AN EXAMINATION ON ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES
BETWEEN LECTURERS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS
IN MALAYSIA AND NIGERIA
SULAIMAN MOHAMMED LAME
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy in Technology Management
Department of Technology Management
Faculty of Technology Management and Business
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
DECEMBER 2015
iv
This thesis is most importantly dedicated to the Almighty Allah (SWA) who gave me
the wisdom, courage and determination despite all family challenges to complete the
study. The thesis is also dedicated to the memory of my late parents Alhaji
Muhammad Chiroman Wunti and Hajiya Fatima Muhammad. May ALLAH (SWA)
reward them with His Rahmah and make Al-Jannatul firdausy as their final abode.
The thesis is also dedicated to my wife Lami and children Jamila, Abubakar,
Mohammed Arafat, Nana Fatima, Aisha and Abdurrahaman whom their love,
understanding, support and prayers inspired me to finish this valuable work.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I wish to thank Allah (SWA) for given me the strength, courage,
and wisdom to complete this doctoral thesis successfully. It was a lengthy journey
which would not have been possible without His divine authority. I am indeed deeply
grateful and sincerely appreciative to my supervisor, Associate Prof. Dr Wan Fauziah
Wan Yusoff for her patience, guidance and useful academic contributions throughout
the period of my study. I will remember forever her professionalism and intellectual
contributions towards the successful completion of my study. All her efforts and
encouragement towards achieving my success in this study are highly valued and
appreciated. May Allah (SWA) reward her with His infinite Rahmah.
My special acknowledgment and appreciation goes to my friend Alhaji
Adamu D. Gokaru (Madakin Marafan Bauchi and Accountant General Bauchi State)
for his intellectual advice and financial support throughout the period of my study.
Indeed all his efforts are highly recognized and appreciated forever. Sincerely, the
merits also go to Alhaji Alhassan Nuhu (Director Disaster Risk Reduction, NEMA,
Abuja), Alhaji Ibrahim Yashi (Hon. Commissioner of education Bauchi State),
Alhaji Aminu Maigari (President NFF), Muazua Usman (Executive Chairman
BIRBS) and Alhaji Baba Galadima (Registrar ATAP Bauchi) for their
encouragement and other valuable assistance towards a successful completion of the
study. Thank you for your care and I will forever remain very grateful to all of you.
I am deeply grateful to my colleagues in ATAP Bauchi like Abdullahi Yalwa,
Hajiya Hafsat Adamu, Baba Umar Abubakar, Lawal Sambo and Eng Shuabu
Ibrahim. I will remember forever their contributions, moral support and friendship. I
am very appreciative of my colleagues in UTHM like Alhaji Idris Adamu, Abdul
Aziz Raji, Mr Onalo Ugbede, Mohammed Abdulhameed, Mr Adeyemi Ade Gbenga
and Shuaibu Sunusi for their wonderful guidance and assistance throughout the
period of my study in UTHM. And also my thanks go to Umar Abbass (UTM) and
Alhaji Abubakar Aliyu for their kind help in processing the statistical data. My
special gratitude goes to the entire staff of Faculty of Technology Management,
CGS, International Office and ORICC UTHM for their kind help and support
throughout the period of my study.
vi
ABSTRACT
The entrepreneurship has emerged over the last three decades as one of the most
powerful economic forces the world has ever experienced. To date, the enormous
and remarkable international growth in the field of entrepreneurship education
focused mostly on course contents or programs and their immediate impacts on
students and neglecting lecturers’ competencies as well as their relevant educational
qualifications as an important determinant to the success of entrepreneurship
program. This has justified the need for this study. A quantitative research approach
was adopted and a purposive sampling technique was used to determine the sample
size of the respondents – lecturers teaching entrepreneurship courses in Malaysian
and Nigerian Higher Learning Institutions. The data was captured using structure
questionnaire developed based on extensive literature review related to the study. A
total of 1150 questionnaires were administered out of which 620 or 60% were
completed and successfully returned by the selected respondents. This represents 237
(68%) from Malaysia and 383 (69%) from Nigeria. In order to achieve the research
objectives of the study, three statistical techniques- descriptive statistics, correlations
and PLS regressions analyses were employed. Findings from Malaysia showed that
entrepreneurial attitudes is found to be most important competencies with the highest
mean score of 5.14 which was followed by entrepreneurial skills 5.09 and knowledge
with 4.82. Similarly, in Nigeria the result further indicated that entrepreneurial
attitude has the highest mean scores rate of 4.89. Knowledge has 4.82 and skill has
the lowest mean scores of 4.80. Moreover, a total of nine hypotheses were postulated
and tested and the results in both countries showed positive and significant
relationships between the independent and dependent variables. However, this study
has covered only some selected public universities and polytechnics only. Further
study can be conducted on a wider basis that can lead to more general conclusions.
Findings from this study has provided the basis for a new model of entrepreneurial
competencies on how to develop enthusiasm for entrepreneurship and enterprise
culture among students. The outcome of this study will be used by academics, policy
makers and students to improve the state of entrepreneurial learning where
vii
entrepreneurship is thought as a key competency and set of skills, knowledge and
attitudes are developed in students.
ABSTRAK
Bidang keusahawanan telah bermula dalam tempoh tiga dekad yang lalu merupakan
salah satu aspek ekonomi yang paling berkuasa di dunia. Sehingga kini, pertumbuhan
antarabangsa dalam bidang pendidikan keusahawanan banyak memberi tumpuan
kepada kandungan kursus atau program dan kesan ke atas pelajar dan kecekapan
pensyarah serta kelayakan pendidikan mereka sebagai penentu bagi kejayaan bidang
keusahawanan. Kajian ini berkenaan kepada soalan berikut: Apakah kompetensi
keusahawanan yang paling penting bagi pensyarah yang mengajar kursus
keusahawanan di Malaysia dan Nigeria? ‘bertujuan’ telah digunakan bagi
menentukan jumlah sampel daripada responden – pensyarah yang mengajar kursus-
kursus keusahawanan di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia dan Nigeria. Data yang
diperolehi menggunakan soal selidik berstruktur telah dibangunkan berdasarkan
tinjauan literature yang menyeluruh. Sebanyak 620 borang soal selidik yang sah telah
Berjaya dipulangkan oleh responden di mana 237 responden adalah dari Malaysia
dan 383 responden dari Nigeria. Untuk mencapai objektif kajian ini, tiga teknik-
deskriptif berstatistik, kolerasi dan analisis telah digunapakai. Penemuan dari
Malaysia menunjukkan sikap terhadap bidang keusahawanan merupakan kompetensi
yang paling penting dengan skor min sebanyak 5.14 diikuti dengan kemahiran
keusahawanan dan pengetahuan 5.09 dan 4.82. Begitu juga di Nigeria, kajian sikap
keusahawanan mempunyai yang paling tinggi skor min 4.89 yang diikuti oleh
pengetahuan dengan 4.82 dan kemahiran mempunyai skor min terendah 4.80. Selain
itu, sejumlah sembilan hipotesis di kedua-dua negara telah diuji dan keputusan
menunjukkan hubungan yang positif dan signifikan antara pembolehubah bebas dan
bersandar. Hasil korelasi di Malaysia menunjukkan hubungan positif yang kuat
antara kemahiran (r = 0,637), pengetahuan (r = 0,642), sikap (r = 0,639), tahap
pendidikan (r = 0,464) dan prestasi pengajaran pensyarah. Di Nigeria, keputusan
korelasi juga menunjukkan hubungan yang sederhana antara kemahiran dan prestasi
pengajaran (r = 0,392), pengetahuan dan prestasi pengajaran (r = 0,467), sikap dan
viii
prestasi pengajaran (r = 0.525) dan tahap pendidikan dan prestasi pengajaran (r =
0,177). Hasil kajian ini adalah konsisten dengan penemuan sebelum ini dalam kerja-
kerja penyelidikan keusahawanan dan telah menyumbang secara besar kepada
pengetahuan dalam kecekapan keusahawanan. Akhir sekali, kajian ini mencadangkan
bahawa semua yang terlibat mestilah bersama-sama berusaha untuk memastikan
bahawa semua pensyarah keusahawanan berpendidikan, terlatih dan bermotivasi..
