,absolutemonarchywasestablishedoverthecourseofthe17thand18thcenturies.
A. Absolutemonarchieslimitedthenobility’sparticipationingovernancebutpreservedthearistocracy’ssocialpositionandlegalprivileges.
B. LouisXIVandhisfinanceministerJean-BaptisteColbertextendedtheadministrative,financial,military,andreligiouscontrolofthecentralstateovertheFrenchpopulation.
C. Inthe18thcentury,anumberofstatesineasternandcentralEuropeexperimentedwith“enlightenedabsolutism.”
D. TheinabilityofthePolishmonarchytoconsolidateitsauthorityoverthenobilityledtoPoland’spartitionbyPrussia,Russia,andAustria,anditsdisappearancefromthemapofEurope.
E. PetertheGreat“westernized”theRussianstateandsociety,transformingpolitical,religious,andculturalinstitutions;CatherinetheGreatcontinuedthisprocess.
II.Challengestoabsolutismresultedinalternativepoliticalsystems.
A. TheoutcomeoftheEnglishCivilWarandtheGloriousRevolutionprotectedtherightsofthegentryandaristocracyfromabsolutismthroughassertionsoftherightsofParliament.
B. TheDutchRepublicdevelopedanoligarchyofurbangentryandrurallandholderstopromotetradeandprotecttraditionalrights.
III.After1648,dynasticandstateinterests,alongwithEurope’sexpandingcolonialempires,influencedthediplomacyofEuropeanstatesandfrequentlyledtowar.
A. AsaresultoftheHRE’slimitationofsovereigntyinthePeaceofWestphalia,PrussiarosetopowerandtheHabsburgs,centeredinAustria,shiftedtheirempireeastward.
B. AfterthedefeatoftheTurksin1683attheBattleofVienna,theOttomansceasedtheirwestwardexpansion.
C. LouisXIV’snearlycontinuouswars,pursuingbothdynasticandstateinterests,provokedacoalitionofEuropeanpowersopposinghim.
D. RivalrybetweenBritainandFranceresultedinworldwarsfoughtbothinEuropeandinthecolonies,withBritainsupplantingFranceasthegreatestEuropeanpower.
IV.TheFrenchRevolutionposedafundamentalchallengetoEurope’sexistingpoliticalandsocialorder.
A. TheFrenchRevolutionresultedfromacombinationoflong-termsocialandpoliticalcauses,aswellasEnlightenmentideas,exacerbatedbyshort-termfiscalandeconomiccrises.
B. Thefirst,orliberal,phaseoftheFrenchRevolutionestablishedaconstitutionalmonarchy,increasedpopularparticipation,nationalizedtheCatholicChurch,andabolishedhereditaryprivileges.
C. AftertheexecutionofLouisXVI,theradicalJacobinRepublicledbyRobespierrerespondedtooppositionathomeandwarabroadbyinstitutingaReignofTerror,fixingpricesandwages,andpursuingapolicyofde-Christianization.
D. Revolutionaryarmies,raisedbymassconscription,soughttobringthechangesinitiatedinFranceandtherestofEurope.
E. Womenenthusiasticallyparticipatedintheearlyphasesoftherevolution;however,whiletherewerebriefimprovementsinthelegalstatusofwomen,citizenshipintherepublicwassoonrestrictedtomen.
F. RevolutionaryidealsinspiredaslaverevoltbyToussaintL’OuvertureintheFrenchcolonyofSaintDomingue,whichbecametheindependentnationofHaitiin1804.
G. Whilemanywereinspiredbytherevolution’semphasisonequalityandhumanrights,othercondemneditsviolenceanddisregardfortraditionalauthority.
V.ClaimingtodefendtheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution,NapoleonBonaparteimposedFrenchcontrolovermuchoftheEuropeancontinentthateventuallyprovokedanationalisticreaction.
A. Asfirstconsulandemperor,Napoleonundertookanumberofenduringdomesticreformswhileoftencurtailingrightsandmanipulatingpopularimpulsesbehindafaçadeofrepresentativeinstitutions.
B. Napoleon’snewmilitarytacticsallowedhimtoexertdirectorindirectcontrolovermuchoftheEuropeancontinent,spreadingtheidealsoftheFrenchRevolutionacrossEurope.
C. Napoleon’sexpandingempirecreatednationalistresponsesthroughoutEurope.
D. AfterthedefeatofNapoleonbyacoalitionofEuropeanpowers,theCongressofVienna(1814-15)attemptedtorestorethebalanceofpowerinEuropeandcontainthedangerofrevolutionaryornationalisticupheavalsinthefuture.
KeyConcept2.2:TheexpansionofEuropeancommerceacceleratedthegrowthofaworldwideeconomicnetwork.
I.EarlymodernEuropedevelopedamarketeconomythatprovidedthefoundationforitsglobalrole.
A. Laborandtradeincommoditieswereincreasinglyfreedfromtraditionalrestrictionsimposedbygovernmentsandcorporateentities.
B. TheAgriculturalRevolutionraisedproductivityandincreasedthesupplyoffoodandotheragriculturalproducts.
C. Theputting-outsystemorcottageindustryexpandedasincreasingnumbersoflaborersinhomesorworkshopsproducedformarketsthroughmerchantintermediariesorworkshopowners.
D. Thedevelopmentofthemarketeconomyledtonewfinancialpracticesandinstitutions.
II.TheEuropean-dominatedworldwideeconomicnetworkcontributedtotheagricultural,industrial,andconsumerrevolutionsinEurope.
