Top Banner
INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)”. If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method of “sectioning” the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
170

University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Jan 24, 2023

Download

Documents

Khang Minh
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Page 1: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

INFORMATION TO USERS

This reproduction was made from a copy o f a docum ent sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this docum ent, the quality o f the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality o f the material submitted.

The following explanation o f techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction.

1 .T h e sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)” . If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure com plete continuity.

2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication o f either blurred copy because o f movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image o f the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame.

3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part o f the material being photographed, a definite m ethod o f “sectioning” the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand com er o f a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning below the first row and continuing on until com plete.

4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department.

5. Some pages in any docum ent may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed.

UniversityM icrofilms

International300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

Page 2: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center
Page 3: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

8403487

B la ck b u rn , William David

THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-CONCEPT TO ADOLESCENT’S MUSICAL PREFERENCES AND LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT WITH MUSIC LISTENING

The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1983

UniversityMicrofilms

International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

Copyright 1983 by

Blackburn, William David All Rights Reserved

Page 4: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center
Page 5: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

PLEASE NOTE:

In all c a s e s this material has been filmed in the best p ossib le way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this d ocu m en t have b een identified here with a check mark V .

1. G lossy photographs or p a g e s _______

2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______

3. Photographs with dark background ^

4. Illustrations are poor cop y

5. P a g e s with black marks, not original copy______

6. Print sh ow s through a s there is text on both s id e s of p a g e_______

7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several p a g e s _

8. Print ex c e e d s margin requ irem ents______

9. Tightly bound co p y with print lost in sp ine________

10. Com puter printout p ages with indistinct print_______

11. P a g e (s )______________ lacking w hen material received, and not available from sch o o l orauthor.

12. P a g e (s )______________ seem to b e missing in numbering only a s text follows.

13. Two p ages n u m b ered _______________. Text fol low s.

14. Curling and wrinkled p a g e s ______

15. Other_________________________________________________________________________________

UniversityMicrofilms

International

Page 6: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center
Page 7: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-CONCEPT TO

ADOLESCENT'S MUSICAL PREFERENCES AND

LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT WITH MUSIC LISTENING

DISSERTATION

P r e s e n t e d i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

t h e Degr ee D o c t o r o l P h i l o s o p h y in t h e G r a d u a t e

S c h o o l o f t h e Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

By

W i l l i a m D. B l a c k b u r n , B . S . , M.S.W.

* * * * *

The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

1 9 8 J

R e a d i n g Commi t t ee :

Dr. Henry A n g e l i n o

Dr. John H o r r o c k s

Dr. Da l e B l y t h

Ap pr ov ed By

A d v i s e rFacu v e l o p m e n t a 1

P s y c h o l o g y

Page 8: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wo ul d l i k e t o f i r s t e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e

young p e o p l e who p a r t i c i p a t e d a s s u b j e c t s i n t h i s p r o j e c t ,

and t o J e n n i f e r Malone o f N o r t h w e s t C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e s

and J ohn C a r o n i s o f Gr a nd v ie w H e i g h t s High S c h o o l .

I w i s h t o t h a n k Dr. John H o r r o c k s f o r h i s w i l l i n g n e s s

t o be a p a r t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h and Dr. A. P e t e r C o s t a n z a

f o r h i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . I e s p e c i a l l y want t o t h a n k

Dr . Da l e B l y t h f o r h i s c a r e f u l r e v i e w o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t

a n d s u b s e q u e n t a s s i s t a n c e , and Dr. Henry A n g e l i n o , my

a d v i s o r , f o r h i s i n t e r e s t , p a t i e n c e , and g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h ­

o u t t h i s a c a d e m i c e n d e a v o r . A l s o , I mus t t h a n k Dr. Donald

H a e f l e f o r h i s e x p e r t a d v i c e .

F i n a l l y , I w i s h t o d e d i c a t e t h i s work t o my w i f e ,

C i n d y , and d a u g h t e r , Abbey, who h ave s u p p o r t e d and e n ­

c o u r a g e d me t h r o u g h o u t t h e w r i t i n g o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

i i

Page 9: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

VITA

S e p t e m b e r 1, 1951 . . . . Born - C a n t o n , Ohio

1 9 7 3 ................................................... B. S . Ma j o r - S o c i o l o g y and S o c i a lWork, M i n o r - P s y c h o l o g y , Urbana C o l l e g e , Ur bana , Ohio

1 97 4 ................................................... S o c i a l Work I n t e r n , H u c k l e b e r r yHouse , Columbus , Ohio

1 9 7 5 ...................................................M.S.W. C l i n i c a l S o c i a l Work,Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Col umbus , Ohio

1 97 5- 1 9 8 3 .................................... C o u n s e l o r , A d m i n i s t r a t o r , F a m i l yC o u n s e l i n g N o r t h w e s t , F a m i l y C o u n s e l i n g and C r i t t e n t o n S e r v i c e s , Columbus , Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major F i e l d : D e v e l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y

S t u d i e s i n P s y c h o l o g y . P r o f e s s o r s Henry A n g e l i n o , J oh n H o r r o c k s , G e r a l d Winer , J ohn G i b b s ,Henry L e l a n d , an d C h a r l e s Wenar

i i i

Page 10: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... i i

V I T A ........................................................................................................................... i i i

LIST OF T A B L E S .......................................................................................... v i

LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................. v i i i

C h a p t e r

I . INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1

D e f i n i t i o n s ............................................................................ 18A s s u m p t i o n s ............................................................................ 19H y p o t h e s e s ............................................................................ 19L i m i t a t i o n s ............................................................................ 20S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y ......................................... 21

I I . LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 24

P s y c h o l o g y of M u s i c ........................................................ 24Music P r e f e r e n c e s ............................................................. 24A f f e c t i v e R e s p o n s e t o M u s i c .................................... 34

P h y s i o l o g i c a l M e a s u r e s ......................................... 34Mood R e s p o n s e s ............................................................. 39E x p e r i m e n t a l A e s t h e t i c s .................................... 47

Music T h e r a p y ....................................................................... 48S e l f - C o n c e p t ....................................................................... 51

I I I . DESIGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE RESEARCH.................... 55

S u b j e c t s ................................................................................. 56I n s t r u m e n t s ............................................................................ 56The T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co nc e p t S c a l e ..................... 56The Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , ..................... 59S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s ................................................... 70A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t s and

