AP European History Key Concepts Review Chart d 1: 1450 – 1648 oncept 1.1: The worldview of European intellectuals shifted from one based on ecclesiastical and classical authority to primarily on inquiry and observation of the natural world. vival of classical texts led to new ods of scholarship and new values in ociety and religion. A. Italian Renaissance humanists promoted a revival in classical literature and created new philological approaches to ancient texts. Some Renaissance hum furthered the values of secularism and individualism. B. Humanist revival of Greek and Roman texts, spread by the printing press, challenged the institutional power of universities and the Roman Catholic Chu and shifted the focus of education away from theology toward the study of classical texts. C. Admiration for Greek and Roman political institutions supported a revival of humanist culture in the Italian city-states and produced secular models for individual and political behavior. invention of printing promoted the mination of new ideas. A. The invention of the printing press in the 1450s aided in spreading the Renaissance beyond Italy and encouraged the growth of vernacular literature which would eventually contribute to the development of national cultures. B. Protestant reformers used the press to disseminate their ideas, which spurre religious reform and helped it become widely established. e visual arts incorporated the new of the Renaissance and were used to ote personal, political, and religious A. Princes and popes, concerned with enhancing their prestige, commissioned paintings and architectural works based on classical styles and often employi the newly invented technique of geometric perspective. B. A human-centered naturalism that considered individuals and everyday life appropriate objectives of artistic representation was encouraged through the patronage of both princes and commercial elites. C. Mannerist and Baroque artists employed distortion, drama, and illusion in wo
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A. ItalianRenaissancehumanistspromotedarevivalinclassicalliteratureandcreatednewphilologicalapproachestoancienttexts.SomeRenaissancehumanistsfurtheredthevaluesofsecularismandindividualism.
B. HumanistrevivalofGreekandRomantexts,spreadbytheprintingpress,challengedtheinstitutionalpowerofuniversitiesandtheRomanCatholicChurchandshiftedthefocusofeducationawayfromtheologytowardthestudyofclassicaltexts.
C. AdmirationforGreekandRomanpoliticalinstitutionssupportedarevivalofcivichumanistcultureintheItaliancity-statesandproducedsecularmodelsforindividualandpoliticalbehavior.
A. Theinventionoftheprintingpressinthe1450saidedinspreadingtheRenaissancebeyondItalyandencouragedthegrowthofvernacularliterature,whichwouldeventuallycontributetothedevelopmentofnationalcultures.
B. Protestantreformersusedthepresstodisseminatetheirideas,whichspurredreligiousreformandhelpeditbecomewidelyestablished.
A. Princesandpopes,concernedwithenhancingtheirprestige,commissionedpaintingsandarchitecturalworksbasedonclassicalstylesandoftenemployingthenewlyinventedtechniqueofgeometricperspective.
B. Ahuman-centerednaturalismthatconsideredindividualsandeverydaylifeappropriateobjectivesofartisticrepresentationwasencouragedthroughthepatronageofbothprincesandcommercialelites.
C. ManneristandBaroqueartistsemployeddistortion,drama,andillusioninworks
A. NewideasandmethodsinastronomyledindividualssuchasCopernicus,Galileo,andNewtontoquestiontheauthorityoftheancientsandreligionandtodevelopaheliocentricviewofthecosmos.
B. Anatomicalandmedicaldiscoveriesbyphysicians,includingWilliamHarvey,presentedthebodyasanintegratedsystem,challengingthetraditionalhumoraltheoryofthebodyanddiseaseespousedbyGalen.
C. FrancisBaconandReneDescartesdefinedinductiveanddeductivereasoningandpromotedexperimentationandtheuseofmathematics,whichwouldultimatelyshapethe“scientificmethod.”
D. Alchemyandastrologycontinuedtoappealtoelitesandtosomenaturalphilosophers,inpartbecausetheysharedwiththenewsciencethenotionofapredictableandknowableuniverse.Inoralcultureofpeasants,abeliefthatthecosmoswasgovernedbydivineanddemonicforcespersisted.
A. Newmonarchieslaidthefoundationforthecentralizedmodernstatebyestablishingamonopolyontaxcollection,militaryforce,andthedispensingofjustice,andbygainingtherighttodeterminethereligionoftheirsubjects.
B. ThePeaceofWestphalia(1648),whichmarkedtheeffectiveendofthemedievalidealofuniversalChristendom,acceleratedthedeclineoftheHolyRomanEmpirebygrantingprinces,bishopsandotherlocalleaderscontroloverreligion.