A. EuropeanstatesfollowedmercantilistpoliciesbyexploitingcoloniesintheNewWorldandelsewhere.
B. Thetransatlanticslave-laborsystemexpandedinthe17thand18thcenturiesasdemandforNewWorldproductsincreased.
C. OverseasproductsandinfluencescontributedtothedevelopmentofaconsumercultureinEurope.
D. TheimportationandtransplantationofagriculturalproductsfromtheAmericascontributedtoanincreaseinthefoodsupplyinEurope.
E. Foreignlandsprovidedrawmaterials,finishedgoods,laborers,andmarketsforthecommercialandindustrialenterprisesinEurope.
III.CommercialrivalriesinfluenceddiplomacyandwarfareamongEuropeanstatesinthe
A. EuropeanseapowersviedforAtlanticinfluencethroughoutthe18thcentury.B. Portuguese,Dutch,FrenchandBritishrivalriesinAsiaculminatedinBritish
earlymodernera.
dominationinIndiaandDutchcontroloftheEastIndies.
KeyConcept2.3:ThepopularizationanddisseminationoftheScientificRevolutionandtheapplicationofitsmethodstopolitical,social,andethicalissuesledtoanincreased,althoughnotunchallenged,emphasisonreasoninEuropeanculture.
I.Rationalandempiricalthoughtchallengedtraditionalvaluesandideas.
A. IntellectualssuchasVoltaireandDiderotbegantoapplytheprinciplesoftheScientificRevolutiontosocietyandhumaninstitutions.
B. LockeandRousseaudevelopednewpoliticalmodelsbasedontheconceptofnaturalrights.
C. DespitetheprinciplesofequalityespousedbytheEnlightenmentandtheFrenchRevolution,intellectualssuchasRousseauofferednewargumentsfortheexclusionofwomenfrompoliticallife,whichdidnotgounchallenged.
II.NewpublicvenuesandprintmediapopularizedEnlightenmentideas.
A. Avarietyofinstitutions,suchassalons,exploredanddisseminatedEnlightenmentculture.
B. Despitecensorship,increasinglynumerousandvariedprintedmaterialsservedagrowingliteratepublicandledtothedevelopmentof“publicopinion”.
C. Naturalsciences,literature,andpopularcultureincreasinglyexposedEuropeanstorepresentationsofpeoplesoutsideofEurope.
III.Newpoliticalandeconomictheorieschallengedabsolutismandmercantilism.
A. Politicaltheories,suchasJohnLocke’s,conceivedofsocietyascomposedofindividualsdrivenbyself-interestandarguedthatthestateoriginatedintheconsentofthegoverned(i.e.,asocialcontract)ratherthanindivinerightortradition.
B. Mercantilisttheoryandpracticewerechallengedbyneweconomicideas,suchasAdamSmith’s,espousingfreetradeandafreemarket.
IV.DuringtheEnlightenment,therationalanalysisofreligiouspracticesledtonaturalreligionandthedemandforreligious
A. Intellectuals,includingVoltaireandDiderot,developednewphilosophiesofdeism,skepticism,andatheism.
B. Religionwasviewedincreasinglyasamatterofprivateratherthanpublicconcern.
toleration.
C. By1800mostgovernmentshadextendedtolerationtoChristianminorities,and,insomestates,civilequalitytoJews.
V.Theartsmovedfromthecelebrationofreligiousthemesandroyalpowertoanemphasisonprivatelifeandthepublicgood.
A. Untilabout1750,Baroqueartandmusicpromotedreligiousfeelingandwasemployedbymonarchstoglorifystatepower.
B. ArtisticmovementsandliteraturealsoreflectedtheoutlookandvaluesofcommercialandbourgeoissocietyaswellasnewEnlightenmentidealsofpoliticalpowerandcitizenship.
VI.WhileEnlightenmentvaluesdominatedtheworldofEuropeanideas,theywerechallengedbytherevivalofpublicsentimentandfeeling.
A. Rousseauquestionedtheexclusiverelianceonreasonandemphasizedtheroleofemotionsinthemoralimprovementofselfandsociety.
B. Revolution,war,andrebelliondemonstratedtheemotionalpowerofmasspoliticsandnationalism.
C. RomanticismemergedasachallengetoEnlightenmentrationality.
KeyConcept2.4:Theexperiencesofeverydaylifewereshapedbydemographic,environmental,medical,andtechnologicalchanges.
I.Inthe17thcentury,smalllandholdings,low-productivityagriculturalpractices,poortransportation,andadverseweatherlimitedanddisruptedthefoodsupply,causingperiodicfamines.Bythe18thcentury,EuropeansbegantoescapefromtheMalthusianimbalancebetweenpopulationandthefoodsupply,resultinginsteadypopulationgrowth.
A. Bythemiddleofthe18thcentury,higheragriculturalproductivityandimprovedtransportationincreasedthefoodsupply,allowingpopulationstogrowandreducingthenumberofdemographiccrises(aprocessknownastheAgriculturalRevolution).
B. Inthe18thcentury,plaguedisappearedasamajorepidemic,andinoculationreducedsmallpoxmortality.
II.Theconsumerrevolutionofthe18th
centurywasshapedbyanewconcernforprivacy,encouragedthepurchaseofnewgoodsforhomes,andcreatednewvenuesforleisureactivities.
III.Bythe18thcentury,familyandprivatelifereflectednewdemographicpatternsandtheeffectsoftheCommercialRevolution.