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT
vi
ABSTRAK
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURE
xviii
List of Acronyms
xviii
List of Appendices
xx
CHAPTER 1 Introduction: 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Background of the Study 4
1.3 Brief History of Entrepreneurship Education in Different Part of the
World
5
1.4 Problem Statement 12
1.5 Research Questions 18
1.6 Research Model and Hypothesis 19
1.8 The Scope of the Study 21
1.9 Operational Definitions 21
1.10 Structure of the Thesis 24
x
Summary of Chapter 1 25
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Definitions of Entrepreneur and Entrepreneurship 27
2.3 Entrepreneurship Education
42
2.4 The challenges of Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Learning
Institutions in Malaysia 59
2.5 Developments of entrepreneurship Education in Different Part of the
World
65
2.6 The Concept of Competency 68
2.7 Entrepreneurship Education and Theories of Learning
93
2.8 Lecturers’ Teaching Competencies and Performance 96
2.9 Entrepreneurship Development in Malaysia 104
2.10 The Development of Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria 112
2.11 Similarities and differences between the two countries 116
2.13 Summary 122
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 123
3.1 Introduction 123
3.2 Research Paradigm
125
3.3 Research Design
131
3.4 Research Model and Hypothesis 136
3.5 Methods of Data Collection 148
3.6 Population and Sampling Techniques 156
3.7 Data Analysis 162
xi
3.8 Summary of Chapter 3 166
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM MALAYSIA ....... 167
4.1 Introduction 167
4.1 Data Analysis process 168
4.3 Findings from Malaysian Data
178
4. 4 Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications for Lecturers Teaching
Entrepreneurship Courses
182
4.5 Entrepreneurial Competencies Important for Lecturers
183
4.6. Hypotheses Testing 191
4.7 The Summary of the Chapter 209
CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM NIGERIA 211
5.1 Introduction 211
5.2 Demographic Profile of the Respondents 212
5.3 Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications for Lecturers Teaching
Entrepreneurship Courses
215
5.4 Entrepreneurial Competencies Important for Lecturers of HLIs
217
5.5 Hypothesis Testing 224
5.6 The Summary of the Chapter 239
CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 240
6.1 Introduction 240
6.2 The Discussion of Research Findings from Malaysian HLIs’ 240
6.3 The Discussion of Research Findings from Nigerian HLIs 252
6.4 Similarities and differences between Malaysia and Nigeria 263
xii
6.4.2 The Lessons to be learned by Nigeria from Malaysia Experience
266
6.6 The Significance and the Implication of the Study 267
6.6 Recommendation 275
6.8 Conclusion 279
References
281
APPENDIX
309
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Chronology of definitions of entrepreneur &
entrepreneurship 1755-2013
32
Table 2.2 Summaries of some Economics theories explaining
entrepreneurship
36
Table 2.3 Summaries of Psychological theories explaining
entrepreneurship
39
Table 2.4 Summaries of Definitions of Entrepreneurship Education 46
Table 2.5 Entrepreneurial Competencies Framework 50
Table 2.6 Summary of the Roles of Entrepreneurship Education 56
Table 2.7 Summary of the Challenges of Entrepreneurship Education 65
Table 2.8 Chronology of Developments in Entrepreneurship
Education (EE)
68
Table 2.9 Conceptualization of Entrepreneurial Competencies 75
Table 2.10 Conventional and Entrepreneurial Modes of Learning 95
Table 2.11 Summary of Some Selected universities with Major in
Entrepreneurship Courses in Malaysia
110
Table 3.1 Summary of Philosophical Foundations for Conducting
Valid Research
128
Table 3.2 Summary of characteristics of Quantitative Research 135
Table 3.3 Interview Questions 145
Table 3.4 Summary of the Survey Questionnaire 147
Table 3.5 Summary of Questionnaires Distributed in Public
Universities & Polytechnics in Malaysia
149
Table 3.6 Summary of Questionnaires Distributed in Public
Universities& Polytechnics in Nigeria
150
Table 3.7 Summary of Questionnaires Distributed in Public
Universities and Polytechnics in Malaysia & Nigeria
151
Table 3.8 Pilot Test Reliability Statistics for all Variables 152
Table 3.9 Reliability Statistics for all variables 154
Table 3.10 List of Malaysian Universities that participated in the study 159
xiv
Table 3.11 List of Nigerian Universities that Participated in the Study 161
Table 3.12 List of Polytechnics in Nigeria that Participated in the Study 162
Table 3.13 Summary of Data Analysis based on Objectives and
Research Hypothesis Testing
166
Table 4.1 Reliability Statistics for all variables for Malaysian and
Nigerian Data
171
Table 4.2 Item-Total Statistics for all Variables 172
Table 4.3 Tests of Normality Kolmogorov- Shapiro (Skills) 174
Table 4.4 Tests of Normality Kolmogorov- Shapiro (Knowledge) 175
Table 4.5 Tests of Normality Kolmogorov- Shapiro (Attitudes) 183
Table 4.6 Tests of Normality Kolmogorov- Shapiro (Dependent
variable)
178
Table 4.7 Respondents Profile Classified Department and Work
Position
179
Table 4.8 Respondents Demographic Profile by Age 179
Table 4.9 The Profile of the Respondents based on the Highest
Educational Qualification Attained
180
Table 4.10 Profile of the Respondents based on Working Experience in
the Current Institution
181
Table 4.11 Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications Relevant for
Entrepreneurship Lecturers (N=237)
183
Table 4.12 Entrepreneurial Skills Needed by Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=237)
185
Table 4.13 Entrepreneurial Knowledge Important for Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=237)
186
Table 4.14 The Entrepreneurial Attitudes Important for
Entrepreneurship Lecturers
187
Table 4.15 Challenges of Entrepreneurship Education based on
Curriculum Development
188
Table 4.16 Challenges of Entrepreneurship Education based on
Infrastructural Development & Funding
189
Table 4.17 Challenge of Entrepreneurship Education on Training and
Manpower Development
190
xv
Table 4.18 Correlation Analysis Results for the Independent and
Dependent Variables
193
Table 4.19 Correlations between Entrepreneurial Competencies and
Teaching Performance
194
Table 4.20 An Entrepreneurship Qualifications 195
Table 4.21 Correlation between Skills and Teaching Performance 196
Table 4.22 Correlation between Lecturers Skills and their
Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications
197
Table 4.23 Correlations between knowledge & Teaching Performance 198
Table 4.24 Correlations between knowledge & Entrepreneurship
Educational Qualifications
199
Table 4.25 Correlations between Attitudes & Teaching Performance 199
Table 4.26 Correlations between Attitudes & Entrepreneurship
Educational Qualifications
200
Table 4.27 Correlations between Level of Education & Teaching
performance
201
Table 4.28 Summary of the Hypotheses tested based on Correlations
Results (N=237)
201
Table 4.29 The PLS Regression Model Summary 203
Table 4.30 ANOVA Table 203
Table 4.31 PLS Coefficients 204
Table 4.32 PLS Collinearity Statistics 205
Table 4.33 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Skills & Teaching
Performance (N=237)
207
Table 4.34 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Knowledge &
Teaching Performance (N=237)
208
Table 4.35 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Attitudes &
Teaching Performance (N=237)
208
Table 4.36 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Entrepreneurship
Educational Qualifications and Teaching performance.