C. AcrossEurope,commercialandprofessionalgroupsgainedinpowerandplayedagreaterroleinpoliticalaffairs.
D. Secularpoliticaltheories,suchasthoseespousedinMachiavelli’sThePrince,providedanewconceptofthestate.
A. FollowingthePeaceofWestphalia(1648),religionnolongerwasacauseforwarfareamongEuropeanstates;instead,theconceptofthebalanceofpowerplayedanimportantroleinstructuringdiplomaticandmilitaryobjectives.
B. Advancesinmilitarytechnology(i.e.,the“militaryrevolution”)ledtonewformsofwarfare,includinggreaterrelianceoninfantry,firearms,mobilecannon,andmoreelaboratefortifications,allfinancedbyheaviertaxationandrequiringalargerbureaucracy.Technology,tactics,andstrategiestippedthebalanceofpowertowardstatesabletomarshalsufficientresourcesforthenewmilitaryenvironment.
A. Christianhumanism,embodiedinthewritingsofErasmus,employedRenaissancelearningintheserviceofreligiousreform.
B. ReformersMartinLutherandJohnCalvin,aswellasreligiousradicalssuchasAnabaptists,criticizedCatholicabusesandestablishednewinterpretationsofChristiandoctrineandpractice.
C. TheCatholicReformation,exemplifiedbytheJesuitOrderandtheCouncilofTrent,revivedthechurchbutcementedthedivisionwithinChristianity.
A. Monarchsandprinces,suchastheEnglishrulersHenryVIIIandElizabethI,initiatedreligiousreformfromthetopdown(“magisterial”)inanefforttoexercisegreatercontroloverreligiouslifeandmorality.
B. SomeProtestants,includingJohnCalvinandtheAnabaptists,refusedtorecognize
A. Issuesofreligiousreformexacerbatedconflictsbetweenthemonarchyandthenobility,asintheFrenchWarsofReligion.
B. TheeffortsofHabsburgrulersfailedtorestoreCatholicunityacrossEurope.C. Statesexploitedreligiousconflictstopromotepoliticalandeconomicinterests.D. Afewstates,suchasFrancewiththeEdictNantes,allowedreligiouspluralismin
A. Europeanstatessoughtdirectaccesstogoldandspicesandluxurygoodsasameanstoenhancepersonalwealthandstatepower.
B. Theriseofmercantilismgavethestateanewroleinpromotingcommercialdevelopmentandtheacquisitionofcoloniesoverseas.
C. ChristianityservedasastimulusforexplorationasgovernmentsandreligiousauthoritiessoughttospreadthefaithandcounterIslam,andasajustificationforthephysicalandculturalsubjugationofindigenouscivilizations.
A. TheexchangeofgoodsshiftedthecenterofeconomicpowerinEuropefromtheMediterraneantotheAtlanticstatesandbroughtthelatterintoanexpandingworldeconomy.
B. Theexchangeofnewplants,animals,anddiseases–theColumbianExchange–createdeconomicopportunitiesforEuropeansandfacilitatedEuropeansubjugationdestructionofindigenouspeoples,particularlyintheAmericas.
C. EuropeansexpandedtheAfricanslavetradeinresponsetotheestablishmentofaplantationeconomyintheAmericasanddemographiccatastrophesamongindigenouspeoples.
A. Subsistenceagriculturewastheruleinmostareas,withthree-cropfieldrotationinthenorthandtwo-croprotationintheMediterranean;inmanycases,farmerspaidrentandlaborservicesfortheirlands.
B. Thepricerevolutioncontributedtotheaccumulationofcapitalandtheexpansionof
C. AswesternEuropemovedtowardafreepeasantryandcommercialagriculture,serfdomwascodifiedintheeast,wherenoblescontinuedtodominateeconomiclifeonlargeestates.
D. Theattemptsoflandlordstoincreasetheirrevenuesbyrestrictingorabolishingthetraditionalrightsofpeasantsledtorevolt.
A. Populationrecoveredtoitspre-GreatPlaguelevelinthe16thcentury,andcontinuingpopulationpressurescontributedtounevenpriceincreases;agriculturalcommoditiesincreasedmoresharplythanwages,reducinglivingstandardsforsome.
B. Migrantstothecitieschallengedtheabilityofthemerchantelitesandcraftguildstogovernandstrainedresources.
C. Socialdislocation,coupledwiththeweakeningofreligiousinstitutionsduringtheReformation,leftcitygovernmentswiththetaskofregulatingpublicmorals.