A. Thoughtherateofillegitimatebirthsincreasedinthe18thcentury,populationgrowthwaslimitedbytheEuropeanmarriagepatternand,insomeareas,bytheearlypracticeofbirthcontrol.
B. Asinfantandchildmortalitydecreasedandcommercialwealthincreased,familiesdedicatedmorespaceandresourcestochildrenandchild-rearing,aswellasprivatelifeandcomfort.
IV.Citiesofferedeconomicopportunities,whichattractedincreasingmigrationfromruralareas,transformingurbanlifeandcreatingchallengesforthenewurbanitesandtheirfamilies.
A. TheAgriculturalRevolutionproducedmorefoodusingfewerworkers;asaresultpeoplemigratedfromruralareastothecitiesinsearchofwork.
B. Thegrowthofcitieserodedtraditionalcommunalvalues,andcitygovernmentsstrainedtoprovideprotectionandahealthyenvironment.
Period3:1815–1914KeyConcept3.1:TheIndustrialRevolutionspreadfromGreatBritaintothecontinent,wherethestateplayedagreaterroleinpromotingindustry.
I.GreatBritainestablisheditsindustrialdominancethroughthemechanizationoftextileproduction,ironandsteelproduction,andnewtransportationsystems.
A. Britain’sreadyofcoal,ironore,andotheressentialrawmaterialspromotedindustrialgrowth.
B. Economicinstitutionsandhumancapitalsuchasengineers,inventors,andcapitalistshelpedBritainleadtheprocessofindustrialization,largelythroughprivateinitiative.
C. Britain’sparliamentarygovernmentpromotedcommercialandindustrialinterests,becausethoseinterestswererepresentedinParliament.
II.FollowingtheBritishexample,industrializationtookrootincontinentalEurope,sometimeswithstatesponsorship.
A. FrancemovedtowardindustrializationatamoregradualpacethanGreatBritain,withgovernmentsupportandwithlessdislocationoftraditionalmethodsofproduction.
B. IndustrializationinPrussiaallowedthatstatetobecometheleaderofaunifiedGermany,whichsubsequentlyunderwentrapidindustrializationundergovernmentsponsorship.
C. Acombinationoffactors,includinggeography,lackofresources,thedominanceoftraditionallandedelites,thepersistenceofserfdominsomeareas,andinadequategovernmentsponsorshipaccountedforeasternandsouthernEurope’slaginindustrialdevelopment.
III.DuringtheSecondIndustrialRevolution(c.1870-1914),moreareasofEuropeexperiencedindustrialactivity,andindustrialprocessesincreasedinscaleandcomplexity.
A. Mechanizationandthefactorysystembecamethepredominantmodesofproductivityby1914.
B. Newtechnologiesandmeansofcommunicationandtransportation–includingrailroads–resultedinmorefullyintegratednationaleconomies,ahigherlevelofurbanization,andatrulyglobaleconomicnetwork.
C. Volatilebusinesscyclesinthelastquarterofthe19thcenturyledcorporationsandgovernmentstotrytomanagethemarketthroughmonopolies,bankingpractices,andtariffs.
KeyConcept3.2:Theexperiencesofeverydaylifewereshapedbyindustrialization,dependingonthelevelofindustrialdevelopmentinaparticularlocation.
I.IndustrializationpromotedthedevelopmentofnewclassesintheindustrialregionsofEurope.
A. InindustrializedareasofEurope(i.e.,westernandnorthernEurope),socio-economicchangescreateddivisionsoflaborthatledtothedevelopmentofself-consciousclasses,suchastheproletariatandthebourgeoisie.
B. InsomeofthelessindustrializedareasofEurope,thedominanceofagricultural
elitespersistedintothe20thcentury.C. Classidentitydevelopedandwasreinforcedthroughparticipationinphilanthropic,
political,andsocialassociationsamongthemiddleclasses,andinmutualaidsocietiesandtradeunionsamongtheworkingclass.
II.Europeexperiencedrapidpopulationgrowthandurbanization,leadingtosocialdislocations.
A. Alongwithbetterharvestscausedinpartbythecommercializationofagriculture,industrializationpromotedpopulationgrowth,longerlifeexpectancy,andloweredinfantmortality.
B. Withmigrationfromruraltourbanareasinindustrializedregions,citiesexperiencedovercrowding,whileaffectedruralareassuffereddeclinesinavailablelaboraswellasweakenedcommunities.
III.Overtime,theIndustrialRevolutionalteredthefamilystructureandrelationsforbourgeoisandworking-classfamilies.
A. Bourgeoisfamiliesbecamefocusedonthenuclearfamilyandthe“cultofdomesticity,”withdistinctgenderrolesformenandwomen.
B. Bytheendofthecentury,wagesandthequalityoflifefortheworkingclassimprovedbecauseoflawsrestrictingthelaborofchildrenandwomen,socialwelfareprograms,improveddiet,andtheuseofbirthcontrol.
C. Economicmotivationsformarriage,whilestillimportantforallclasses,diminishedasthemiddle-classnotionofcompanionatemarriagebegantobeadoptedbytheworkingclasses.
D. Leisuretimecenteredincreasinglyonthefamilyorsmallgroups,concurrentwiththedevelopmentofactivitiesandspacestousethattime.
IV.AheightenedconsumerismdevelopedasaresultoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.
A. Industrializationandmassmarketingincreasedboththeproductionanddemandforanewrangeofconsumergoods–includingclothing,processedfoods,andlabor-savingandleisure.
B. Newefficientmethodsoftransportationandotherinnovationscreatednewindustries,improvedthedistributionofgoods,increasedconsumerism,andenhancedthequalityoflife.