209
Table 5.1 Respondents Profile by Institution, Department & Position. 213
Table 5.2 Respondents Profile Classified by Age. 214
Table 5.3 Respondents Profile by Highest Educational qualifications 214
xvi
& Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications
Table 5.4 Profile of the Respondents based on Working Experience in
their Current Institutions
215
Table 5.5 Relevant Educational Qualifications for Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=383)
217
Table 5.6 Entrepreneurial Skills Important for Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=383)
218
Table 5.7 Entrepreneurial Knowledge Important for Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=383)
219
Table 5.8 Entrepreneurial Attitudes Important for Entrepreneurship
Lecturers (N=383)
221
Table.5.9 Challenge of Entrepreneurship Education based on
Curriculum Development
222
Table.5.10 Challenge of Entrepreneurship Education on Infrastructural
Development & Funding
223
Table 5.11 Challenge of Entrepreneurship Education on Training &
Manpower Development
223
Table5.12 Correlation Analysis showing the Independent & Dependent
Variables
225
Table 5.13 Correlations between Entrepreneurial Competencies &
Teaching Performance
227
Table 5.14 Correlation between entrepreneurial competencies &
Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications
227
Table 5.15 Correlation between Skills and Teaching Performance 228
Table 5.16 Correlation between Lectures’ Skills and their
Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications
229
Table 5.17 Correlations between knowledge and Teaching Performance
(TEARCPERM)
230
Table 5.18 Correlations between knowledge and Entrepreneurship
Educational qualifications (EDUQL)
230
Table5.19 Correlations between Attitudes and Teaching Performance 231
Table 5.20 Correlations between Attitudes and Entrepreneurship
Educational Qualifications
232
xvii
Table 5.21 Correlations between Level of Education (EDUQL) &
Teaching Performance
233
Table 5.22 PLS Model Summary 233
Table 5.23 ANOVA Table 234
Table 5.24 PLS Coefficients Table 235
Table 5.25 PLS Collinearity Statistics 236
Table 5.26 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Skills & Teaching
Performance (N=383)
237
Table 5.27 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Knowledge &
Teaching Performance (N=383)
238
Table5.28 Standardized Coefficients Beta between Attitudes &
Teaching Performance (N=383)
239
Table 6.1 Summary of the tested Hypotheses based on Correlation
Analysis Results
250
Table 6.2 Summary of the tested Hypotheses based on Correlation
Results
261
Table 6.3 Similarities and Differences based Lecturers Demographic
Profile
264
Table 6.4 Similarities and Differences based Lecturers Competencies 265
Table 6.5 Similarities and Differences based on Relationship
Entrepreneurial Competencies & Teaching Performance
265
Table 6.6 Similarities and Differences based Lecturers Demographic
Profile
264
xviii
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1 Structure of the Thesis 25
Figure 2.1 A Competent Lecturer 68
Figure 2.2 Political map of Malaysia 105
Figure 2.3 Political Map of Nigeria 113
Figure 3.1 The Structure of the Research process of the Study 124
Figure 3.2 The Research Model of the Study 138
Figure 3.3 Process of Research Instrument Development 143
Figure 4.1 Structure of the Chapter 4 168
Figure 4.2 Normality Test for the independent Variable (skills) 173
Figure 4.3 Normality Test for the independent Variable (knowledge) 174
Figure 4.4 Normality Test for the independent Variable (Attitudes) 175
Figure 4.5 Normality Test for the independent Variable (Level of
Education)
177
Figure 4.6 Normal Q-Q Plots for the Dependent Variable (teaching
performance)
177
Figure 4.7 The research model of the study 191
Figure 5.1 The structure of chapter 5 212
xix
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ASUP Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics
ASUU Academic Staff Union of Universities
EC European Commission
EE Entrepreneurship Education
FME Federal Ministry of Education
HLIs Higher Learning Institutions
KLIA Kuala Lumpur International Airport
MEDEC Malaysia Entrepreneur Development Centre
MOHE Ministry of Higher Education
NBTE National Board for Technical Education
NUC National Universities Commission
UNESCO United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Personal Interview Questions
Appendix 2 Survey Questionnaire
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The recent economic realities in many developing countries have forced policy
makers and the academics to place high priority on entrepreneurial training and
development. Entrepreneurship has been recognized as an important cornerstone of
a nation’s economy because it contributes in immeasurable ways towards wealth
creation, poverty reduction, economic growth, innovations and new jobs creation
(Ojeifo, 2013). In fact, the role of entrepreneurship to the world economy is
generally accepted and highly recognized as the engine driving the economy and
society of most nations through creating new industries, employment and wealth
creation (Fauziah & Sulaiman, 2012).
The history of entrepreneurship can be traced back to Shigeru Fuji in 1938.
Hence, from a modest beginning in recent time, the interest toward entrepreneurship
has been increased as an important alternative to professional occupation, especially
for the graduates of higher learning institutions (HLIs). Evidence suggested
proliferation of new courses throughout the intervening periods especially in the last
two decades (Ismail, 2010). The European Commission (2004a) has argued that
entrepreneurship is seen as one of the key components to be included in the current
educational systems in order to prepare members of the public, especially the youths
for successful participation in society mostly in venture start-ups and venture
management. It has now become very obvious that careful attention and
comprehensive studies are needed with the view to promoting entrepreneurship
development especially through education.
According to Menzies and Paradi (2003), the rapid growth in
entrepreneurship courses and programs may be due to the belief that the
entrepreneurial competencies required for successful venturing can be taught, or at
the very least can be improved through entrepreneurial education and learning
2
process. In recent times, there seem to be a general convergence of opinions among
policy makers in the academics that entrepreneurship education results in positive
outcomes and increased belief that it is possible to teach entrepreneurship (Chen &
Lai, 2010). In an effort to respond to the need to produce high quality workers with
the necessary and relevant entrepreneurial skills and knowledge, there is growing
evidence to support the view that when people complete entrepreneurship education
programs, they tend to be more inclined towards entrepreneurial actions, and
sometimes even become more effective and competent entrepreneurs (Shane, 2011).
If the entrepreneurship can be formally learned, then it can be formally taught and
therefore the domains of education and learning are established together (Lange et
al., 2011). The entrepreneurship education programs can readily provide work based
learning programs that can subsequently produce favorable learning environment in
which entrepreneurial skills and knowledge can be developed.
Currently scholars like Menzies and Paradi (2003), Ojeifo, (2013) and Chen
& Lai, (2010) have recognized and appreciated the important roles of educational
system especially in the development and promotion of entrepreneurship education
programs and activities among higher learning institutions (HLIs). The current
educational systems in the two countries (Malaysia and Nigeria) have been charged
with the responsibilities of creating awareness of alternative career choice and
broadening the knowledge of individuals, equipping them with cognitive tools and
enabling them to perceive and develop entrepreneurial competencies (NPE 2007).
These entrepreneurial competencies that are necessary for new venture creation and
growth can be acquired through education. The uniqueness of student needs and the
course requirements entails specific skills and knowledge to match both Gatchalian
(2010) and Baba (2013) which reported that competent and experienced lecturers can
do the job of promoting entrepreneurial competencies especially amongst the youths.
The lecturer can promote entrepreneurial spirit which is basically a pre-requisite for
the creation of entrepreneurial society and culture. This spirit is acquired for the
overall growth of any nation (Baba, 2013). Thus, academic staff especially those
lecturers teaching entrepreneurship courses have some vital roles to play specifically
in stimulating and motivating students’ involvement in entrepreneurial activities
(Nasrudin & Othman, 2012).
Most countries would like to encourage entrepreneurship among students and
graduates of higher learning institutions (HLIs) or strengthen their willingness to
3
undertake some kind of enterprising projects. Universities and polytechnics facilitate
the acquisition of appropriate competencies as well as strengthen the entrepreneurial
intentions. In order to successfully implement entrepreneurial learning, it is
necessary to choose the right and competent lecturers. Lecturers everywhere will
have to equip themselves with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes in order
to meet the needs of their students. The quality of education that students need is too
sensitive to be left in the hands of inadequately trained lecturers no matter how small
or large the number of the students may be. Therefore, the entrepreneurship
education lecturers must have adequate knowledge, skills, attitude and self-efficacy
on entrepreneurship courses (Fauziah & Sulaiman, 2012).
To promote entrepreneurship in higher learning institutions effectively,
lecturers’ competencies must be carefully assessed. This is due to the fact that
lecturers, as important role models, must possess requisite knowledge of
entrepreneurship to be able to motivate students in developing relevant skills and
positive attitude toward entrepreneurship courses. The academic parts of educational
services are provided by the lecturers and they must have the skills, knowledge and
attitudes required by their students (Michaelowa, 2007). The perceived quality in
higher learning institutions can only be enhanced when the lecturers are competent
and also willing to improve their teaching performance to their students. In order to
successfully implement entrepreneurial learning, it is necessary to choose the best
method of teaching and adjust them to the objectives and competencies that the
individuals should achieve.