A. Ruralandurbanhouseholdsworkedasunits,withmenandwomenengagedinseparatebutcomplementarytasks.
B. TheRenaissanceandReformationmovementsraiseddebatesaboutfemalerolesinthefamily,society,andthechurch.
C. Fromthelate16thcenturyforward,Europeansrespondedtoeconomicandenvironmentalchallenges,suchasthe“LittleIceAge,”bydelayingmarriageandchildbearing,whichrestrainedpopulationgrowthandultimatelyimprovedeconomicconditionoffamilies.
A. Absolutemonarchieslimitedthenobility’sparticipationingovernancebutpreservedthearistocracy’ssocialpositionandlegalprivileges.
B. LouisXIVandhisfinanceministerJean-BaptisteColbertextendedtheadministrative,financial,military,andreligiouscontrolofthecentralstateovertheFrenchpopulation.
C. Inthe18thcentury,anumberofstatesineasternandcentralEuropeexperimentedwith“enlightenedabsolutism.”
D. TheinabilityofthePolishmonarchytoconsolidateitsauthorityoverthenobilityledtoPoland’spartitionbyPrussia,Russia,andAustria,anditsdisappearancefromthemapofEurope.
E. PetertheGreat“westernized”theRussianstateandsociety,transformingpolitical,religious,andculturalinstitutions;CatherinetheGreatcontinuedthisprocess.
A. TheoutcomeoftheEnglishCivilWarandtheGloriousRevolutionprotectedtherightsofthegentryandaristocracyfromabsolutismthroughassertionsoftherightsofParliament.
B. TheDutchRepublicdevelopedanoligarchyofurbangentryandrurallandholderstopromotetradeandprotecttraditionalrights.
A. TheFrenchRevolutionresultedfromacombinationoflong-termsocialandpoliticalcauses,aswellasEnlightenmentideas,exacerbatedbyshort-termfiscalandeconomiccrises.
B. Thefirst,orliberal,phaseoftheFrenchRevolutionestablishedaconstitutionalmonarchy,increasedpopularparticipation,nationalizedtheCatholicChurch,andabolishedhereditaryprivileges.
C. AftertheexecutionofLouisXVI,theradicalJacobinRepublicledbyRobespierrerespondedtooppositionathomeandwarabroadbyinstitutingaReignofTerror,fixingpricesandwages,andpursuingapolicyofde-Christianization.
D. Revolutionaryarmies,raisedbymassconscription,soughttobringthechangesinitiatedinFranceandtherestofEurope.
E. Womenenthusiasticallyparticipatedintheearlyphasesoftherevolution;however,whiletherewerebriefimprovementsinthelegalstatusofwomen,citizenshipintherepublicwassoonrestrictedtomen.
F. RevolutionaryidealsinspiredaslaverevoltbyToussaintL’OuvertureintheFrenchcolonyofSaintDomingue,whichbecametheindependentnationofHaitiin1804.
G. Whilemanywereinspiredbytherevolution’semphasisonequalityandhumanrights,othercondemneditsviolenceanddisregardfortraditionalauthority.
A. Asfirstconsulandemperor,Napoleonundertookanumberofenduringdomesticreformswhileoftencurtailingrightsandmanipulatingpopularimpulsesbehindafaçadeofrepresentativeinstitutions.
B. Napoleon’snewmilitarytacticsallowedhimtoexertdirectorindirectcontrolovermuchoftheEuropeancontinent,spreadingtheidealsoftheFrenchRevolutionacrossEurope.
C. Napoleon’sexpandingempirecreatednationalistresponsesthroughoutEurope.
D. AfterthedefeatofNapoleonbyacoalitionofEuropeanpowers,theCongressofVienna(1814-15)attemptedtorestorethebalanceofpowerinEuropeandcontainthedangerofrevolutionaryornationalisticupheavalsinthefuture.
A. Laborandtradeincommoditieswereincreasinglyfreedfromtraditionalrestrictionsimposedbygovernmentsandcorporateentities.
B. TheAgriculturalRevolutionraisedproductivityandincreasedthesupplyoffoodandotheragriculturalproducts.
C. Theputting-outsystemorcottageindustryexpandedasincreasingnumbersoflaborersinhomesorworkshopsproducedformarketsthroughmerchantintermediariesorworkshopowners.