V.Becauseofthepersistenceofprimitive
agriculturalpracticesandlandowningpatterns,someareasofEuropelaggedinindustrialization,whilefacingfamine,debt,andlandshortages
KeyConcept3.3:Theproblemsofindustrializationprovokedarangeofideological,governmental,andcollectiveresponses.
I.Ideologiesdevelopedandtookrootthroughoutsocietyasaresponsetoindustrialandpoliticalrevolutions.
A. Liberalsemphasizedpopularsovereignty,individualrights,andenlightenedself-interestbutdebatedtheextenttowhichallgroupsinsocietyshouldactivelyparticipateinitsgovernance.
B. RadicalsinBritainandrepublicansonthecontinentdemandeduniversalmalesuffrageandfullcitizenshipwithoutregardtowealthandpropertyownership;somearguedthatsuchrightsshouldbeextendedtowomen.
C. Conservativesdevelopedanewideologyinsupportoftraditionalpoliticalandreligiousauthorities,whichwasbasedontheideathathumannaturewasnotperfectible.
D. Socialistscalledforafairdistributionofsociety’sresourcesandwealth,andevolvedfromautopiantoaMarxist“scientific”critiqueofcapitalism.
E. Anarchistsassertedthatallformsofgovernmentalauthoritywereunnecessary,andshouldbeoverthrownandreplacedwithasocietybasedonvoluntarycooperation.
F. Nationalistsencouragedloyaltytothenationinavarietyofways,includingromanticidealism,liberalreform,politicalunification,racialismwithaconcomitantanti-Semitism,andchauvinismjustifyingnationalaggrandizement.
G. AformofJewishnationalism,Zionism,developedinthelate19thcenturyasaresponsetogrowinganti-SemitisminbothwesternandeasternEurope.
II.Governmentsrespondedtotheproblemscreatedorexacerbatedbyindustrializationbyexpandingtheirfunctionsandcreatingmodernbureaucraticstates.
A. Liberalismshiftedfromlaissez-fairetointerventionisteconomicandsocialpoliciesonbehalfofthelessprivileged;thepolicieswerebasedonarationalapproachtoreformthataddressedtheimpactofIndustrialRevolutionontheindividual.
B. Governmentreformstransformedunhealthyandovercrowdedcitiesbymodernizing
infrastructure,regulatingpublichealth,reformingprisons,andestablishingmodernpoliceforce.
C. Governmentspromotedcompulsorypubliceducationtoadvancethegoalsofpublicorder,nationalism,andeconomicgrowth.
III.Politicalmovementsandsocialorganizationsrespondedtotheproblemsofindustrialization.
A. Mass-basedpoliticalpartiesemergedassophisticatedvehiclesforsocial,economic,andpoliticalreform.
B. Workersestablishedlaborunionsandmovementspromotingsocialandeconomicreforms.
C. Feministspressedforlegal,economic,andpoliticalrightsforwomen,aswellasimprovedworkingconditions.
D. Variousprivate,non-governmentalreformmovementssoughttoliftupthedeservingpoorandendserfdomandslavery.
KeyConcept3.4:Europeanstatesstruggledtomaintaininternationalstabilityinanageofnationalismandrevolutions.
I.TheConcertofEurope(orCongressSystem)soughttomaintainthestatusquothroughcollectiveactionandadherencetoconservatism.
A. Metternich,architectoftheConcertofEurope,useditsuppressnationalistandliberalrevolutions.
B. ConservativesreestablishedcontrolinmanyEuropeanstatesandattemptedtosuppressmovementsforchangeand,insomeareas,tostrengthenadherencetoreligiousauthorities.
C. Inthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,revolutionariesattemptedtodestroythestatusquo.
D. Therevolutionsof1848challengedtheconservativeorderandledtothebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope.
II.ThebreakdownoftheConcertofEuropeopenedthedoorformovementsofnationalunificationinItalyandGermany,aswellasliberalreformselsewhere.
A. TheCrimeanWardemonstratedtheweaknessoftheOttomanEmpireandcontributedtothebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope,therebycreatingtheconditionsinwhichItalyandGermanycouldbeunitedaftercenturiesoffragmentation.
B. Anewbreedofconservativeleaders,includingNapoleonIII,Cavour,andBismarck,co-optedtheagendaofnationalistsforthepurposesofcreatingorstrengtheningthestate.
C. ThecreationofthedualmonarchyofAustria-Hungary,whichrecognizedthepoliticalpowerofthelargestethnicminority,wasanattempttostabilizethestatebyreconfiguringnationalunity.
D. InRussia,autocraticleaderspushedthroughaprogramofreformandmodernization,whichgaverisetorevolutionarymovementsandeventuallytheRevolutionof1905.
III.TheunificationofItalyandGermanytransformedtheEuropeanbalanceofpowerandledtoeffortstoconstructanewdiplomaticorder.
A. Cavour’sRealpolitikstrategies,combinedwiththepopularGaribaldi’smilitarycampaigns,ledtotheunificationofItaly.
B. Bismarckemployeddiplomacy,industrializedwarfareandweaponry,andthemanipulationofdemocraticmechanismsofGermany.
C. After1871BismarckattemptedtomaintainthebalanceofpowerthroughacomplexsystemofalliancesdirectedatisolatingFrance.
D. Bismarck’sdismissalin1890eventuallyledtoasystemofmutuallyantagonisticalliancesandheightenedinternationaltensions.
E. NationalisttensionsintheBalkansdrewtheGreatPowersintoaseriesofcrisesleadinguptoWorldWarI.
KeyConcept3.5:AvarietyofmotivesandmethodsledtotheintensificationofEuropeanglobalcontrolandincreasedtensionsamongtheGreatPowers.