This chapter has presented the rationale of the study. The main aim of this
study is to examine and find out the entrepreneurial competencies perceived to be
very important for lecturers teaching entrepreneurship courses in Higher Learning
Institutions (HLIs) in Malaysia and Nigeria. In addition, this chapter provides the
background of the study, gives a brief overview of entrepreneurship education in
Malaysia and Nigeria and the problem statement has basically identified the key
factors that necessitated why the study is important. The chapter has also defined the
research questions and objectives as well as the scope and significance of the study.
4
1.2 The Background of the Study
Entrepreneurship scheme has been an important component within contemporary
economic development of a nation. Its critical role to the economy of nations is now
widely acknowledged within the literature such as a major source of innovation, job
creation and growth. The European Commission (2003) suggested that
entrepreneurship is a major driver of innovative ideas, competitiveness and economic
strength of a modern nation. They further emphasized the important role which
education has in the development of entrepreneurial mind sets and talents.
In a modern and progressing economy, education is positively related to the
level of economic growth and development. An economy that embraced modern
teaching techniques is bound to develop at a faster rate. The study has specified
growth as a function of the initial level of education. From the societal perspective,
both entrepreneurship and educational system have been seen as very important for
economic growth (Krueger & Lindahl, 2001). Nowadays, both scholars and policy
makers are becoming aware about the importance of the educational system as a
panacea for the socio-economic development of a nation. The educational system
creates awareness of alternative career choice and broadens the horizon of
individuals, equipping them with cognitive tools and enabling them to perceive and
develop entrepreneurial opportunities. The system can also help people to develop
qualities that are very essential for entrepreneurship, (Reynolds et al., 1999).
Most countries such as Nigeria, Malaysia, India, USA, Germany and many
others would like to encourage entrepreneurship education among students and
graduates of higher education institutions or strengthen their willingness to undertake
some kind of enterprising projects that encourage self-reliance. Universities and
polytechnics facilitate the acquisition of appropriate competences as well as
strengthen the entrepreneurial intentions in order to achieve the main aims and
objectives of teaching entrepreneurial courses. Lecturers everywhere will have to
equip themselves with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes in order to meet
the needs of their students. The quality of instruction that students need is too
important to be left in the hands of the inadequately trained lecturers no matter how
small or large their number. Entrepreneurship education lecturers must have
knowledge, skills, attitude and self-efficacy on entrepreneurship. This study
highlights major issues that need to be considered for achieving excellent
5
entrepreneurial competencies by HLIS lecturers. This study has mainly focussed on
identifying entrepreneurial competencies and relevant educational qualifications
which lecturers should be able to adopt teaching techniques that can encourage and
enhance the entrepreneurial expertise of students. The study further underscores the
importance of attitudes of lecturers toward the subject and mastery of pedagogical
knowledge that will help them to modify their understanding regarding the subject
contents that will be more suitable with students’ abilities and background. Moreover,
experience lecturers who show positive attitude to entrepreneurship education will be
interested in the students and their teaching methodologies will motivate them.
1.3 Brief History of Entrepreneurship Education in Different Part of the
World
The importance of entrepreneurs to the national economic system has led to the
development of entrepreneurship education in today’s educational institutions. The
early efforts to establish entrepreneurship training centers and schools began in the
1980s which can be traced back to the United States with increase in the offering of
courses and programs. Some developed countries as well as other European countries
such as Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Poland, and Bulgaria started the
development of entrepreneurship education in their educational institutions.
Entrepreneurship education has grown and received recognition by many universities
like Harvard in the USA and colleges all over the world as an academic field and a
major area of academic research (Paul, 2014). Earlier, a leading researcher (Katz,
2003) has developed the most detailed and comprehensive chronology of
entrepreneurship education. He included economic and agricultural literature and
experiences dating back to 1876. Courses in small business management began to
emerge in the 1940s, and first the courses in entrepreneurship in USA at Harvard
Business School were taught in 1947. The reality of entrepreneurship education as a
force in business schools began in the early 1970s. By early 1980s, over 300
universities were reporting courses in entrepreneurship and small business and by the
1990s the number grew to 1,050 schools, and therefore its real emergence took place
in 1980’s (Solomon, et al., 2003). According to Vesper and Gartner (2001), a total of
504 US Schools were offering courses in entrepreneurship in the United States of
America.
6
Compared to the evolution of entrepreneurship education in the USA, the
field in Europe is relatively new but is rapidly emerging. A recent survey of
entrepreneurship education in Europe revealed that entrepreneurship courses remain
primary and are confined to electives status at some universities in Europe both at
undergraduates and postgraduates levels. Mostly entrepreneurship courses were
found to focus on start-ups, business planning, SMEs, business strategy (Dana,
1992).
In the UK, a research conducted by Khan and Almoharby (2007) and cited by Ismail
(2010) stated that the programs that have encouraged entrepreneurship in higher
learning institutions in the UK are: the New Enterprise Program (late 70’s), The
Graduate Enterprise Program (1983), and The Enterprise Development Program
(1990). In addition, the formation of the National Council for Graduate
Entrepreneurship (NCGE) in 2004 is a clear demonstration of intent (Collin et al.,
2004). This is one of many UK initiatives that support enterprise. Others include the
network of Science Enterprise Centers (UKSEC), National Council for Graduate
Entrepreneurship (NCGE) and the Cambridge-Massachusetts Initiative. The
University of Birmingham enterprise strategy was developed in 2001 and currently
provides the Embedding Enterprise Education (E3) program.
In China awareness rising and skills development approach was developed.
This was the approach chosen by Shanghai Jiaotong University. For decades,
Shanghai Jiaotong University has built up its strength in science and technology.
Based on this perceived competitive advantage, the university introduced
entrepreneurship education to raise awareness of self-employment as an alternative
option through the commercialization of Research and Development (R&D)
outcomes. Moreover, the university organized a student business plan competition
and set up innovation funds to support business ventures by students. In terms of
Chinese culture, the notion of guanxi (or personal network relationship) is the key to
successful entrepreneurship and small business development (Gibb & Li, 2003).
Little is known about entrepreneurship education in Africa. However,
Kiggundu (2002) postulates that very few African universities offer specialized
programs in entrepreneurship and suggests making entrepreneurship an integral part
of the African education system. In the same vein, Visser (1997) suggests “realigning
places of higher learning” in South Africa given the fact that universities have
ignored the methodologies of opportunity identification and the spawning of
7
entrepreneurial talent. In all evidence, they call for entrepreneurship education to be
integrated into the curriculum at African universities. In other words, they recognize
that the education system in Africa is lagging behind in terms of integrating
entrepreneurship education into the curricula.
1.3.1 Entrepreneurship Education in Malaysia
The interest in entrepreneurship education is closely related to the economic
contribution of small firms, especially in the context of job creation and wealth
generation (Falkang & Alberty, 2000). Entrepreneurship education is an important
national agenda and is pursued relentlessly by various stakeholders in Malaysia.
Apart from the increasing number of programs offered at the higher learning
institutions, there is also a growing interest in research on entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education in Malaysia. Entrepreneurship is greatly emphasized and
viewed as a major thrust for economic development as outlined in the Malaysia plans
and the New Economic Model policy. This stress on entrepreneurship as an engine of
growth has led to increase in interest in and research on the area of entrepreneurship
and entrepreneurship education (Mason, 2011).
Various policy measures have been undertaken by the government of
Malaysia with the aims of achieving the goal of complementing and exposing
graduates to the world of entrepreneurship in terms of providing them with relevant
skills and knowledge. One populous entrepreneurial policy is known as Malaysia
Entrepreneurial Development Policy (MEDP) which was created by the Minister of
Higher Education and to be applied at the Malaysian Higher Education Institutes.