D. Thedevelopmentofthemarketeconomyledtonewfinancialpracticesandinstitutions.
A. IntellectualssuchasVoltaireandDiderotbegantoapplytheprinciplesoftheScientificRevolutiontosocietyandhumaninstitutions.
B. LockeandRousseaudevelopednewpoliticalmodelsbasedontheconceptofnaturalrights.
C. DespitetheprinciplesofequalityespousedbytheEnlightenmentandtheFrenchRevolution,intellectualssuchasRousseauofferednewargumentsfortheexclusionofwomenfrompoliticallife,whichdidnotgounchallenged.
A. Politicaltheories,suchasJohnLocke’s,conceivedofsocietyascomposedofindividualsdrivenbyself-interestandarguedthatthestateoriginatedintheconsentofthegoverned(i.e.,asocialcontract)ratherthanindivinerightortradition.
B. Mercantilisttheoryandpracticewerechallengedbyneweconomicideas,suchasAdamSmith’s,espousingfreetradeandafreemarket.
A. Untilabout1750,Baroqueartandmusicpromotedreligiousfeelingandwasemployedbymonarchstoglorifystatepower.
B. ArtisticmovementsandliteraturealsoreflectedtheoutlookandvaluesofcommercialandbourgeoissocietyaswellasnewEnlightenmentidealsofpoliticalpowerandcitizenship.
A. Bythemiddleofthe18thcentury,higheragriculturalproductivityandimprovedtransportationincreasedthefoodsupply,allowingpopulationstogrowandreducingthenumberofdemographiccrises(aprocessknownastheAgriculturalRevolution).
B. Inthe18thcentury,plaguedisappearedasamajorepidemic,andinoculationreducedsmallpoxmortality.
A. Thoughtherateofillegitimatebirthsincreasedinthe18thcentury,populationgrowthwaslimitedbytheEuropeanmarriagepatternand,insomeareas,bytheearlypracticeofbirthcontrol.
B. Asinfantandchildmortalitydecreasedandcommercialwealthincreased,familiesdedicatedmorespaceandresourcestochildrenandchild-rearing,aswellasprivatelifeandcomfort.
A. Britain’sreadyofcoal,ironore,andotheressentialrawmaterialspromotedindustrialgrowth.
B. Economicinstitutionsandhumancapitalsuchasengineers,inventors,andcapitalistshelpedBritainleadtheprocessofindustrialization,largelythroughprivateinitiative.
C. Britain’sparliamentarygovernmentpromotedcommercialandindustrialinterests,becausethoseinterestswererepresentedinParliament.
A. FrancemovedtowardindustrializationatamoregradualpacethanGreatBritain,withgovernmentsupportandwithlessdislocationoftraditionalmethodsofproduction.
B. IndustrializationinPrussiaallowedthatstatetobecometheleaderofaunifiedGermany,whichsubsequentlyunderwentrapidindustrializationundergovernmentsponsorship.
C. Acombinationoffactors,includinggeography,lackofresources,thedominanceoftraditionallandedelites,thepersistenceofserfdominsomeareas,andinadequategovernmentsponsorshipaccountedforeasternandsouthernEurope’slaginindustrialdevelopment.
A. Mechanizationandthefactorysystembecamethepredominantmodesofproductivityby1914.
B. Newtechnologiesandmeansofcommunicationandtransportation–includingrailroads–resultedinmorefullyintegratednationaleconomies,ahigherlevelofurbanization,andatrulyglobaleconomicnetwork.
C. Volatilebusinesscyclesinthelastquarterofthe19thcenturyledcorporationsandgovernmentstotrytomanagethemarketthroughmonopolies,bankingpractices,andtariffs.
A. InindustrializedareasofEurope(i.e.,westernandnorthernEurope),socio-economicchangescreateddivisionsoflaborthatledtothedevelopmentofself-consciousclasses,suchastheproletariatandthebourgeoisie.
B. InsomeofthelessindustrializedareasofEurope,thedominanceofagricultural
A. Alongwithbetterharvestscausedinpartbythecommercializationofagriculture,industrializationpromotedpopulationgrowth,longerlifeexpectancy,andloweredinfantmortality.
B. Withmigrationfromruraltourbanareasinindustrializedregions,citiesexperiencedovercrowding,whileaffectedruralareassuffereddeclinesinavailablelaboraswellasweakenedcommunities.
A. Bourgeoisfamiliesbecamefocusedonthenuclearfamilyandthe“cultofdomesticity,”withdistinctgenderrolesformenandwomen.
B. Bytheendofthecentury,wagesandthequalityoflifefortheworkingclassimprovedbecauseoflawsrestrictingthelaborofchildrenandwomen,socialwelfareprograms,improveddiet,andtheuseofbirthcontrol.