Dat a C o l l e c t i o n ............................................................. 71A n a l y s i s o f D a t a ............................................................. 73

i v

Page 11: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

C h a p ter Page

IV. R E SU LT S ............................................................................................. 75

H y p o t h e s e s 1 and 2 ........................................................ 78H y p o t h e s e s 3 and 4 ........................................................ 85Summary o f H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g on

S t r a t i f i e d S a m p l e ........................................................ 96Non-Rock Group C o m p a r i s o n ......................................... 97R e s u l t s o f L i s t e n i n g t o Music Alone

o r Wi t h F r i e n d s ................................................................... 100A n a l y s i s o f Open Ended Q u e s t i o n s .................... 100

V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION.................................................................I l l

Summary o f R e s u l t s .............................................................. 113H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g .................................................. . 113Non-Rock Group C o m p a r i s o n ............................................... 114L i s t e n i n g t o Music Alone o r With

F r i e n d s ........................................................................................114Open Ended Q u e s t i o n s ......................................................... 115C o m p a r i s o n o f Comments f rom Music

I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o R e s u l t s f ro m H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g P r o c e d u r e . . . . 115

G e n e r a l I m p l i c a t i o n s ................................................... 116Music P r e f e r e n c e s ....................................................................118L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t ......................................................... 127L i s t e n i n g Alone o r With F r i e n d s ................................ 131S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e R e s e a r c h ................................ 132P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s .............................................. 134

APPENDIXES

A. P e r m i s s i o n L e t t e r f rom John C a r o n i s ,A s s i s t a n t P r i n c i p a l , G r an d v i e w H e i g h t sHigh S c h o o l ...................................................................................136

B. C o n s e n t Form f o r P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h eR e s e a r c h .............................................................................................137

C. Cover L e t t e r E x p l a i n i n g P u r p o s e o f S t u d y . . . 138

D. The Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ...................... 139

E. T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co nc e p t S c a l e .......................................... 142

REFERENCE NOTES........................................................................................... 14 5

REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 147

v

Page 12: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

LIST OF TABLES

T a b le Page

1. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e of F i v eS e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music P r e f e r e n c ef o r M a l e s ..................................................................................................81

2. T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e sf o r Ma le s by P r e f e r e n c e G r o u p s ............................................... 82

3. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f F i v eS e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music I n v o l v e m e n tf o r M a l e s ..................................................................................................83

4 . T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e sf o r Ma le s by I n v o l v e m e n t Groups .................................... 84

5. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f F i v eS e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music P r e f e r e n c e and L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a l e s ..........................................86

6. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f TwoS e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e s by L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n tf o r F e m a l e s , Pop Rock P r e f e r e n c e ..........................................88

7. T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e s f o r F e m a l e s by P r e f e r e n c e and I n v o l v e m e n tG r o u p s ....................................................................................................... 89

8. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f TwoS e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e s by L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a l e s , Hard Rock P r e f e r e n c e ............................................... 91

9. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f T h r e eS e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music P r e f e r e n c ef o r F e m a l e s ............................................................. ..........................92

v i

Page 13: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

T a b le Pape

10. T e n n e s e e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e S c o r e sf o r F e m a l e s by P r e f e r e n c e Gr oups .................................. 93

11. M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e o f T h r e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music I n v o l v e m e n tf o r F e m a l e s ............................................................................................ 94

12. T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e sf o r F e m a l e s by I n v o l v e m e n t G r o u p s .......................................95

13. T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e sf o r V a r i o u s Typ es o f Music L i s t e n e r s ..................... 98

Page 14: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

LIST OF FIGURES

F i g u r e Page

1. Age L e v e l i n Y e a r s ...............................................................................76

2. Gr ad e L e v e l ..............................................................................................77

3. Group D i v i s i o n of S a m p l e ............................................................... 79

4. P e r c e n t a g e o f Males Comment ing About R e l a x i n g and Mood I m p r o v i n g E f f e c t s ofMusic by I n v o l v e m e n t G r o u p s ..................................................107

5. P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing AboutR e l a x i n g , Mood I m p r o v i n g and E x p e r i e n c i n g E m o t i o n s E f f e c t s o f Music by I n v o l v e m e n tG r o u p s ......................................................................................................... 108

6. P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing AboutI m p r o v i n g S e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g an d S o c i a l i ­z a t i o n E f f e c t s o f Music by P r e f e r e n c eG r o u p s ......................................................................................................... 109

7 . P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing AboutI m p r o v i n g S o c i a l i z a t i o n E f f e c t s o f Mus i c .Pop Rock, Hi gh I n v o l v e m e n t Group Con­t r a s t e d t o Pop Rock, Low I n v o l v e m e n tG r o u p ......................................................................................................... 110

v i i i

Page 15: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

CHAPTER I

I n t r o d u c t i o n

The p e r i o d o f a d o l e s c e n c e h a s l o n g b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d

a s a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e human d e v e l o p m e n t a l s p a n .

The t i m e b e t w e e n a t t a i n m e n t o f s e x u a l m a t u r i t y a t p u b e r t y

a nd t h e c o m p l e t e a s s u m p t i o n o f a d u l t b e h a v i o r s and r e s p o n ­

s i b i l i t i e s i s a t i m e c o m p r i s e d o f a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f

c h a n g e s . The n a t u r e a n d d e g r e e of s u c h c h a n g e s i n v o l v e

v i r t u a l l y e v e r y a s p e c t o f a young p e r s o n ' s l i f e .

P u b e r t y b e g i n s w i t h t h e a c t i o n o f s e x h or mo ne s t h a t

r e s u l t i n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s e x c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c s , an d a s s o c i a t e d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f e m o t i o n s . In

P i a g e t ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t h e o r y t h e a d o l e s c e n t i s

e n t e r i n g t h e s t a g e o f f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s . At t h i s t i m e t h e

i n d i v i d u a l i s c a p a b l e o f t r u l y a b s t r a c t t h o u g h t and may be

a p p r o a c h i n g t h e p e a k o f h i s o r h e r r e a s o n i n g p o w e r s .

T h e s e newly d e v e l o p i n g c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t i e s f a c i l i t a t e a d ­

v a n c e s i n t h e s o c i a l a r e a s . A d o l e s c e n t s b e g i n t o have

m a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among e a c h o t h e r i n i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

e m o t i o n a l and s e x u a l a r e a s .