This policy was created to promote and enhance the development of entrepreneurship
more holistically and well-organized among local universities, polytechnics, diploma
colleges in country in order to attain these entrepreneurial objectives. In addition,
Entrepreneurship Awareness Component (EAC) was also introduced with the aims to
bring awareness to students on the importance of entrepreneurship learning and
inculcate entrepreneurial values in order to starts at an early stage in the students'
learning. As a first cornerstone step, Ministry of Higher Education created
entrepreneurial module called Basic Culture of Entrepreneurship Module or Asas
Pembudayaan Keusahawanan(APK) which was introduced in 2007as a compulsory
course of two (2) credits for Year 1 in all of Higher Education Institutions in
8
Malaysia. Concerns about entrepreneurship education in Malaysia were heightened
by government’s desire to promote small scale and medium enterprises (SMEs), the
issue of lowering graduate unemployment and discouraging the general attitude of
the graduate to depend squarely on government and other organized private sector
for paid jobs (Mazura & Norasmah, 2011a).
In 1975, the MARA Institute of Technology (ITM) established the Malaysian
Entrepreneurship Development Centre (MEDEC), to help develop entrepreneurship
and train indigenous Bumiputeras. Specifically, the main purpose of the center is to
encourage research and publication in the field of entrepreneurship. It also placed
much emphasis on the training of entrepreneurship education teachers and students
(Dana 2001). The University Utara Malaysia (UUM) introduced an entrepreneurship
program targeted for students. The program named Student Enterprise Program
(SEP), was developed to increase the number of entrepreneurs in Malaysia by
inculcating entrepreneurial values among students. The main aim of the program is to
train students to become business entrepreneurs and to allow them to experience real-
world practices, to inculcate entrepreneurial skills among students and to train
students to be independent and own their business (Mazura & Norasmah, 2011).
The cooperative and Entrepreneurship Development Institute was established
and later upgraded in 1993 to become an institution that could assist the development
of entrepreneurial activities in Malaysia. One of the objectives of the institution is to
produce student entrepreneurs based on acquired knowledge through business
program (Ismail, 2010).
In addition, awareness of the importance of entrepreneurship education in
academic and co-curricular activities is increasing. This has led to a variety of
entrepreneurial training programs in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) which
includes the offering of core academic courses, elective courses, entrepreneurial
programs, a Bachelor’s of Entrepreneurship, and post-graduate courses. Several
universities have a special support structure that serves as centers of excellence for
small businesses, providing services to students and SME entrepreneurs. These
centers include the Entrepreneurship Development Institute at UUM, Malaysia
Entrepreneur Development Centre (MEDEC) at UiTM, Small Business Development
Centre at the UPM, Bureau of Innovation and Consultancy (BIP) at UTM, and
Innovation and Consultancy Centre at USM. Therefore, it is not surprising that
entrepreneurial education is one strategy implemented in the Third Outline
9
Perspective Plan (OPP 3rd) with a view to increasing the number of skilled human
resources as well as fostering the ability to develop and promote technological
innovation and business to achieve a commercial and industrial community by 2020
(Norasmah et al., 2012).
Another effort was the establishment of the University Enterprise Networks
(UENs) launched on 20 November, 2008, which appears to be the first network
managed by the National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship (NCGE). The
UENs aim is to establish a culture of enterprise in universities by providing training,
advice and encouragement to students and graduates who want to develop actualize
their business ideas or wish to become innovative employees. Each network will be
further supported by sponsorship from privately owned companies and Regional
Development Agencies (RDAs); which in turn will give students first-hand
experience of enterprising workplaces, (Raja, 2011a).
In Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia (UiTM), ‘Projek Tunas Mekar,’
was initiated by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi. The primary objectives of this project are twofold: to expose graduates to
the world of entrepreneurship and to improve the performance of small and medium
enterprises (SME) in Malaysia. In this project, the academic entrepreneur trains
graduates and further equips them with new management techniques. This involves
placing them with SMEs as apprentices for a period of between one to two years. In
this way they will learn valuable firsthand experience, which will in turn stimulate
their interest to concentrate on choosing to become entrepreneurs as a career choice.
Thus it seems that the definition of an entrepreneurial university is developed from
an entrepreneurial academic perspective, either through developing new firms,
organizations and patterns; or developing individual staff academics and graduates to
be more entrepreneurial (Raj, 2011).
According to Raja (2011), in Malaysia, most public universities offer
entrepreneurship courses as a core subject at the first degree level. The introduction
of this course to all students is in line with the education goals of the HEIs, designed
to assist the economic development of the country. These are first to develop human
potential by providing training in various fields; second is to create a trained group
that will later serve as the nation’s human capital.
In Malaysian Polytechnics, an entrepreneurship module comprising forty five hours
is offered to students as one of the subjects under the Business Studies Program. In
10
addition, entrepreneurship is also integrated through the co-curriculum module as
across sectional discipline in Semester II, for every student, for four hours per
semester (Ismail, 2010).
The Higher Education Entrepreneurship Development Policy was launched
on 13th
April 2010 in order to enhance the Entrepreneurship Program. The aim of this
policy is to encourage the development of a more holistic and well organized
Entrepreneurship Program. The implementation of the policy is aimed at producing
graduates from institutions of higher education who have entrepreneurial attitudes
and thinking. In addition, the Policy aim is to encourage the development of human
capital,. The main goal of this policy is to produce quality human capital consisting
of graduates who possess the attributes and values of entrepreneurship (Pastae &
Railalenu, 2010). The detail information of Malaysian entrepreneurship education is
provided in chapter 2 of this study.
1.3.2 Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria
The history of Nigerian education system could be traced back to the colonial period,
the educational policy then was geared toward serving the interest of the colonial
masters in terms of supply of manpower for their effective administration of Nigerian
colony and protectorates (Aladekomo, 2004). The policy was aimed at producing
Nigerians who could read and write to hold certain positions such as clerks,
interpreters, and inspectors, but without any entrepreneurial or professional skill to
stand on their own or even establish and manage their own venture. The Nigerian
industrial policy that came immediately after independence placed emphasis and
concentrated on the establishment of big companies by completely neglecting the
development of small scale sectors (Aladekomo, 2004). This neglect invariably
means discouraging entrepreneurship at the micro level in Nigeria at the very
beginning, although it is considered to be very essential for economic growth and
development. The over pressing demand for white collar job for majority of
graduates is just an upshot of colonial educational policies reported by Garba (2010).
However, later in the mid-70s, the government, because of perceived
importance of small scale industries to the economy decides to focus attention on
small and medium sector. Thirteen industrial centers and some institutions were set
up to support the activities of entrepreneurs in the small and median industries in the
11
country. Institutions set up were Nigeria Industrial Bank (NIB), Nigeria Bank for
Commerce and Industries (NBCI), Nigeria Agricultural and Cooperative Bank
(NACB) etc. In 1981, the National policy on education was developed by the
government to link the policy with the issue of self- employment creation with its
industrial policy.
Moreover, with the turning out of graduates from various institutions into the
labor market, it was realized that if some measures are not taken, there is every
tendency that the situation can escalate the rate of poverty and corruption and other
social vices especially among the youth (Garba 2010). Hence it was proposed that in
the first place, the government should encourage diversification of the economy
through adequate support for private establishments and practical acquisition of skills
in all higher institutions. It was against this backdrop that the need to redefine and
refocus the current system of education with a view to creating and enhancing the
supply of entrepreneurship Initiatives and activities was adopted (Akpomi, 2008).
The Federal Government directed all tertiary education regulatory agencies
(National Universities Commission, National Board for Technical Education, and
National Commission for Colleges of Education) to establish necessary mechanisms
for the introduction, development and sustenance of entrepreneurial culture among
Nigerian youths. This paved the way for a well-planned and implemented
Entrepreneurship Education Program in Higher Education Institutions in Nigeria in
the year 2008 when the program took up (Abubakar, 2007).