I.Europeannationsweredrivenbyeconomic,political,andculturalmotivationsintheirnewimperialventuresinAsiaandAfrica.
A. Europeannationalrivalriesandstrategicconcernsfosteredimperialexpansionandcompetitionforcolonies.
B. Thesearchforrawmaterialsandmarketsformanufacturedgoods,aswellasstrategicandnationalisticconsiderations,droveEuropeanstocolonizeAfricaandAsia,evenasEuropeancoloniesintheAmericasbrokefreepolitically,ifnoteconomically.
C. Europeansjustifiedimperialismthroughanideologyofculturalandracial
superiority.
II.Industrialandtechnologicaldevelopments(i.e.,theSecondIndustrialRevolution)facilitatedEuropeancontrolofglobalempires.
A. ThedevelopmentofadvancedweaponryinvariablyensuredthemilitarysuperiorityofEuropeansovercolonizedareas.
B. CommunicationandtransportationtechnologiesallowedforthecreationofEuropeanempires.
C. AdvancesinmedicinesupportedEuropeancontrolofAfricaandAsiabypreservingEuropeanlives.
III.Imperialendeavorssignificantlyaffectedsociety,diplomacy,andcultureinEuropeandcreatedresistancetoforeigncontrolabroad.
A. ImperialismcreateddiplomatictensionsamongEuropeanstatesthatstrainedalliancesystems.
B. Imperialencounterswithnon-Europeanpeoplesinfluencedthestylesandsubjectmatterofartistsandwritersandprovokeddebateovertheacquisitionofcolonies.
C. Asnon-EuropeansbecameeducatedinWesternvalues,theychallengedEuropeanimperialismthroughnationalistmovementsand/orbymodernizingtheirowneconomiesandsocieties.
KeyConcept3.6:Europeanideasandcultureexpressedatensionbetweenobjectivityandscientificrealismononehand,andsubjectivityandindividualexpressionontheother.
I.Romanticismbrokewithneoclassicalformsofartisticrepresentationandwithrationalism,placingmoreemphasisonintuitionandemotion.
A. Romanticartistsandcomposersbrokefromclassicalartisticformstoemphasizeemotion,nature,individuality,intuition,thesupernatural,andnationalhistoriesintheirworks.
B. RomanticwritersexpressedsimilarthemeswhilerespondingtotheIndustrialRevolutionandtovariouspoliticalrevolutions.
II.Followingtherevolutionsof1848,Europeturnedtowardarealistandmaterialistworldview.
A. Positivism,orthephilosophythatsciencealoneprovidesknowledge,emphasizedtherationalandscientificanalysisofnatureandhumanaffairs.
B. CharlesDarwinprovidedarationalandmaterialaccountofbiologicalchangeandthedevelopmentofhumanbeingsasaspecies,andinadvertentlyajustificationfor
racialisttheoriesknownas“SocialDarwinism.”C. Marx’s“scientific”socialismprovidedasystematiccritiqueofcapitalismanda
deterministicanalysisofsocietyandhistoricalevolution.D. Realistandmaterialistthemesandattitudesinfluencedartandliteratureaspainters
andwritersdepictedthelivesofordinarypeopleanddrewattentiontosocialproblems.
III.Anewrelativisminvaluesandthelossofconfidenceintheobjectivityofknowledgeledtomodernisminintellectualandculturallife.
A. Philosophylargelymovedfromrationalinterpretationsofnatureandhumansocietytoanemphasisonirrationalityandimpulse,aviewthatcontributedtothebeliefthatconflictandstruggleledtoprogress.
B. Freudianpsychologyprovidedanewaccountofhumannaturethatemphasizedtheroleoftheirrationalandthestrugglebetweentheconsciousandsubconscious.
C. DevelopmentsinthenaturalsciencessuchasquantummechanicsandEinstein’stheoryofrelativityunderminedtheprimacyofNewtonianphysicsasanobjectivedescriptionofnature.
D. Modernart,includingImpressionism,Post-Impressionism,andCubism,movedbeyondtherepresentationaltothesubjective,abstract,andexpressiveandoftenprovokedaudiencesthatbelievedthatartshouldreflectsharedandidealizedvaluessuchasbeautyandpatriotism.
Period4:1914–PresentKeyConcept4.1:Totalwarandpoliticalinstabilityinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturygavewaytoapolarizedstateorderduringtheColdWar,andeventuallytoeffortsattransnationalunion.
I.WorldWarI,causedbyacomplexinteractionoflong-andshort-termfactors,resultedinimmenselossesanddisruptionsforbothvictorsandvanquished.
A. Avarietyoffactors–includingnationalism,militaryplans,thealliancesystem,andimperialcompetition–turnedaregionaldisputeintheBalkansintoWorldWarI.
B. Newtechnologiesconfoundedtraditionalmilitarystrategiesandledtomassivetrooplosses.
C. Theeffectsofmilitarystalemateandtotalwarledtoprotestandinsurrectioninthe
belligerentnationsandeventuallytorevolutionsthatchangedtheinternationalbalanceofpower.
D. ThewarinEuropequicklyspreadtonon-Europeantheaters,transformingthewarintoaglobalconflict.
E. TherelationshipofEuropetotheworldshiftedsignificantlywiththeglobalizationoftheconflict,theemergenceoftheUnitedStatesasaworldpower,andtheoverthrowofEuropeanempires.