C. Economicmotivationsformarriage,whilestillimportantforallclasses,diminishedasthemiddle-classnotionofcompanionatemarriagebegantobeadoptedbytheworkingclasses.
D. Leisuretimecenteredincreasinglyonthefamilyorsmallgroups,concurrentwiththedevelopmentofactivitiesandspacestousethattime.
A. Industrializationandmassmarketingincreasedboththeproductionanddemandforanewrangeofconsumergoods–includingclothing,processedfoods,andlabor-savingandleisure.
B. Newefficientmethodsoftransportationandotherinnovationscreatednewindustries,improvedthedistributionofgoods,increasedconsumerism,andenhancedthequalityoflife.
A. Liberalsemphasizedpopularsovereignty,individualrights,andenlightenedself-interestbutdebatedtheextenttowhichallgroupsinsocietyshouldactivelyparticipateinitsgovernance.
B. RadicalsinBritainandrepublicansonthecontinentdemandeduniversalmalesuffrageandfullcitizenshipwithoutregardtowealthandpropertyownership;somearguedthatsuchrightsshouldbeextendedtowomen.
C. Conservativesdevelopedanewideologyinsupportoftraditionalpoliticalandreligiousauthorities,whichwasbasedontheideathathumannaturewasnotperfectible.
D. Socialistscalledforafairdistributionofsociety’sresourcesandwealth,andevolvedfromautopiantoaMarxist“scientific”critiqueofcapitalism.
E. Anarchistsassertedthatallformsofgovernmentalauthoritywereunnecessary,andshouldbeoverthrownandreplacedwithasocietybasedonvoluntarycooperation.
F. Nationalistsencouragedloyaltytothenationinavarietyofways,includingromanticidealism,liberalreform,politicalunification,racialismwithaconcomitantanti-Semitism,andchauvinismjustifyingnationalaggrandizement.
G. AformofJewishnationalism,Zionism,developedinthelate19thcenturyasaresponsetogrowinganti-SemitisminbothwesternandeasternEurope.
A. Liberalismshiftedfromlaissez-fairetointerventionisteconomicandsocialpoliciesonbehalfofthelessprivileged;thepolicieswerebasedonarationalapproachtoreformthataddressedtheimpactofIndustrialRevolutionontheindividual.
B. Governmentreformstransformedunhealthyandovercrowdedcitiesbymodernizing
A. Metternich,architectoftheConcertofEurope,useditsuppressnationalistandliberalrevolutions.
B. ConservativesreestablishedcontrolinmanyEuropeanstatesandattemptedtosuppressmovementsforchangeand,insomeareas,tostrengthenadherencetoreligiousauthorities.
C. Inthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,revolutionariesattemptedtodestroythestatusquo.
D. Therevolutionsof1848challengedtheconservativeorderandledtothebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope.
A. TheCrimeanWardemonstratedtheweaknessoftheOttomanEmpireandcontributedtothebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope,therebycreatingtheconditionsinwhichItalyandGermanycouldbeunitedaftercenturiesoffragmentation.
B. Anewbreedofconservativeleaders,includingNapoleonIII,Cavour,andBismarck,co-optedtheagendaofnationalistsforthepurposesofcreatingorstrengtheningthestate.
C. ThecreationofthedualmonarchyofAustria-Hungary,whichrecognizedthepoliticalpowerofthelargestethnicminority,wasanattempttostabilizethestatebyreconfiguringnationalunity.
D. InRussia,autocraticleaderspushedthroughaprogramofreformandmodernization,whichgaverisetorevolutionarymovementsandeventuallytheRevolutionof1905.
A. Europeannationalrivalriesandstrategicconcernsfosteredimperialexpansionandcompetitionforcolonies.
B. Thesearchforrawmaterialsandmarketsformanufacturedgoods,aswellasstrategicandnationalisticconsiderations,droveEuropeanstocolonizeAfricaandAsia,evenasEuropeancoloniesintheAmericasbrokefreepolitically,ifnoteconomically.
C. Europeansjustifiedimperialismthroughanideologyofculturalandracial
A. ImperialismcreateddiplomatictensionsamongEuropeanstatesthatstrainedalliancesystems.
B. Imperialencounterswithnon-Europeanpeoplesinfluencedthestylesandsubjectmatterofartistsandwritersandprovokeddebateovertheacquisitionofcolonies.