In line with the federal government’s directives on entrepreneurship
education, the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), the supervisory
body of all Nigerian Polytechnics, developed the curriculum, teacher’s guide and
training manuals for entrepreneurship education for the National and Higher National
Diploma. The NBTE has in particular designed three courses, Introduction to
Entrepreneurship, Practice of Entrepreneurship at diploma level and
Entrepreneurship Development at HND level, to all Polytechnics under its
jurisdiction. ‘Master Trainers’ were organized locally and internationally to boost in-
house capacity of polytechnics lecturers competencies in the management of the
entrepreneurship study centers (ESC) set up (Haruna,2010).
Based on the government directives, whether public or private institution of
higher learning, regardless of the department, (engineering, business management,
science departments etc.), all the universities and Polytechnics students must take
12
and pass all entrepreneurship education courses before graduation. Special and
comprehensive courses were designed and organized specifically to enhance
entrepreneurship education lecturers’ entrepreneurial competencies in order to meet
the new challenges in the discipline. The detail information about entrepreneurship
education in Nigeria is also provided in Chapter 2.
1.4 Problem Statement
Entrepreneurship has become an important economic vehicle to nation’s growth
because of it contributions towards wealth creation, employment creation as well as
poverty reduction and innovation. Nowadays it is a household name because even the
policymakers and academics are talking about its enormous contribution to wealth
creation and unemployment reduction. In educational institutions, seminars,
conferences and workshops are being organized all over the world specifically to
discuss on the important roles which entrepreneurship can play in nation building as
well as individual development (Keat et al., 2011). Currently, entrepreneurship is
viewed as one of the most important economic strategies to develop country’s
economic growth and sustain the country’s competitiveness in facing the increasing
trends of globalization. The greater majority of the people currently attribute the
popularity of entrepreneurship mostly to the positive effects it has on many countries
as a catalyst that creates wealth and the generation of job opportunities.Countries
with higher increase on entrepreneurial initiative indexes tend to show a greater
reduction in unemployment rates (Li, 2011).
Entrepreneurship education in higher learning institutions in both developed
and developing nations like China, Japan Bulgaria, Indonesia Kenya, Ghana and
Nigeria have come a long way since the first entrepreneurship course was introduced
in Kobe University in 1938. There was consensus of opinion amongst experts that
the purpose of university entrepreneurship education is basically two-fold. Namely,
to contribute to the creation and development of entrepreneurial attitudes and
motivations for new venture creation as well as developing the skills needed to
successfully run and manage new venture profitably. The current increasing demand
for higher education and the changing knowledge structures in government and the
educational sector, as well as societal demands has given rise to interests towards
choosing entrepreneurship as a viable career option in universities and also a
13
potential remedy to graduates and youth unemployment (Byrne & Fayolle, 2010).
New venture creation in a modern economy requires skills and competencies which
are presently not necessarily readily available within today’s universities.
The recent interests about entrepreneurship education in Malaysia were
influenced at least by three important factors, namely;
government enormous funding allocation for the promotion of
entrepreneurship especially for the development of small and medium
enterprises;
the issue of graduate unemployment which had risen to approximately sixty
thousand (60,000) which is about 3%; and
the attitude of current graduates who were seen to be too pampered and too
dependent on the government and private organizations for employment
(Raja, 2011).
According to Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-2020, the implication of the
rapid increase in the number of higher education institutions in Malaysia is that, each
year has witnessed a remarkable rise in the number of graduates from both public
and private higher educational institutions. As a result, it is very certain that large
number of graduates will seek jobs and, without doubt, not all will be successful
because some graduates preferred to get white collar jobs. In addition, some
graduates lack the basic skills and knowledge to start their own businesses. As a
result, serious attention was paid to entrepreneurial studies because of its enormous
importance in supporting the economic drive of the national economy as well as in
narrowing wealth differentials in the population. In fact, the discipline of
entrepreneurship was recognized as one of the long-term strategies to address
unemployment issue among graduates in the country. Moreover, entrepreneurship
education is very important in equipping the graduates with a variety of skills and
knowledge in order to produce successful entrepreneurs who are not only
competitive locally but also globally. To this end, universities and other institutions
of higher learning have been given the mandate to play a leading role in inculcating
students with the entrepreneurial knowledge and skills that will be useful in their
future career endeavors (Keat, 2011).
In Nigeria, the National Policy on Education (FRN 2008) made it clear on the need
for functional, relevant and practical for acquisition of appropriate skills and
development of competencies as effective equipment for the individuals to live in
14
and contribute to the development of his/her society. It was on this note that the
Nigerian government directed the full implementation of entrepreneurship education
in all public HLIs. This policy is intended to provide a long term solution to the
problem of graduate unemployment in Nigeria. For example, Baba (2013) reported
that about 80% of the graduates in Nigeria find it difficult to get employment every
year. Graduates unemployment is rapidly increasing in Nigeria because of the
mismatch between the needs of employers and stock of the job-seekers produced by
the educational institutions that lack adequate knowledge and skills. It is the candid
opinion of scholars in Nigeria such as Isaac (2013) and Baba (2013) that the
inadequate entrepreneurial knowledge, attitude and skills on the part of lecturers that
has been responsible for producing graduates without adequate entrepreneurial traits
to start and manage their own businesses successfully. In order to provide solution to
the identified challenges, Ojeifo, (2013) argued that the educational policies in
Nigeria should be re-designed with a view to creating and enhancing the supply of
entrepreneurial initiative and activities. The bottom line here is to inculcate the spirit
of entrepreneurship in the student through education. In fact, this calls for more
serious adjustment of policies and new curriculum in line with demand of the present
time.
Despite the importance of entrepreneurship education, the effectiveness of the
teaching techniques for entrepreneurship as well as the lecturers’ disposition and
skills are still unknown. For example, Kirby (2002) opined that the teaching of
entrepreneurship courses remain relatively underdeveloped, despite the growing
demand for more entrepreneurial-oriented graduates. The result of neglecting the
teaching aspect is that most of the lecturers of entrepreneurship education do not
seems to have the relevant entrepreneurship qualification and necessary
competencies to teach the courses. Furthermore, Binks et al., (2006) also argued that
understanding and developing entrepreneurship education requires an integrated
research and teaching efforts. Peltonen (2008) emphasizes that it is crucial for
lecturers to become more entrepreneurial if entrepreneurial learning should be
improved among students. Particularly, lecturers need to act in an entrepreneurial
way in discovering opportunities and innovatively exploiting them. Entrepreneurship
lecturers should apply innovative teaching methods, cope with various challenges of
teaching entrepreneurship and engage students in the process and challenges of
entrepreneurship learning (Adedoyin, 2010). Furthermore, entrepreneurship lecturers
15
should have a strong motivation to teach and maintain their motivation through the
whole process of instructional delivery (Fiet, 2000). Self-efficacy highly improves
teachers’ motivation and abilities to teach effectively in educational instructions
(Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998).
A research conducted by Ismail (2010) in Malaysian polytechnics indicated
that entrepreneurship education teaching approaches appear to be inappropriate and
some lecturers do not appear to have relevant skills, knowledge or training. There are
so many shortcomings and challenges which the entrepreneurship lecturers are
facing. One of them is that entrepreneurship education curriculum are too theoretical
and to some extent not effective and need to be improved. There is also poor
infrastructural facilities. Added to that is lecturers are not properly trained and almost
do not have the relevant entrepreneurial teaching qualifications (Ismail, 2010). In
addition, the entrepreneurial course content, pedagogical issues, new learning
approaches, characteristics of lecturers, and students all require a comprehensive
study to understand (Schieb, 2004).
In general, there are common perceived reasons as to why some graduates of
tertiary institutions nowadays are unemployed. This is because according to a study
conducted in Malaysia, most universities and polytechnics are not producing “work
ready” graduates because the systems are too exams-oriented because lecturers lack
relevant competence and practical experiences (Ismail, 2010). Most of the higher
institutions of learning graduates were competent theory-wise, but have no sufficient
practical exposure. This is because the lecturers teaching entrepreneurship education
does not possess the requisite skills and knowledge to teach their students effectively,
and hence they do not encourage creativity and practical skills (Shah, 2008).