II.TheconflictinggoalsofthepeacenegotiatorsinParispitteddiplomaticidealismagainstthedesiretopunishGermany,producingasettlementthatsatisfiedfew.
A. Wilsonianidealismclashedwithpostwarrealitiesinboththevictoriousandthedefeatedstates.Democraticsuccessorstatesemergedfromformerempiresandeventuallysuccumbedtosignificantpolitical,economic,anddiplomaticcrises.
B. TheLeagueofNations,createdtopreventfuturewars,wasweakenedfromtheoutsetbythenonparticipationofmajorpowers,includingtheUnitedStates,Germany,andtheSovietUnion.
C. TheVersaillessettlement,particularlyitsprovisionsontheassignmentofguiltandreparationsforthewar,hinderedtheGermanWeimarRepublic’sabilitytoestablishastableandlegitimatepoliticalandeconomicsystem.
III.Intheinterwarperiod,fascism,extremenationalism,racistideologies,andthefailureofappeasementresultedinthecatastropheofWorldWarII,presentingagravechallengetoEuropeancivilization.
A. FrenchandBritishfearsofanotherwar,Americanisolationism,anddeepdistrustbetweenWesterndemocratic,capitalistnationsandthecommunistSovietUnionallowedfasciststatestorearmandexpandtheirterritory.
B. Germany’sBlitzkriegwarfareinEurope,combinedwithJapan’sattacksinAsiaandthePacific,broughttheAxispowersearlyvictories.
C. AmericanandBritishindustrial,scientific,andtechnologicalpowerandtheall-outmilitarycommitmentoftheUSSRcontributedcriticallytotheAlliedvictories.
D. Fueledbyracismandanti-Semitism,GermanNazismsoughttoestablisha“newracialorder”inEurope,whichculminatedwiththeHolocaust.
IV.AsWorldWarIIended,aColdWarbetweentheliberaldemocraticWestandthecommunistEastbegan,lastingnearlyhalfa
A. DespiteeffortstomaintaininternationalcooperationthroughthenewlycreatedUnitedNations,deep-seatedtensionsbetweentheUSSRandtheWestledtothedivisionofEurope,whichwasreferredtointheWestasthe“IronCurtain.”
century. B. TheColdWarplayedoutonaglobalstageandinvolvedpropagandacampaigns;covertactions;limited“hotwars”inAsia,Africa,LatinAmerica,andtheCaribbean;andanarmsrace,withthethreatofanuclearwar.
C. TheUnitedStatesexertedastrongmilitary,political,andeconomicinfluenceinWesternEurope,leadingtothecreationofworldmonetaryandtradesystemsandgeopoliticalalliancessuchastheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO).
D. Countrieseastofthe“IronCurtain”cameunderthemilitary,political,andeconomicdominationoftheSovietUnionwithintheCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance(COMECON)andtheWarsawPact.
E. ThecollapseoftheUSSRin1991endedtheColdWar,andledtotheestablishmentofcapitalisteconomiesthroughoutEasternEurope.Germanywasreunited,theCzechsandSlovaksparted,Yugoslaviadissolved,andtheEuropeanUnionwasenlargedthroughadmissionofformerEastern-bloccountries.
V.Inresponsetothedestructiveimpactoftwoworldwars,Europeannationsbegantosetasidenationalisminfavorofeconomicandpoliticalintegration,formingaseriesoftransnationalunionsthatgrewinsizeandscopeoverthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.
A. AstheeconomicallianceknownastheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity,envisionedasameanstospurpostwareconomicrecovery,developedintotheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EECorCommonMarket)andtheEuropeanUnion(EU),EuropeexperiencedincreasingeconomicandpoliticalintegrationandeffortstoestablishasharedEuropeanidentity.
B. OneofthemajorcontinuingchallengestocountriesintheEUisbalancingnationalsovereigntywithresponsibilitiesofmembershipinaneconomicandpoliticalunion.
VI.Nationalistandseparatistmovements,alongwithethnicconflictandethniccleansing,periodicallydisruptedthepostWorldWarIIpeace.
VII.Theprocessofdecolonizationoccurredoverthecourseofthecenturywithvaryingdegreesofcooperation,interference,orresistancefromEuropeanimperialiststates.
A. AttheendofWorldWarI,PresidentWoodrowWilson’sprincipleofnationalself-determinationraisedexpectationsinthenon-Europeanworldforfreedomfromcolonialdomination,expectationsthatledtointernationalinstability.
B. TheLeagueofNationsdistributedformerGermanandOttomanpossessionsto
FranceandGreatBritainthroughthemandatesystem,therebyalteringtheimperialbalanceofpower,creatingastrategicinterestintheMiddleEastanditsoil.
C. Despiteindigenousnationalistmovements,independencefrommanyAfricanandAsianterritorieswasdelayeduntilthemid-andeventlate20thcenturybytheimperialpowers’reluctancetorelinquishcontrol,threatsofinterferencefromothernations,unstableeconomicandpoliticalsystems,andColdWarstrategicalignments.
KeyConcept4.2:ThestressesofeconomiccollapseandtotalwarengenderedinternalconflictswithinEuropeanstatesandcreatedconflictingconceptionsoftherelationshipbetweentheindividualandthestate,asdemonstratedintheideologicalbattleamongliberaldemocracy,communism,andfascism.
I.TheRussianRevolutioncreatedaregimebasedonMarxist-Leninisttheory.