The a d o l e s c e n t i s o f t e n p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h s e l f . The

a d o l e s c e n t ' s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e i s b e i n g d r a s t i c a l l y

Page 16: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

r e v i s e d b e c a u s e o f a g r o w t h s p u r t and h o r m o n a l c h a n g e s ,

s e x u a l d r i v e i n c r e a s e s a nd he o r s h e beco mes c o n c e r n e d

a b o u t s e x u a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , p e e r a c c e p t a n c e a n d i n t i m a t e

r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The a d o l e s c e n t ' s c o g n i t i v e c o m p e t e n c i e s

a l l o w him o r h e r t o c o n s i d e r c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e l f a s

a b s t r a c t i o n s . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s e l f i d e n t i t y becomes

an i m p o r t a n t " t a s k " f o r t h e a d o l e s c e n t . H o r r o c k s ( 1976)

s t a t e s : " I t i s f a i r t o s a y t h a t t h e ma in b u s i n e s s of

a d o l e s c e n c e i s t h a t o f b u i l d i n g an d c o n f i r m i n g a s t a b l e

c o n c e p t o f s e l f . " The " ma i n b u s i n e s s " o f a d o l e s c e n c e may

n o t a l w a y s r e s u l t i n t h e " s t o r m and s t r e s s " v e r s i o n a d v o ­

c a t e d by G. S t a n l e y H a l l ( 1 9 0 4 ) , b u t i n o u r c u l t u r e i t c a n

be a n a n x i e t y - p r o d u c i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o c e s s p r e s e n t i n g

d i f f i c u l t y i n a d j u s t m e n t s a t b e s t .

I n t e r e s t s an d a c t i v i t i e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s have v a r i e d

g r e a t l y o v e r t h e y e a r s , b u t a s e e m i n g l y u n i v e r s a l i n t e r e s t

i n p o p u l a r m u s i c h a s r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t f o r t h e l a s t two

d e c a d e s , a t l e a s t . A l l p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g t e e n a g e r s , have

s p e c i f i c a nd i n d i v i d u a l t a s t e s ( D e n i s o f f , 1 9 7 6 ) . Wi th t h e

o n s e t o f r a d i o a nd t e l e v i s i o n t h e i r a d v e r t i s e r s b e g a n t o

c a t e r t o p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e s . S t a t i o n s now s p e c i a l i z e i n

"Top 4 0 , " s o u l , c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n , r o c k , f o l j c , " b e a u t i f u l

m u s i c , " a n d o t h e r s t y l e s ( P e t e r s o n a n d D a v i s , 1 9 7 4 ) .

A m a j o r m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e phenomenon h a s b e e n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f s e p a r a t e A m er i c a n m u s i c c u l t u r e s d u r i n g t h e

p a s t q u a r t e r c e n t u r y . From a b o u t 1930 t o t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 ' s

Page 17: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

p o p u l a r m u s i c was a i med p r e d o m i n a n t l y a t w h i t e m i d d l e -

c l a s s c u l t u r e . Music p o p u l a r w i t h one g e n e r a t i o n was

u s u a l l y p o p u l a r w i t h a n o t h e r . P r i o r t o t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s ,

c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n , b l a c k an d f o l k s t y l e s wer e a l i v e and

w e l l , b u t had o n l y r e g i o n a l a p p e a l . S i n c e t h a t t i m e ,

t h r o u g h t h e mass m e d i a , c o u n t r y , s o u l and f o l k s t y l e s

h a v e a c q u i r e d n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e s ; r o c k m u s i c became t h e

m u s i c o f y o u t h . E a ch m u s i c a l s t y l e h a s i t s own v a l u e s

a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l b a s e s (Radocy and B o y l e , 1 9 7 9 ) .

Group m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s n a r r o w w i t h a d v a n c i n g g r a d e

l e v e l . F i r s t , s e c o n d and t h i r d g r a d e r s w i l l l i s t e n t o

b r i e f e x c e r p t s of a v a r i e t y o f m u s i c a l s t y l e s w i t h o u t u n ­

due p r o t e s t . In t h e f o u r t h g r a d e and b e y o n d , s t u d e n t s

w i l l c r i n g e , c o v e r t h e i r e a r s , and c h e c k i f p e e r s a r e

d o i n g t h e same ( Radocy and B o y l e , 1 9 7 9 ) . The p r e f e r r e d

m u s i c b ecom es r o c k . An i n c r e a s i n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r r o c k

m u s i c w i t h a d v a n c i n g g r a d e l e v e l h a s c l e a r l y b e e n demon­

s t r a t e d ( G r e e r , Dorow and R a n d a l l , 1974; G r e e r , Dorow

an d H a n s e r , 1973; G r e e r e t a l . , 1 9 7 3 ) . The a s s e s s m e n t o f

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s m u s i c , c o n d u c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l

A s s e s s m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l Progress-*-, s u p p o r t s t h e t r e n d

The N a t i o n a l A s s e s s m e n t of E d u c a t i o n a l P r o g r e s s i s a p r o ­j e c t o f t h e E d u c a t i o n a l Commiss ion o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .I t was d e v e l o p e d i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r E d u c a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n and W e l f a r e . The m u s i c a s s e s s m e n t was c o n d u c t e d i n 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 .

Page 18: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

n o t e d by G r e e r e t a l . I t r e v e a l s an i n c r e a s e d p r e f e r e n c e

f o r r o c k f r o m n i n e - y e a r - o l d s t o t h i r t e e n - y e a r - o l d s t o

s e v e n t e e n - y e a r - o l d s (Radocy a n d B o y l e , 1 9 7 9 ) .