C. Asnon-EuropeansbecameeducatedinWesternvalues,theychallengedEuropeanimperialismthroughnationalistmovementsand/orbymodernizingtheirowneconomiesandsocieties.
A. Romanticartistsandcomposersbrokefromclassicalartisticformstoemphasizeemotion,nature,individuality,intuition,thesupernatural,andnationalhistoriesintheirworks.
B. RomanticwritersexpressedsimilarthemeswhilerespondingtotheIndustrialRevolutionandtovariouspoliticalrevolutions.
A. Philosophylargelymovedfromrationalinterpretationsofnatureandhumansocietytoanemphasisonirrationalityandimpulse,aviewthatcontributedtothebeliefthatconflictandstruggleledtoprogress.
B. Freudianpsychologyprovidedanewaccountofhumannaturethatemphasizedtheroleoftheirrationalandthestrugglebetweentheconsciousandsubconscious.
C. DevelopmentsinthenaturalsciencessuchasquantummechanicsandEinstein’stheoryofrelativityunderminedtheprimacyofNewtonianphysicsasanobjectivedescriptionofnature.
D. Modernart,includingImpressionism,Post-Impressionism,andCubism,movedbeyondtherepresentationaltothesubjective,abstract,andexpressiveandoftenprovokedaudiencesthatbelievedthatartshouldreflectsharedandidealizedvaluessuchasbeautyandpatriotism.
D. ThewarinEuropequicklyspreadtonon-Europeantheaters,transformingthewarintoaglobalconflict.
E. TherelationshipofEuropetotheworldshiftedsignificantlywiththeglobalizationoftheconflict,theemergenceoftheUnitedStatesasaworldpower,andtheoverthrowofEuropeanempires.
A. Wilsonianidealismclashedwithpostwarrealitiesinboththevictoriousandthedefeatedstates.Democraticsuccessorstatesemergedfromformerempiresandeventuallysuccumbedtosignificantpolitical,economic,anddiplomaticcrises.
B. TheLeagueofNations,createdtopreventfuturewars,wasweakenedfromtheoutsetbythenonparticipationofmajorpowers,includingtheUnitedStates,Germany,andtheSovietUnion.
C. TheVersaillessettlement,particularlyitsprovisionsontheassignmentofguiltandreparationsforthewar,hinderedtheGermanWeimarRepublic’sabilitytoestablishastableandlegitimatepoliticalandeconomicsystem.
A. FrenchandBritishfearsofanotherwar,Americanisolationism,anddeepdistrustbetweenWesterndemocratic,capitalistnationsandthecommunistSovietUnionallowedfasciststatestorearmandexpandtheirterritory.
B. Germany’sBlitzkriegwarfareinEurope,combinedwithJapan’sattacksinAsiaandthePacific,broughttheAxispowersearlyvictories.
C. AmericanandBritishindustrial,scientific,andtechnologicalpowerandtheall-outmilitarycommitmentoftheUSSRcontributedcriticallytotheAlliedvictories.
D. Fueledbyracismandanti-Semitism,GermanNazismsoughttoestablisha“newracialorder”inEurope,whichculminatedwiththeHolocaust.
A. DespiteeffortstomaintaininternationalcooperationthroughthenewlycreatedUnitedNations,deep-seatedtensionsbetweentheUSSRandtheWestledtothedivisionofEurope,whichwasreferredtointheWestasthe“IronCurtain.”
century. B. TheColdWarplayedoutonaglobalstageandinvolvedpropagandacampaigns;covertactions;limited“hotwars”inAsia,Africa,LatinAmerica,andtheCaribbean;andanarmsrace,withthethreatofanuclearwar.
C. TheUnitedStatesexertedastrongmilitary,political,andeconomicinfluenceinWesternEurope,leadingtothecreationofworldmonetaryandtradesystemsandgeopoliticalalliancessuchastheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO).
D. Countrieseastofthe“IronCurtain”cameunderthemilitary,political,andeconomicdominationoftheSovietUnionwithintheCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance(COMECON)andtheWarsawPact.
E. ThecollapseoftheUSSRin1991endedtheColdWar,andledtotheestablishmentofcapitalisteconomiesthroughoutEasternEurope.Germanywasreunited,theCzechsandSlovaksparted,Yugoslaviadissolved,andtheEuropeanUnionwasenlargedthroughadmissionofformerEastern-bloccountries.
A. AstheeconomicallianceknownastheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity,envisionedasameanstospurpostwareconomicrecovery,developedintotheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EECorCommonMarket)andtheEuropeanUnion(EU),EuropeexperiencedincreasingeconomicandpoliticalintegrationandeffortstoestablishasharedEuropeanidentity.