In a related study conducted in Malaysia by Nasrudin & Othman (2012) it is
revealed that only 1.9% of polytechnic graduates chose to be self-employed because
curriculum is too theoretical and do not encourage creativity and innovativeness.
Above all, lecturers lack knowledge, some are without entrepreneurship skills and
the mastery of teaching of entrepreneurship courses. Similarly, Ismail (2011)
observed that the lecturers’ teaching method is not appropriate and is too abstract and
therefore is difficult for the students to understand. Mostly, only entrepreneurship
theory is taught, but the practical implications are mostly not discussed in the
lectures. Hence, the curricula must equip students with the appropriate skills needed
to enable them to compete in an ever-changing labour market demand. In addition,
16
the curricular must be handled by competent lecturers otherwise the aim will not be
achieved. Thus, there is awareness of some general problems with the teaching and
the curriculum but research is needed to ascertain exactly what these are from the
perspective of the different stakeholders such as students, lecturers and the Ministry
Education.
In Nigeria, the ineffectiveness of the teaching entrepreneurship education
courses is mostly attributed to the theoretical aspects of the syllabus as well as of
lack of qualified and competent lecturers. The course contents in Nigerian
universities gave more emphasis on the theoretical aspects and less on the practical
skills (Ifedili & Ofoegu, 2011).They further stressed that about 60% of the lecturers
teaching entrepreneurship courses in Nigerian HLIs are not adequately trained and do
not possessed the relevant entrepreneurial educational qualifications to teach the
courses effectively. Gabadeen & Raimi, (2012) argued that one of the key issues
stifling the growth of the entrepreneurship education in Nigeria is inadequate and
qualified lecturers in the field of entrepreneurship to make the course practical,
interesting and goal oriented to students. Akpomi, (2009) maintained that for any
educational system to be functional and relevant, practical acquisition of skills and
the development of entrepreneurial competencies as an avenue to contribute to the
development of his society must be emphasized. This means that the quality of
instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards inculcating the values of
acquisition of requisite entrepreneurial competencies necessary for self- reliance and
reducing poverty. This is where entrepreneurship education as a course of study as
well as having qualified and competent lecturers with entrepreneurial skills and
knowledge must be properly married.
It is very clear from the foregoing statements that there exist wide gap in the
implementation of entrepreneurship education in HLIs in Malaysia and Nigeria. This
is reflected in the imbalance in entrepreneurship education to produce students with
the correct entrepreneurial attributes. Such instances of imbalances in
entrepreneurship education are supported by Isaac (2013), Ismail (2010), Gabadeen
&Raimi (2012) and Nasrudin & Othman (2010). The quality of the graduates
produced by HLIs in both countries will entirely depend on the quality of the
lecturers. These researchers further maintain that there is limited research
deliberation within core elements of entrepreneurship education especially training
programs to enhance lecturers’ entrepreneurial competence. Similarly, Van (1991)
17
suggests that large gaps exist between research, education and entrepreneurial
practice. Van (1991) stressed that entrepreneurship education are concentrated on the
students and very little is done on the lecturers educational qualifications, their
competence and entrepreneurial teaching capabilities. She calls on future researchers
to address these gaps. Her view is shared by many eminent scholars such as the Katz
(2003), Brush, et al, (2003) and Shane, (2011).
In view of the earlier discussion, it has now become very vital to conduct a
comprehensive study on lecturers’ of HLIs educational qualifications, teaching
competencies and the challenges faced by the teaching of entrepreneurship in order
to develop lecturers’ entrepreneurial competencies, student learning abilities and the
subsequent attainment of HLIs’ goals and objectives. Lecturers’ entrepreneurial
competencies, educational qualifications and their training needs are areas that have
not been covered by any modern day entrepreneurial research. One of the major
current research issue in the field of entrepreneurship education is to find out to what
degree the entrepreneurship teaching program in HLIs can influence students’
entrepreneurial competencies and new venture creation (Hytii & Koupusjarvi, 2004;
Moro et al., 2004).
Developing an enterprising culture and attitude especially amongst the youths
and HLIs graduates requires education and training that will ensure that learners are
active and that learning activities involve the use of practical exercises. The European
Commission (2011) opined that entrepreneurship education and training require active,
learner-centered trainings and learning activities that use hands-on learning opportunities
from the real world. This is to ensure that ‘learning for entrepreneurship’ will enable
students to take responsibility for learning to experiment, push boundaries and learn
about themselves (Nab and Lans, 2012). The formal education especially in some
developing countries like Nigeria has fully imbibed the culture of entrepreneurship
(Essia, 2012).
This study therefore presents some of the strategies being used in examining the
most relevant entrepreneurial competencies of HLIs lecturers in Malaysia and Nigeria
that can assist them in their new role of entrepreneurial learning in addition to their
traditional roles. Part of the strategy aimed at promoting entrepreneurial culture among
the students in HLIs is the recognition of the importance of working with all academics.
Previous empirical studies indicate that higher education has been a poor contributor to
graduates’ entrepreneurial skills (Allen and Van Der Velden, 2009). This is because
18
lecturers are considered a weak link in introducing real changes to the experience of
students, especially in entrepreneurship education (McCoshan, Witte and Westerheijden,
2010). Other scholars have also noted that students’ entrepreneurial motivation and
competences can be highly influenced by lecturers’ attitude toward self-efficacy in
entrepreneurship (Pihie and Bagheri, 2011; Bayraktar, 2011). Any effort at developing
students’ entrepreneurial competence should therefore take into consideration the
competence and attitude of the lecturers in entrepreneurship.
It is in light of this that the study makes a case for a thorough research on
entrepreneurship education especially on lecturers’ entrepreneurial competence,
relevant entrepreneurship educational qualifications and their teaching performance.
There are some issues concerning the graduates of HLIs in Malaysia such as rising
unemployment among graduates, a mismatch between the skills of graduates and the
requirements of employers and the shrinkage of employment in the public sector
(Annie & Hamali, 2006). It is strongly believed that the only way to reduce the high
unemployment and poverty rates as well as depending on public employment in any
country is to equip the students with such needed skills, knowledge and attitudes that
would make them truly self-reliant and self-sustaining in the society. This can only
be achieved with competent and experienced lecturers as well as relevant educational
qualifications capable of enhancing their teaching performance (EC, 2011).
1.5 Research Questions
In order to address the mentioned problems, the following research questions were
developed.
To what extent were the current entrepreneurial competencies among
lecturers teaching entrepreneurship courses in higher learning institutions
(HLIs) in Malaysia and Nigeria?
To what extent does entrepreneurial competencies and relevant
entrepreneurship educational qualifications can influence the lecturers’
teaching performance?
What were the relationships between the lecturers’ entrepreneurial
competencies and their teaching performance in HLIs in Malaysia and
Nigeria?
19
What were the most relevant entrepreneurship educational qualifications
needed by the lecturers for teaching entrepreneurship courses in HLIs in
Malaysia and Nigeria?
What were the relationships between the lecturers’ relevant entrepreneurship
educational qualifications and their teaching performance?
What were the challenges facing entrepreneurship education program in HLIs
in Malaysia and Nigeria?
1.5.1 Research Objectives
In view of the limited research work especially on entrepreneurial competencies
among lecturers of entrepreneurship education, this study believes that it is necessary
to investigate the entrepreneurial competencies needed by lecturers in teaching
entrepreneurship in HLIs and to examine the relationship between these
competencies and their teaching performance. Based on that, the research objectives
of the study outlined were as follows:
To determine the entrepreneurial competencies perceived to be important to
HLIs’ lecturers in teaching entrepreneurship courses in Malaysia and Nigeria.
To examine the influence of the entrepreneurial competencies and the
relevant entrepreneurship educational qualifications of lecturers’ teaching
performance.
To examine the relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and
lecturers’ teaching performance.
To find out the relevant entrepreneurship educational qualifications needed
by the lecturers teaching entrepreneurship courses in HLIs.
To analyze the relationship between lecturers’ relevant entrepreneurship
educational qualifications and their teaching performance
To identify the various challenges facing entrepreneurship education
programs.