James C o l e m a n ' s m a s s i v e 1961 s u r v e y o f A m e r i c a n

a d o l e s c e n t s c o n f i r m e d t h a t m u s i c was t h e m os t p o p u l a r f o rm

o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t a nd t h a t " r o c k ' n r o l l " was t h e i r mos t

p o p u l a r f o r m of m u s i c ( F r i t h , 1 9 8 1 ) . T e e n a g e r s ' i n t e r e s t

i n pop m u s i c was f o u n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t e l e v i s i o n p r o ­

grams t h e y w a t c h e d , t h e m a g a z i n e s t h e y r e a d , t h e c a f e s a nd

d a n c e s t h e y went t o , and t h e " n e c e s s a r y t o o l s " ( r a d i o ,

s t e r e o , t a p e r e c o r d e r , g u i t a r ) t h e y s o u g h t t o own (Coleman,

1 9 6 1 ) . A H a r r i s p o l l h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t 87 p e r c e n t o f

t e e n a g e r s l i s t e n t o r o c k m u s i c , many f r o m e a r l y m o r n i n g

u n t i l n i g h t , and a s u r v e y by t h e Media I n f o r m a t i o n D e p a r t ­

ment o f t h e McManus, John a nd Adams a g e n c y f o u n d t h a t young

a d u l t s l i s t e n t o r o c k m u s i c on t h e r a d i o a n a v e r a g e o f o v e r

f i v e h o u r s a d ay . They s p e n d l e s s t h a n h a l f t h a t t i m e

w a t c h i n g t e l e v i s i o n ( F u l l e r , 1 9 8 1 ) .

The s o c i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f r o c k i s a l s o s u s t a i n e d by

t h e s a l e s s t a t i s t i c s . By t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 ' s w e l l o v e r f o u r

b i l l i o n d o l l a r s was b e i n g s p e n t a n n u a l l y i n t h e w o r l d on

m u s i c a l p r o d u c t s . In Amer ica t h e s a l e s o f r e c o r d s an d

t a p e s e a s i l y o u t g r o s s e s t h e r e t u r n s on m o v i e s a n d s p o r t s

( F r i t h , 1 9 8 1 ) . P o p u l a r m u s i c i s a f i f t y b i l l i o n d o l l a r -

a - y e a r b u s i n e s s ( Toohey , 1 9 8 2 ) .

Page 19: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

P s y c h o l o g i s t s an d S o c i o l o g i s t s c o u l d n o t i g n o r e t h e

r e c o r d p l a y e r s , t a p e r e c o r d e r s and r a d i o s f o u n d i n j u s t

a b o u t e v e r y h o u s e h o l d by t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s . Thus r e c o r d s and

r a d i o s became i n c l u d e d i n t e x t b o o k l i s t s o f mass m e d i a .

Media a n a l y s e s h ave f o c u s e d on p r o b l e m s d e r i v e d f rom

s t u d i e s o f t e l e v i s i o n . A l b e r t B a n d u r a ' s i n f l u e n t i a l

d e m o n s t r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e d i a ' s ( v i s u a l ) a f f e c t on

a g g r e s s i v e n e s s ( B a n d u r a , Ross a n d R o s s , 1961, 1963) have

become " c l a s s i c s . " The S u r g e o n G e n e r a l o f t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s i s s u e d a r e p o r t on t e l e v i s i o n a nd i t s e f f e c t s i n

1974 . A l t h o u g h , a s Murray e t a l . ( 197 0) and o t h e r s have

p o i n t e d o u t , TV p l a y s an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e l i f e o f

t h e a d o l e s c e n t . A d o l e s c e n t s w a t c h t e l e v i s i o n , o f c o u r s e ,

b u t i t t e n d s t o be t o o s t a t i c a f o rm f o r t h e i r a c t i v e

l i v e s . D u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e , home o f t e n becomes c o n f i n i n g

an d seems r e s t r i c t i v e . They a r e o f t e n n o t m o t i v a t e d t o

s i t i n f r o n t o f t h e TV f o r l o n g p e r i o d s , and TV d o e s n o t

c a t e r t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a s d o e s r a d i o .

C o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h

t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t s o f p o p u l a r m u s i c , e i t h e r a s an a g e n t of

s o c i a l i z a t i o n , o r a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e a t t i t u d e s of i t s

l i s t e n e r s . Fox a nd W i l l i a m s ( 19 74 ) were c o n c e r n e d a b o u t

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n an d m u s i c a l

p r e f e r e n c e s . A m u s i c i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n was m e a s u r e d by

q u e s t i o n s on r o c k c o n c e r t a t t e n d a n c e a nd r e c o r d p u r c h a s e s .

Music p r e f e r e n c e s we r e m e a s u r e d on r a t i n g s c a l e s . T h e i r

Page 20: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a weak a s s o c i a t i o n e x i s t e d b e t w e e n

p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , m u s i c i n v o l v e m e n t and p r e f e r e n c e s

f o r p a r t i c u l a r m u s i c a l s t y l e s . They r e p o r t e d t h a t s u c h

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e m a i n t a i n e d e v e n a f t e r c o n t r o l s f o r

d e m o g r a p h i c v a r i a b l e s wer e i n t r o d u c e d . Mashkin and Volgy

( 1 9 7 5 ) , i n a s i m i l a r s t u d y , f o c u s e d on p o l i t i c a l a l i e n a ­

t i o n , s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n and f e m a l e s e x s t e r e o t y p i n g f a c t o r s

a f f e c t i n g p r e f e r e n c e s f o r r o c k , f o l k and c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n

m u s i c . The a u t h o r s n o t e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s on

p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n and s e x s t e r e o t y p i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o

m u s i c t a s t e .

The c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s i n

t h e s e s t u d i e s h ave n o t b e e n e x p l o r e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c

f a s h i o n . The l a c k o f l o n g i t u d i n a l a n a l y s i s i n t h e s e

s t u d i e s p r o h i b i t s f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s , b u t Mashk i n an d Volgy

( 19 75 ) s u s p e c t t h a t " p r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e t o t h e l y r i c a l

c o n t e n t o f m u s i c h a s some d e f i n i t e r e i n f o r c i n g , o r a c q u i s i ­

t i v e c o n s e q u e n s e " ( p . 4 5 8 ) . Toohey ( 1 9 8 2 ) , i n a s i m i l a r

v e i n , i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g v i a mass m e d i a .

The a u t h o r c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a d o l e s c e n c e a s a

d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f E r i c

E r i k s o n . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t E r i c E r i k s o n j s e i g h t s t a g e s

o f p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t , s p e c i f i c a l l y " i d e n t i t y v e r s u s

r o l e c o n f u s i o n , " he b e l i e v e s l y r i c s i n p o p u l a r m u s i c c o u l d

c o n t r i b u t e t o p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t . The r e s u l t s of

T o o h e y ' s s u r v e y ( w i t h c o l l e g e a n d h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s )

Page 21: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

c o n f i r m t h a t s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e t h a t m u s i c l y r i c s h ave a

s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on s h a p i n g v a l u e s .