B. OneofthemajorcontinuingchallengestocountriesintheEUisbalancingnationalsovereigntywithresponsibilitiesofmembershipinaneconomicandpoliticalunion.
A. AttheendofWorldWarI,PresidentWoodrowWilson’sprincipleofnationalself-determinationraisedexpectationsinthenon-Europeanworldforfreedomfromcolonialdomination,expectationsthatledtointernationalinstability.
B. TheLeagueofNationsdistributedformerGermanandOttomanpossessionsto
C. Despiteindigenousnationalistmovements,independencefrommanyAfricanandAsianterritorieswasdelayeduntilthemid-andeventlate20thcenturybytheimperialpowers’reluctancetorelinquishcontrol,threatsofinterferencefromothernations,unstableeconomicandpoliticalsystems,andColdWarstrategicalignments.
A. InRussia,WorldWarIexacerbatedlong-termproblemsofpoliticalstagnation,socialinequality,incompleteindustrialization,andfoodandlanddistribution,allwhilecreatingsupportforrevolutionarychange.
B. Militaryandworkerinsurrections,aidedbytherevivedsoviets,underminedtheProvisionalGovernmentandsetthestateforLenin’slong-plannedBolshevikrevolutionandestablishmentofacommuniststate.
C. TheBolsheviktakeoverpromotedaprotractedcivilwarbetweencommunistforcesandtheiropponents,whowereaidedbyforeignpowers.
D. Inordertoimproveeconomicperformance,Lenincompromisedwithfree-marketprinciplesundertheNewEconomicPolicy,butafterhisdeathStalinundertookacentralizedprogramofrapideconomicmodernization.
E. Stalin’seconomicmodernizationoftheSovietUnioncameatahighprice,includingtheliquidationofthekulaks,famineintheUkraine,purgesofpoliticalrivals,unequalburdensplacedonwomen,andtheestablishmentofanoppressivepoliticalsystem.
A. Fascistdictatorshipsusedmoderntechnologyandpropagandathatrejecteddemocraticinstitutions,promotedcharismaticleaders,andglorifiedwarandnationalismtolurethedisillusioned.
B. MussoliniandHitlerrosetopowerbyexploitingpostwarbitternessandeconomic
C. Franco’salliancewithItalianandGermanFascistsintheSpanishCivilWar–inwhichtheWesterndemocraciesdidnotintervene–representedatestinggroundforWorldWarIIandresultedinauthoritarianruleinSpainfrom1936tothemid-1970s.
D. Afterfailurestoestablishfunctioningdemocracies,authoritariandictatorshipstookpowerinCentralandEasternEuropeduringtheinterwarperiod.
A. WorldWarIdebt,nationalistictariffpolicies,overproduction,depreciatedcurrencies,disruptedtradepatterns,andspeculationcreatedweaknessineconomiesworldwide.
B. Dependenceonpost-WorldWarIAmericaninvestmentcapitalledtofinancialcollapsewhen,followingthe1929stockmarketcrash,theUnitedStatescutoffcapitalflowstoEurope.
C. Despiteattemptstorethinkeconomictheoriesandpoliciesandforgepoliticalalliances,WesterndemocraciesfailedtoovercometheGreatDepressionandwereweakenedbyextremistmovements.
A. MarshallPlanfundsfromtheUnitedStatesfinancedanextensivereconstructionofindustryandinfrastructureandstimulatedanextendedperiodofgrowthinWesternandCentralEurope,oftenreferredtoasan“economicmiracle,”whichincreasedtheeconomicandculturalimportanceofconsumerism.
B. Theexpansionofcradle-to-gravesocialwelfareprogramsintheaftermathofWorldWarII,accompaniedbyhightaxes,becameacontentiousdomesticissueasthebudgetsofEuropeannationscameunderpressureinthelate20thcentury.
A. CentralandEasternEuropeannationswithintheSovietblocfollowedaneconomicmodelbasedoncentralplanning,extensivesocialwelfare,andspecializedproductionsamongblocmembers.
B. After1956,SovietleaderNikitaKhrushchev’sde-StalinizationpoliciesfailedtomeettheireconomicgoalswithintheSovietUnionandpromotedrevoltsinEastern
D. TheriseofnewnationalismsinCentralandEasternEuropebroughtpeacefulrevolutioninmostcountries,butresultedinwarandgenocideintheBalkansandinstabilityinsomeformerSovietrepublics.