A. InRussia,WorldWarIexacerbatedlong-termproblemsofpoliticalstagnation,socialinequality,incompleteindustrialization,andfoodandlanddistribution,allwhilecreatingsupportforrevolutionarychange.
B. Militaryandworkerinsurrections,aidedbytherevivedsoviets,underminedtheProvisionalGovernmentandsetthestateforLenin’slong-plannedBolshevikrevolutionandestablishmentofacommuniststate.
C. TheBolsheviktakeoverpromotedaprotractedcivilwarbetweencommunistforcesandtheiropponents,whowereaidedbyforeignpowers.
D. Inordertoimproveeconomicperformance,Lenincompromisedwithfree-marketprinciplesundertheNewEconomicPolicy,butafterhisdeathStalinundertookacentralizedprogramofrapideconomicmodernization.
E. Stalin’seconomicmodernizationoftheSovietUnioncameatahighprice,includingtheliquidationofthekulaks,famineintheUkraine,purgesofpoliticalrivals,unequalburdensplacedonwomen,andtheestablishmentofanoppressivepoliticalsystem.
II.Theideologyoffascism,withrootsinpre-WorldWarIera,gainedpopularityinanenvironmentofpostwarbitterness,theriseofcommunism,uncertaintransitionsto
A. Fascistdictatorshipsusedmoderntechnologyandpropagandathatrejecteddemocraticinstitutions,promotedcharismaticleaders,andglorifiedwarandnationalismtolurethedisillusioned.
B. MussoliniandHitlerrosetopowerbyexploitingpostwarbitternessandeconomic
democracy,andeconomicinstability. instability,usingterrorandmanipulatingthefledglingandunpopulardemocraciesintheircountries.
C. Franco’salliancewithItalianandGermanFascistsintheSpanishCivilWar–inwhichtheWesterndemocraciesdidnotintervene–representedatestinggroundforWorldWarIIandresultedinauthoritarianruleinSpainfrom1936tothemid-1970s.
D. Afterfailurestoestablishfunctioningdemocracies,authoritariandictatorshipstookpowerinCentralandEasternEuropeduringtheinterwarperiod.
III.TheGreatDepression,causedbyweaknessininternationaltradeandmonetarytheoriesandpractices,underminedWesternEuropeandemocraciesandfomentedradicalpoliticalresponsesthroughoutEurope.
A. WorldWarIdebt,nationalistictariffpolicies,overproduction,depreciatedcurrencies,disruptedtradepatterns,andspeculationcreatedweaknessineconomiesworldwide.
B. Dependenceonpost-WorldWarIAmericaninvestmentcapitalledtofinancialcollapsewhen,followingthe1929stockmarketcrash,theUnitedStatescutoffcapitalflowstoEurope.
C. Despiteattemptstorethinkeconomictheoriesandpoliciesandforgepoliticalalliances,WesterndemocraciesfailedtoovercometheGreatDepressionandwereweakenedbyextremistmovements.
IV.Postwareconomicgrowthsupportedanincreaseinwelfarebenefits;however,subsequenteconomicstagnationledtocriticismandlimitationofthewelfarestate.
A. MarshallPlanfundsfromtheUnitedStatesfinancedanextensivereconstructionofindustryandinfrastructureandstimulatedanextendedperiodofgrowthinWesternandCentralEurope,oftenreferredtoasan“economicmiracle,”whichincreasedtheeconomicandculturalimportanceofconsumerism.
B. Theexpansionofcradle-to-gravesocialwelfareprogramsintheaftermathofWorldWarII,accompaniedbyhightaxes,becameacontentiousdomesticissueasthebudgetsofEuropeannationscameunderpressureinthelate20thcentury.
V.EasternEuropeannationsweredefinedbytheirrelationshipwiththeSovietUnion,whichoscillatedbetweenrepressionandlimitedreform,untilMikhailGorbachev’spoliciesledtothecollapseofcommunist
A. CentralandEasternEuropeannationswithintheSovietblocfollowedaneconomicmodelbasedoncentralplanning,extensivesocialwelfare,andspecializedproductionsamongblocmembers.
B. After1956,SovietleaderNikitaKhrushchev’sde-StalinizationpoliciesfailedtomeettheireconomicgoalswithintheSovietUnionandpromotedrevoltsinEastern
governmentsinEasternEuropeandthefalloftheSovietUnion.
Europe.C. Followingalongperiodofeconomicstagnation,MikhailGorbachev’sinternal
reformsofperestroikaandglasnost,designedtomaketheSovietsystemmoreflexible,failedtostaveoffthecollapseoftheSovietUnionandtheendofitshegemoniccontroloverEasternandCentralEuropeansatellites.
D. TheriseofnewnationalismsinCentralandEasternEuropebroughtpeacefulrevolutioninmostcountries,butresultedinwarandgenocideintheBalkansandinstabilityinsomeformerSovietrepublics.
KeyConcept4.3:Duringthe20thcentury,diverseintellectualandculturalmovementsquestionedtheexistenceofobjectiveknowledge,theabilityofreasontoarriveattruth,andtheroleofreligionindeterminingmoralstandards.
I.Thewidelyheldbeliefinprogresscharacteristicofmuchofthe19thcenturythoughtbegantobreakdownbeforeWorldWarI;theexperienceofwarintensifiedasenseofanxietythatpermeatedmanyfacetsofthoughtandculture,givingwaybythecentury’sendtoapluralityofintellectualframeworks.