The a s s u m p t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e s e s t u d i e s i s t h a t t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e m u s i c r e q u i r e s t h a t i t s l y r i c a l c o n ­

t e n t be p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d by l i s t e n e r s . V a r i o u s s t u d i e s

h a ve shown t h a t a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of l i s t e n e r s f a i l t o c o r ­

r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t t h e m e a n i n g o f m e s sa ge s o n g s . R o b i n s o n

an d H i r s c h ( 1 97 2) s t u d i e d M i c h i g a n h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n

t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s . Only t e n t o t h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u ­

d e n t s wer e a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e s o n g ' s t h e m e s .

S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s h a ve b e e n d oc ume n t ed by D e n i s o f f and

L e v i n e ( 1 9 7 2 ) . C o l l e g e s t u d e n t r e s p o n d e n t s were a s k e d t o

d e s c r i b e t h e m e a n i n g s o f two p o p u l a r a n t i - w a r s o n g s , "Eve

o f D e s t r u c t i o n " a n d " U n i v e r s a l S o l d i e r . " Only f o u r t e e n t o

e i g h t e e n p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s were a b l e t o c o r r e c t l y

i n t e r p r e t t h e i r m e a n i n g s . T h i s e v i d e n c e i s n o t e n t i r e l y

c o n t r a r y t o t h e i d e a t h a t m e s s a g e s o n g s e f f e c t i v e l y com­

m u n i c a t e p o l i t i c a l m e s s a g e s . In t h e D e n i s o f f an d L e v i n e

( 19 72 ) s t u d y , many l i s t e n e r s w er e a b l e t o p a r t i a l l y u n d e r ­

s t a n d t h e s o n g s ' m e s s a g e s . D e n i s o f f a nd L e v i n e c o n c l u d e

t h a t " t h e p r o p o g a n d a s o n g s o f t h e Top F o r t y " a p p e a r t o g e t

a c r o s s t o t h e l i s t e n e r s , b u t n o t t o t h e d e g r e e o f i n t e n s i t y

o r i m p a c t p r o p o s e d by p r o p o n e n t s an d c r i t i c s a l i k e .

A m e r i c a n P o p u l a r m u s i c h a s a l w a y s had i t s d e t r a c t o r s

s i n c e t h e a d v e n t o f j a z z , a t l e a s t . C e r t a i n r e b e l l i o u s

e l e m e n t s i n t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n h ave a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n

Page 22: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

a t t r a c t e d t o j a z z f o r m s (Esman, 1 9 5 4 ) . Esman m e n t i o n e d

a d o l e s c e n t s and Bohemi ans who were " s e e k i n g l i b e r a t i o n and

i n d i v i d u a l i t y " a s j a z z l i s t e n e r s . L e o n a r d ( 1962 ) h a s p r e ­

s e n t e d a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of s u c h g r o u p s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f j a z z i n t h e t w e n t i e s . Ri es man . ( 1957)

n o t e d t h a t a s i m i l a r m i n o r i t y a u d i e n c e e x i s t e d among t e e n ­

a g e r s f o r h o t j a z z i n t h e f o r t i e s . He s t a t e d t h a t " t h e

h o t j a z z l o v e r s a r e p r o t e s t o r s . They a r e i n d i v i d u a l i s t s

who r e j e c t c o n t e m p o r a r y m a j o r i t y c o n f o r m i t i e s . " Howard

Hanson was c o n c e r n e d w i t h g e n e r a l e f f e c t s o f m u s i c on

l i s t e n e r s . H i s c o n c e r n was t h a t t h e y o u t h we r e e x p o s e d t o

" v a s t q u a n t i t i e s " o f " h o t j a z z " by r a d i o l i s t e n i n g , and " i f

t h e mass p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s a u r a l d r u g i s n o t c u r t a i l e d ,

we may f i n d o u r s e l v e s a n a t i o n of n e u r o t i c s w h i c h e v e n t h e

s k i l l o f a p s y c h i a t r i s t may be h a r d p r e s s e d t o c u r e "

( S c h u l l i a n and S c h o e n , 1948 , p. 2 6 5 ) . Kamin (1975) h a s

p r e s e n t e d e v i d e n c e wh ic h s u p p o r t s t h a t a m i n o r i t y t e e n a g e

a u d i e n c e e x i s t e d i n t h e f i f t i e s t h a t l i s t e n e d t o r h y t h m and

b l u e s r a t h e r t h a n h o t j a z z . He c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s a u d i e n c e

a s " p r e d o m i n a n t l y w o r k i n g c l a s s " and " q u a s i - d e v i a n t " by

m i d d l e c l a s s s t a n d a r d s . An i n f l u e n t i a l d i s c j o c k e y i n

C l e v e l a n d , Ohio p o p u l a r i z e d t h e t e r m " r o c k ' n r o l l . " When

A l a n F r e e d f i r s t u s e d t h e t e r m r o c k ' n r o l l he was a p p l y i n g

i t t o r h y t h m and b l u e s m u s i c ( G i l b e r t , 1 9 7 0 ) , S i n c e t h a t

t i m e , r o c k ' n r o l l , o r l a t e r s i m p l y r e f e r r e d t o a s " r o c k , "

h a s become p o p u l a r i z e d by a n a d o l e s c e n t mass a u d i e n c e , a s

Page 23: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

9

d o c u m e n t e d p r e v i o u s l y .