1.6 Research Model and Hypotheses
The general research model for this study is showed in Figure 3.2 in Chapter 3. This
model was built based on the extensive literature in Chapter 2 and pre-determined
20
variables obtained from interviews on entrepreneurial competencies needed by the
entrepreneurship lecturers in teaching entrepreneurship courses. The concept of
entrepreneurial competencies needed by lecturers in their teaching work comprises of
3 groups of competencies, skills, knowledge and attitudes. The level of education is
also included in the model as part of the independent variables. The teaching
performance of the lecturers is considered as the dependent variable. The three main
hypotheses of the study were stated below:
1.6.1 Hypotheses
Three main hypotheses were developed in this study. All these hypotheses were
strictly based on the available literatures and previous related studies in chapter 2.
The hypotheses developed were based on the conceptual model presented in chapter
3. The following three general hypotheses of the study are postulated as follows:
H1: There is a significant relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and
entrepreneurial teaching performance.
H1a: There is a significant relationship between skills and entrepreneurial
teaching performance.
H1b: There is a significant relationship between knowledge and entrepreneurial
teaching performance.
H1c: There is a significant relationship between attitude and teaching
performance.
H2: There is a significant relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and
entrepreneurial educational qualification.
H2a: There is a significant relationship between skills and entrepreneurial
educational qualification.
H2b: There is a significant relationship between knowledge and entrepreneurial
educational qualification.
H2c: There is a significant relationship between attitudes and entrepreneurial
educational qualification.
H3: There is a significant relationship between entrepreneurial educational
qualification and entrepreneurial teaching performance.
21
1.7 The Scope of the Study
The topic of this study has offered so many research opportunities for the academics
as well as students of entrepreneurship education. It has been considered as very
important to define its scope so that the study will ever remain very manageable. In
the first place, the geographic location of the study is only limited to Malaysia and
Nigeria. The study intended to cover all the public universities and polytechnics in
Malaysia and Nigeria.
Therefore, the target audience for this study is the HLIs lecturers in Malaysia
and Nigeria who are currently teaching entrepreneurship education courses. The
study has only covered public universities and polytechnics that fall within the
sample frame. It is not practically possible to cover the entire public universities and
polytechnics in this current study specifically due to limited resources and time
constraint. In view of the above, the sample sizes as well as the sample frame for the
studies are clearly defined. The study has used purposive sampling techniques to
select respondents from HLIs from Malaysia and Nigeria. The purposive sampling
techniques were employed purposely to select the lecturers purely because of their
knowledge and expertise in the field of entrepreneurship education. Hence the scope
of this study is only limited to the HLIs teaching entrepreneurships courses in public
universities and polytechnics in Malaysia and Nigeria. The study explored the
entrepreneurial competencies and other related issues of the target audience who are
the entrepreneurship education lecturers in Malaysian and Nigerian HLIs.
1.8 Operational Definitions
In order to get a meaningful understanding of the terms used in the thesis, it is very
important to provide some useful definitions. The following definitions are therefore
provided:
1.8.1 Entrepreneur
According to Timmons and Spinelli (2003), entrepreneur is defined as an innovator
or developer who recognizes and seizes opportunities, converts those opportunities
into workable or marketable ideas, adds value through time, effort, money or skills,
22
assumes the risks of the competitive marketplace to implement these ideas and
realizes the rewards from these efforts.
1.8.2 Entrepreneurship
Shane and Venkataraman (2007) defined entrepreneurship as “a process through
which opportunities to create future goods and services are discovered, evaluated and
exploited”. They argue that the field of entrepreneurship involves the study of
sources of opportunities; the process of discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of
opportunities. Entrepreneurship is about learning skills needed to assume the risk of
establishing a business, (Inegbenbor, 2006).
1.8.3 Entrepreneurship Education
Entrepreneurship education is defined as “the structured formal conveyance of
entrepreneurial competencies, which in turn refer to the concepts, skills and mental
awareness used by individuals during the process of starting and developing their
growth-oriented ventures” (Alberti, et al., (2004:5). In other words, entrepreneurship
education can be defined as a process of providing individuals with the ability to
recognize business opportunities and think in an innovative manner as well as the
skills, knowledge and attitudes to act on them.
1.8.4 Entrepreneurial Competencies
It refers to the sum of the entrepreneur’s requite attributes for successful and
sustainable entrepreneurship which include attitude, values, beliefs, knowledge,
attitudes and skills, (Cunningham & Lischeron, 1991). It is therefore competencies
include those clusters of related knowledge; attitudes and skills which an
entrepreneur must acquire through managerial training and development to enable
him produce outstanding performance, and maximize profit, while managing a
business venture (Iyang, 2009). Competency is a term used extensively by different
people in different contexts. To be specific, a competency has its linkage with all the
three domains of knowledge, skills and attitude. An entrepreneurial teacher is
expected to assist his students in learning of knowledge as well as their
understandings and intellectual skills (Izquirdo & Buyens, 2008).
23
1.8.5 Operational Terms
1.8.5.1 Entrepreneurial Skills
These are skills that enable entrepreneurs to turn their business idea into feasible
business opportunities, to start and to grow a business enterprise. It includes
creativity, innovation, risk taking, and the ability to take successful entrepreneurial
role models and identification of market opportunities (Darroch & Clover, 2005).
1.8.5.2 Teaching Performance
The ‘term teaching performance’ refers to the conduct of instruction: posing
questions, providing explanations, giving directions, showing approval, engaging in
the myriad instructional acts that an educator performs in the classroom (Rao 2001).
1.8.5.3 Polytechnic Lecturers
This refers to polytechnic academic staff that are teaching entrepreneurship
education courses at Higher National Diploma, Diploma and Certificate levels in
polytechnics in Nigeria and Malaysia.
1.8.5.4 University Lecturer
This refers to university academic staff that are responsible for the teaching
entrepreneurship education courses at degrees/higher degrees, Diploma and
Certificate levels in universities in Nigeria and Malaysia (TRCN, 2010).
1.8.5.5 Lecturer
The term lecturer or teacher is used in this thesis to mean anyone who is doing the
work of teaching irrespective of whether the person concerned is teaching in nursery,
primary, secondary or any higher learning institutions such as universities and
polytechnics. The terms teacher and lecturer can be used interchangeably to mean the
same thing (FME, 2009).
24
1.8.5.6 Entrepreneurship Educational Qualifications
This refers to those academic or professional degrees that enable a person to become
a qualified entrepreneurship teacher in primary or secondary schools or HLIs. Such
educational qualifications include, but are not limited to, Bachelor degrees, master
degrees and PhD (Lucky, 2013).
1.9 Structure of the Thesis
Chapter 1 introduces the concept of entrepreneurship and its socio-economic
importance in a modern economy. The chapter also covers the background of the
study where entrepreneurship education and its overview in Nigeria and Malaysia are
briefly discussed. The research problems, research questions, research objectives,
significance of the study and the scope and limitations of the study are fully
discussed.
Chapter 2 explains the term entrepreneurship education and its historical
development and reviews some theories and models that are relevant to the teaching
of entrepreneurship education in tertiary institutions. Entrepreneurial and lecturers
competencies are also discussed.
Chapter 3 was specially designed to cover the research methodology of this
study. It also covered the research design, research framework, research instruments
and sampling techniques. The reliability and validity of the research were fully
discussed in the chapter.
Chapters 4 and 5 contained the research findings and research analysis of the data
collected from the administered questionnaires from Malaysian and Nigerian HLIs
respectively. All collected data were fully processed and professionally analyzed
through the use of 3 different statistical techniques namely descriptive statistics,
correlations and regressions analyses.
Chapter 6 covered the research discussions from Malaysian and Nigeria data,
conclusion and recommendations. It also summarized the research findings and
clearly spelt out the differences between Malaysian and Nigerian entrepreneurial
policies and programs. The chapter 6 also provided the major lessons Nigeria can
learn from Malaysian experience. The chapter concludes by suggesting future
research in the field of entrepreneurship. Figure 1.2 below presented the summary of
the thesis in a pictorial form.
281
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