A. WhenWorldWarIbegan,Europeansweregenerallyconfidentintheabilityofscienceandtechnologytoaddresshumanneedsandproblemsdespitetheuncertaintycreatedbythenewscientifictheoriesandpsychology.
B. Theeffectsofworldwarandeconomicdepressionunderminedthisconfidenceinscienceandhumanreason,givingimpetustoexistentialismandproducingpostmodernisminthepost-1945period.
II.Scienceandtechnologyyieldedimpressivematerialbenefitsbutalsocausedimmensedestructionandposedchallengestoobjectiveknowledge.
A. ThechallengetothecertaintiesoftheNewtonianuniverseinphysicsopenedthedoortouncertaintyinotherfieldsbyunderminingfaithinobjectiveknowledge,whilealsoprovidingtheknowledgenecessaryforthedevelopmentofnuclearweaponsandpower.
B. Medicaltheoriesandtechnologiesextendedlifebutposedsocialandmoralquestionsthateludedconsensusandcrossedreligious,political,andphilosophicalperspectives.
C. Militarytechnologiesmadepossibleindustrializedwarfare,genocide,nuclearproliferation,andtheriskofglobalnuclearwar.
III.OrganizedreligioncontinuedtoplayaroleinEuropeansocialandculturallife,despitethechallengesofmilitaryandideologicalconflict,modernsecularism,andrapidsocialchanges.
A. ThechallengesoftotalitarianismandcommunisminCentralandEasternEuropebroughtmixedresponsesfromChristianchurches.
B. ReformintheCatholicChurchfoundexpressionintheSecondVaticanCouncil,whichredefinedtheChurch’sdogmaandpracticesandstartedtoredefineitsrelationswithotherreligiouscommunities.
C. IncreasedimmigrationintoEuropealteredEurope’sreligiousmakeup,causingdebateandconflictovertheroleofreligioninsocialandpoliticallife.
IV.Duringthe20thcentury,theartsweredefinedbyexperimentation,self-expression,subjectivity,andtheincreasinginfluenceoftheUnitedStatesinbotheliteandpopularculture.
A. Newmovementsinthevisualarts,architectureandmusicdemolishedexistingaestheticstandards,exploredsubconsciousandsubjectivestates,andsatirizedWesternsocietyanditsvalues.
B. Throughoutthecentury,anumberofwriterschallengedtraditionalliteraryconventions,questionedWesternvalues,andaddressedcontroversialsocialandpoliticalissues.
C. IncreasedimportsofUnitedStatestechnologyandpopularcultureafterWorldWarIIgeneratedbothenthusiasmandcriticism.
KeyConcept4.4:Demographicchanges,economicgrowth,totalwar,disruptionsoftraditionalsocialpatterns,andcompetingdefinitionsoffreedomandjusticealteredtheexperiencesofeverydaylife.
I.The20thcenturywascharacterizedbylarge-scalesufferingbroughtonbywarfareandgenocideaswellastremendousimprovementsinthestandardofliving.
A. WorldWarIcreateda“lostgeneration,”fostereddisillusionmentandcynicism,transformedthelivesofwomen,anddemocratizedsocieties.
B. WorldWarIIdecimatedagenerationofRussianandGermanmen,virtuallydestroyedEuropeanJewry,forcedlarge-scaleethnicmigrations,andunderminedprewarclasshierarchies.
C. Massproduction,newfoodtechnologies,andindustrialefficiencyincreaseddisposableincomeandcreatedaconsumercultureinwhichgreaterdomesticcomforts,suchaselectricity,indoorplumbing,plastics,andsyntheticfibersbecameavailable.
D. Newcommunicationandtransportationmultipliedtheconnectionsacrossspaceand
time,transformingdailylifeandcontributingtotheproliferationofideasandtoglobalization.
II.Thelivesofwomenweredefinedbyfamilyandworkresponsibilities,economicchanges,andfeminism.
A. Duringworldwars,womenbecameincreasinglyinvolvedinmilitaryandpoliticalmobilization,aswellasineconomicproduction.
B. InWesternEuropethroughtheeffortsoffeminists,andinEasternEuropeandtheSovietUnionthroughgovernmentpolicy,womenfinallygainedthevote,greatereducationalopportunities,andaccesstoprofessionalcareers,evenwhilecontinuingtofacesocialinequalities.
C. WitheconomicrecoveryafterWorldWarII,thebirthrateincreaseddramatically(theBabyBoom),oftenpromotedbygovernmentpolicies.
D. Newmodesofmarriage,partnership,motherhood,divorce,andreproductiongavewomenmoreoptionsintheirpersonallives.
E. Womenattainedhighpoliticalofficeandincreasedtheirrepresentationinlegislativebodiesinmanynations.
III.Newvoicesgainedprominenceinpolitical,intellectual,andsocialdiscourse.
A. GreenpartiesinWesternandCentralEuropechallengedconsumerism,urgedsustainabledevelopment,andbythelate20thcentury,cautionedagainstglobalization.
B. Gayandlesbianmovementsworkedforexpandedcivilrights,obtaininginsomenationstherighttoformcivilpartnershipswithfullbenefitsortomarry.
C. Intellectualsandyouthreactedagainstperceivedbourgeoismaterialismanddecadence,mostsignificantlywiththerevoltsof1968.
D. Becauseofeconomicgrowthofthe1950sand1960s,numerous“guestworkers”fromsouthernEurope,Asia,andAfricaimmigratedtoWesternandCentralEurope;however,aftertheeconomicdownturnonthe1970s,theseworkersandtheirfamiliesoftenbecametargetsofanti-immigrationagitationandextremenationalistparties.