J a z z and r o c k m u s i c f i r s t o r i g i n a t e d a s b l a c k m u s i c a l

f o r m s an d s t y l e s . B l a c k m u s i c h a s a l w a y s b e e n c e n t r a l t o

" p o p " a nd " r o c k ' n r o l l . " The i m p a c t o f t h e r h y t h m an d

b l u e s on y o u t h m u s i c i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a n d 1 9 6 0 ' s was a n o t h e r

e x am p l e o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g p r o c e s s t h r o u g h wh i c h w h i t e p o p ­

u l a r m u s i c h a s b e e n i n v i g o r a t e d by s t y l e s a nd v a l u e s drawn

f r o m b l a c k c u l t u r e . Simon F r i t h , s o c i o l o g i s t a nd m us ic

c r i t i c , comments on b l a c k m u s i c :

" B l a c k m u s i c makes o b v i o u s t h e p o t e n t i a l c h a o s o f s e x u a l f e e l i n g an d r o c k ' s b l a c k - b a s e d d a n c e f o r m s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n p e r c e i v e d by m o r a l i s t s a s a t h r e a t t o r e s p e c t a b l e c o d e s o f b e h a v i o r . The media c e n s o r s r e a l i z e d immedi ­a t e l y t h a t E l v i s P r e s l e y ' s r o c k ' n r o l l was a f o rm o f s e x u a l d i s p l a y . B l a c k m u s i c , i n s h o r t , became a means f o r t h e p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n of n o r m a l l y p r i v a t e s e n s a t i o n s f o r w h i t e t e e n a g e r s i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s , b u t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n wh i ch b l a c k m u s i c i a n s p l a y e d h ad a l w a y s h ad an a t ­m o s p h e r e o f r i s k a n d e x c i t e m e n t a n d p r o m i s e ; t h e y o f f e r e d t h e y oun g p e o p l e d r awn t o them s y m b o l s of r e b e l l i o n . " ( F r i t h , 198 1 , p . 19)

The n o t i o n t h a t p o p u l a r m u s i c , e s p e c i a l l y " r o c k , "

may have a c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e on y o u t h h a s b e e n u b i ­

q u i t o u s . Media a t t e n t i o n was f o c u s e d on p o p u l a r m u s i c

d u r i n g t h e " p a y o l a " p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g r a d i o p r og r am mi ng

i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 ' s . P a y o l a was o u t l a w e d by a F e d e r a l

B r i b e r y Act i n 1960 a f t e r an e x t e n s i v e , m u c k r a k i n g S e n a t e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t was p a r t l y d e s i g n e d t o show t h a t r o c k ' n

r o l l was c o r r u p t i n g y o u t h ( F r i t h , 1 9 8 1 ) . The f u n c t i o n and

s o c i a l e f f e c t s o f popular" m u s i c h a ve r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e

Page 24: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

10

p u b l i c c r i t i c i s m . The Cuban r e g i m e , a t one t i m e , d e c l a r e d

a l l f o r m s o f r o c k m u s i c s u b v e r s i v e t o t h e g ov e r n m e n t

( Ma s h k i n and Vo l gy , 1 9 7 5 ) . For mer Vice P r e s i d e n t S p i r o T.

Agnew a r g u e d t h a t r o c k m u s i c i s an o p i n i o n f o r m a t i o n d e ­

v i c e , c a p a b l e o f " h y p n o t i z i n g and b r a i n w a s h i n g " A mer i can

t e e n a g e r s ( D e n i s o f f an d P e t e r s o n , 1 9 7 2 ) , and l e a d i n g

y o u t h down t h e p a t h t o d r u g s and i m m o r a l i t y ( J o h n s o n , 1971).

S i m i l a r o p i n i o n s a r e a p p a r e n t l y h e l d by c u r r e n t S e c r e t a r y

o f t h e I n t e r i o r , J ames W a t t . T h i s y e a r he c a n c e l l e d t h e

B ea c h Boys c o n c e r t a t t h e Annua l F o u r t h o f J u l y C e l e b r a t i o n

i n W a s h i n g t o n , D. C. His r e a s o n i n g was t h a t " r o c k b a n d s

a t t r a c t an u n d e s i r a b l e e l e m e n t . "

Members o f t h e Mora l M a j o r i t y and t h e r a d i c a l r i g h t

h a v e p o r t r a y e d r o c k m u s i c a s an e f f e c t i v e p r o p o g a n d a t e c h ­

n i q u e . R e v e r e n d D av i d N o eb e l h a s a u t h o r e d a number of

w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h r o c k f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . Noebe l

c l a i m s t h a t " i n t e r n a t i o n a l communism" i s m ak i ng u s e of

r o c k m u s i c . He a l l e g e s r o c k m u s i c h a s a s u b l i m i n a l l y

p e r s u a s i v e e f f e c t by i t s u s e o f l y r i c s d e a l i n g w i t h d r u g s ,

s e x , p o l i t i c s a nd g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s , a l s o " e x t r e m e l y

p r i m i t i v e an d s e n s u a l r h y t h m s " ( L e v i n e an d H a r i g , 1 9 7 5 ) .

A r e c e n t a n t i - r o c k book by J ohn F u l l e r , a n o v e l i s t ,

c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h t h e d e a t h s o f e l e v e n young p e o p l e who

w e r e a s p h y x i a t e d a t a r o c k c o n c e r t i n C i n c i n n a t i . The

y o u n g p e o p l e wer e c r u s h e d by t h e c rowd p r e s s i n g i n t o t h e

C i n c i n n a t i C o l i s e u m f o r t h e n o t o r i o u s 1979 "Who" c o n c e r t .

Page 25: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

F u l l e r d r aws a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " h a r d - r o c k " and o t h e r

p o p u l a r s t y l e s . He i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h " m a ss h y p n o s i s , t h e

m e c h a n i c s o f c rowd p s y c h o l o g y , and p o s t h y p n o t i c s u g g e s ­

t i o n s . " F u l l e r c l a i m s t h e " k i d s " a r e v i c t i m s o f an u n ­

c o n s c i o u s d e a t h w i s h t h a t i s an i n t e g r a l a s p e c t o f h a r d

r o c k ( F u l l e r , 1 9 8 1 ) . The c u r r e n t c o n t r o v e r s y r e g a r d i n g

r o c k m u s i c i n v o l v e s " h e a v y - m e t a 1 , " a f o rm o f h a r d r o c k .

A r k a n s a s R e p r e s e n t a t i v e J a c k McCoy e a r l i e r t h i s y e a r p r o ­

p o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e u s e o f " b a c k - m a s k i n g . "

T h i s t e r m r e f e r s t o t h e i n c l u s i o n o f b a c k w a r d S a t a n i c

m e s s a g e s r e c o r d e d o n t o t h e r e c o r d s o f v a r i o u s h e a v y - m e t a l

b a n d s . The p r o p o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n woul d r e q u i r e t h a t a lbums

s u p p o s e d l y c o n t a i n i n g " b a c k - m a s k i n g " b e a r w a r n i n g s t i c k e r s .