A. WhenWorldWarIbegan,Europeansweregenerallyconfidentintheabilityofscienceandtechnologytoaddresshumanneedsandproblemsdespitetheuncertaintycreatedbythenewscientifictheoriesandpsychology.
B. Theeffectsofworldwarandeconomicdepressionunderminedthisconfidenceinscienceandhumanreason,givingimpetustoexistentialismandproducingpostmodernisminthepost-1945period.
A. ThechallengetothecertaintiesoftheNewtonianuniverseinphysicsopenedthedoortouncertaintyinotherfieldsbyunderminingfaithinobjectiveknowledge,whilealsoprovidingtheknowledgenecessaryforthedevelopmentofnuclearweaponsandpower.
B. Medicaltheoriesandtechnologiesextendedlifebutposedsocialandmoralquestionsthateludedconsensusandcrossedreligious,political,andphilosophicalperspectives.
C. Militarytechnologiesmadepossibleindustrializedwarfare,genocide,nuclearproliferation,andtheriskofglobalnuclearwar.
A. ThechallengesoftotalitarianismandcommunisminCentralandEasternEuropebroughtmixedresponsesfromChristianchurches.
B. ReformintheCatholicChurchfoundexpressionintheSecondVaticanCouncil,whichredefinedtheChurch’sdogmaandpracticesandstartedtoredefineitsrelationswithotherreligiouscommunities.
C. IncreasedimmigrationintoEuropealteredEurope’sreligiousmakeup,causingdebateandconflictovertheroleofreligioninsocialandpoliticallife.
A. Newmovementsinthevisualarts,architectureandmusicdemolishedexistingaestheticstandards,exploredsubconsciousandsubjectivestates,andsatirizedWesternsocietyanditsvalues.
B. Throughoutthecentury,anumberofwriterschallengedtraditionalliteraryconventions,questionedWesternvalues,andaddressedcontroversialsocialandpoliticalissues.
C. IncreasedimportsofUnitedStatestechnologyandpopularcultureafterWorldWarIIgeneratedbothenthusiasmandcriticism.
A. WorldWarIcreateda“lostgeneration,”fostereddisillusionmentandcynicism,transformedthelivesofwomen,anddemocratizedsocieties.
B. WorldWarIIdecimatedagenerationofRussianandGermanmen,virtuallydestroyedEuropeanJewry,forcedlarge-scaleethnicmigrations,andunderminedprewarclasshierarchies.
C. Massproduction,newfoodtechnologies,andindustrialefficiencyincreaseddisposableincomeandcreatedaconsumercultureinwhichgreaterdomesticcomforts,suchaselectricity,indoorplumbing,plastics,andsyntheticfibersbecameavailable.
D. Newcommunicationandtransportationmultipliedtheconnectionsacrossspaceand
A. Duringworldwars,womenbecameincreasinglyinvolvedinmilitaryandpoliticalmobilization,aswellasineconomicproduction.
B. InWesternEuropethroughtheeffortsoffeminists,andinEasternEuropeandtheSovietUnionthroughgovernmentpolicy,womenfinallygainedthevote,greatereducationalopportunities,andaccesstoprofessionalcareers,evenwhilecontinuingtofacesocialinequalities.
C. WitheconomicrecoveryafterWorldWarII,thebirthrateincreaseddramatically(theBabyBoom),oftenpromotedbygovernmentpolicies.
D. Newmodesofmarriage,partnership,motherhood,divorce,andreproductiongavewomenmoreoptionsintheirpersonallives.
E. Womenattainedhighpoliticalofficeandincreasedtheirrepresentationinlegislativebodiesinmanynations.
A. GreenpartiesinWesternandCentralEuropechallengedconsumerism,urgedsustainabledevelopment,andbythelate20thcentury,cautionedagainstglobalization.
B. Gayandlesbianmovementsworkedforexpandedcivilrights,obtaininginsomenationstherighttoformcivilpartnershipswithfullbenefitsortomarry.
C. Intellectualsandyouthreactedagainstperceivedbourgeoismaterialismanddecadence,mostsignificantlywiththerevoltsof1968.
D. Becauseofeconomicgrowthofthe1950sand1960s,numerous“guestworkers”fromsouthernEurope,Asia,andAfricaimmigratedtoWesternandCentralEurope;however,aftertheeconomicdownturnonthe1970s,theseworkersandtheirfamiliesoftenbecametargetsofanti-immigrationagitationandextremenationalistparties.