T h i s b i l l h a s p a s s e d t h e House Commi t t ee on P u b l i c H e a l t h ,

t h e House and t h e S e n a t e . McCoy's b i l l was s e n t b ack t o

t h e House f o r c o n c u r r e n c e on am en d in g t h e p e n a l t y t o a

C l a s s A m i s d e m e a n o r , w h e r e i t was t a b l e d on F e b r u a r y 9,

1983. S p e a k i n g o f t h e b i l l , McCoy h a s d e c l a r e d , "We d o n ' t

wan t t h i s s t u f f i n o u r h o u s e s , b a c k w a r d , f o r w a r d o r s i d e ­

way s , and I f i n d t h a t h a r d t o a r g u e w i t h " ( B a s h e , 1 9 8 3 ) .

The a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o n c e r n s and c r i t i c i s m s of r o c k

a r e w i d e s p r e a d a n d o n l y a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l a s t i n g h a s b e e n

p r o v i d e d . The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : wha t s c h o l a r l y e v i d e n c e

e x i s t s t o s u b s t a n t i a t e s u c h v i e w s ? E m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e i s

l i m i t e d an d s u c h g e n e r a l i z e d c o n c e r n s h ave n o t b e e n a d e ­

q u a t e l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d . The b a s i c i s s u e s h a v e b e e n

Page 26: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

12

r e s e a r c h e d i n more f o c u s e d l i n e s o f i n q u i r y . R e s e a r c h

i n v e s t i g a t o r s h av e c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o c i a l a nd e m o t i o n a l

e f f e c t s o f r o c k a n d p o p u l a r m u s i c . T h e s e s t u d i e s c a n be

g e n e r a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e t h a t s t u d y m u s i c a s an a g e n t

o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n o r a f f e c t i v e c h a n g e , an d t h o s e t h a t s t u d y

m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of.

i t s l i s t e n e r s .

The p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d s t u d i e s by Fox and W i l l i a m s

( 197 4) and Mashk i n and Volgy ( 197 5) w ou l d be c l a s s i f i e d a s

s t u d i e s t h a t s e e m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s a s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e

a t t i t u d e s o f i t s l i s t e n e r s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s s u s p e c t

t h a t m u s i c l y r i c s c o u l d i n f l u e n c e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s .

The l a c k o f c a u s e - e f f e c t e v a l u a t i o n i n t h e s e s t u d i e s d o e s

n o t p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e e v i d e n c e f o r m u s i c a s a n a g e n t o f s o ­

c i a l i z a t i o n . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t most

young p e o p l e a r e u n a b l e t o c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t t h e m e a n i n g s

o f s o n g l y r i c s , b u t t h e s e s t u d i e s h ave f o u n d t h a t p r e f e r ­

e n c e s f o r m u s i c a l s t y l e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i d e o l o g i c a l

o r i e n t a t i o n s . The n a t u r e o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e unknown

b e c a u s e of t h e d e a r t h o f l o n g i t u d i n a l work i n t h e a r e a of

m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s and s u b s e q u e n t a b s e n c e o f l o n g - t e r m

p a n e l d e s i g n s .

V a r i o u s o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s h a ve b e e n d o c u m e n t e d i n t e r m s o f m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s .

P e r s o n a l i t y i s c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d i n m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s

( F i s h e r a nd F i s h e r , 1951; C a t t e l l a n d A n d e r s o n , 1953;

Page 27: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Hahn, 1954; K e s t o n a n d P i n t o , 1955; P a y n e , 1 9 6 7 ) . P e r ­

s o n a l i n s e c u r i t i e s , a n x i e t i e s an d f e a r s h ave b e e n shown

t o i n f l u e n c e an i n d i v i d u a l ' s m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s ( F i s h e r

and F i s h e r , 1 9 5 1 ) . A e s t h e t i c v a l u e s a n d n e e d s f o r s e n s u a l

p l e a s u r e h ave b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r e f e r e n c e s (Hahn,

1 9 5 4 ) . M u s i c a l t r a i n i n g , m u s i c r e c o g n i t i o n , an d i n t r o v e r ­

s i o n ha ve b e e n r e l a t e d t o a p r e f e r e n c e f o r c l a s s i c a l m us ic

( K e s t o n a n d P i n t o , 1 9 5 5 ) . P e r s o n s t h a t d i f f e r on s t a b i l ­

i t y / n e u r o t i c s c o r e s on a p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r y d i f f e r on

m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s ( P a y n e , 1 9 6 7 ) . N i n t h g r a d e r s who a r e

more d e p e n d e n t an d more i n n eed o f s o c i a l a p p r o v a l t e n d t o

a l t e r e x p r e s s e d m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s t o c o n f o r m t o a c k n o w l ­

e d g e d p e e r l e a d e r s ( I n g l e f i e l d , Note 1 ) . B u t l e r ( 1968) ha s

f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n r a d i c a l ­

i sm a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y s u b s c a l e s o f a p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t

a n d r e c e p t i v i t y f o r e l e c t r o n i c m u s i c . I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h

m a n i f e s t c o n f l i c t s a b o u t i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s have

b e e n shown t o h av e a h i g h e r i n v o l v e m e n t i n m u s i c l i s t e n i n g

( R i d g e w a y , 1 9 7 6 ) .

In c o n t r a s t t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g p e r s o n a l i t y

f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s , a

body o f l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s w h i c h h a s shown ipus ic t o be an

a g e n t of a f f e c t i v e c h a n g e . Many o f t h e s e s t u d i e s have be en

c o n d u c t e d w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f m u s i c t h e r a p y i n mind . I t

h a s b e e n c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t m u s i c c a n e v o k e mood

r e s p o n s e s i n l i s t e n e r s ( Sc ho en an d Gat ewood , 1927; H e r n e r ,

Page 28: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

14

1935; S o p c h a c h , 1955; E a g l e , 1 9 7 1 ) , a nd i n c r e a s e o r r e d u c e

a n x i e t y ( G r e e n b e r g and F i s h e r , 1966; S m i t h and M o r r i s ,

1970; J e l l i s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c a n n o t y e t be

made c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f mood a n d m u s i c ( E a g l e ,

1 9 7 1 ) , a nd i t i s n o t c l e a r wha t t y p e o f m u s i c w i l l i n ­

c r e a s e o r r e d u c e a n x i e t y ( H a ac k , 1 9 8 0 ) .

The l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s . In c o n t r a s t t o

t h e v a r i o u s c r i t i c i s m s o f r o c k and p o p u l a r m u s i c , s u b s t a n ­

t i a l e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e x i s t t o s u g g e s t t h a t m us ic i s

i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e f f e c t i n g a t t i t u d e , v a l u e s , o r p e r s o n a l i t y

d e v e l o p m e n t . The m e c h a n i s m s by w h i c h m u s i c r e f l e c t s a

l i s t e n e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n n e e d f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n . One

p o s s i b l e a v e n u e t o e x p l o r e l i e s i n t h e a r e a o f a f f e c t i v e

c h a n g e i n w h i c h m u s i c h a s b e e n shown t o be e f f e c t i v e , i n

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a d o l e s c e n t s ' u s e o f m u s i c .

L i t t l e i s c u r r e n t l y known a b o u t l i s t e n e r s ' c o n s c i o u s

u s e o f m u s i c and why a d o l e s c e n t s f i n d p o p u l a r m u s i c s o

s a t i s f y i n g . F r i t h ( 1 98 1 ) h a s d o c u m e n t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on

t e e n a g e r s ' u s e o f m u s i c i n a s m a l l B r i t i s h town . C l a s s

an d c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s we r e f o u n d t o be i n t e r w o v e n w i t h

s e x an d a g e d i f f e r e n c e s . G i r l s t e n d e d t o be more i n t e r ­

e s t e d i n d a n c i n g a n d we r e more c o n c e r n e d w i t h l y r i c s ,

e s p e c i a l l y r o m a n t i c l y r i c s . Male c o n s u m e r s t e n d t o i d e n ­

t i f y w i t h r o c k p e r f o r m e r s . T h i s i d e n t i t y i s e x p r e s s e d i n

s e x u a l t e r m s and i s r e l a t e d t o t h e m u s i c i a n ' s domi nance

Page 29: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

15

a n d p o w er , c o n f i d e n c e an d c o n t r o l . P o p u l a r m u s i c ( r o c k )

i s s e e n a s r e f l e c t i n g a n e m o t i o n a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d s e n s e of

s e l f a s a r t i s t s a r e h e a r d t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e l i s t e n e r ' s own

f e a r s a n d f e e l i n g s . F r i t h b e l i e v e s t h a t " r o c k h a s b e e n

u s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a f o rm o f s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e a n d i n ­

d i v i d u a l e s c a p e a n d a s o u r c e o f s o l i d a r i t y an d a c t i v e d i s ­

s a t i s f a c t i o n . "

C o mp l em en t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s i n s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o c l a s s i f y t h e m e s i n

p o p u l a r m u s i c , an d i n i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s a b o u t

t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c . F u l l e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) i n i n t e r v i e w s

w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s f o u n d " t h a t r o c k gave them a c o m m u n i c a t i o n

o f t h e i r own, a r e l e a s e f ro m t h e h a r s h o r r o u t i n e l i v e s

t h a t many l i v e d . They f e l t i t a t t a c k e d t h e shame an d h y ­

p o c r i s y o f a w o r l d gone s o u r . " H o r t o n ( 19 57 ) c l a s s i f i e d

p o p u l a r m u s i c o f t h e m i d - 1 9 5 0 ' s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p o f t h e l y r i c s t o f i v e s t a g e s o f a d o l e s c e n t l o v e - m a k ­

i n g : p r o l o g u e , c o u r t s h i p , a honeymoon p e r i o d , a downward

c o u r s e , an d a n a b a n d o n e d l o n e l y s t a g e . The l y r i c s p r o ­

v i d e d a c o n v e n t i o n a l l a n g u a g e f o r f o r m u l a t i n g a d o l e s c e n t

e x p e c t a t i o n s and s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s . Hey ( 197 4) a l s o

c l a s s i f i e d l y r i c s f ro m p o p u l a r s o n g s i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s . He

o r g a n i z e d t h e t h e m e s u n d e r two g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s : i n s e ­

c u r i t y an d g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t . He s e e s t h e " c o m p l e x i ­

t i e s o f i n s e c u r i t y a s d i s s o l v i n g t h r o u g h a l o v e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p , a s p e c i a l p a r t y , o r a g r o u p i d e n t i t y . " Hey f u r t h e r

Page 30: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

16

s u g g e s t s t h a t " t a k e n a s a w h o l e , t h e s o n g s o f i n s e c u r i t y

o f f e r a t e m p o r a r y d ream v i s i o n f o r t h e l i s t e n e r whose c o n ­

c e p t s o f a h o s t i l e w o r l d may p a r a l l e l t h e s o n g ' s l e a d

c h a r a c t e r s , whose l o s t l o v e s , f o r g o t t e n a f f a i r s , o r c r u e l

f a t h e r s o p p r e s s t h e i r f r e e r i n s t i n c t s " ( 19 74 , p . 3 2 1 ) .

The " g r o u p i d e n t i t y " f u r t h e r s t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n age

g r o u p s and i s l y r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n common a d o l e s c e n t

e x p e r i e n c e s .

R e p l i c a t i n g H o r t o n ' s ( 19 5 7) c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s o f p o p ­

u l a r s o n g l y r i c s , C a r e y ( 196 9) h a s r e p o r t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e

i n c r e a s e i n b o t h r a n g e o f t h e m e s and p o r t r a y a l s o f d i f f e r ­

e n t v a l u e s a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s .

C o l e ( 197 1) a n a l y z e d t h e l y r i c s o f t h e a n n u a l "Top 10"

s o n g s f o r e a c h y e a r o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s . He f o u n d a mar ked i n ­

c r e a s e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y o f s o c i a l p r o t e s t t h e m es t h r o u g h

t h e d e c a d e . D u r i n g 1974 Mashk in and Volgy ( 19 75) c o n d u c t e d

a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e "Top 40" s i n g l e s and "Top 20"

a l b u m s on t h e c h a r t s a t t h a t t i m e . They f o u n d " fe w t o t a l

r e f e r e n c e s t o p o l i t i c s , s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n , o r condemna­

t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l i s t i c l i f e - s t y l e s . " They c o n c l u d e d t h a t

m a j o r c h a n g e s had o c c u r r e d i n t h e c o n t e n t o f p o p u l a r m u s i c

l y r i c s a nd r a d i c a l t h e m e s had b e e n r e p l a c e d w i t h more

" e n t e r t a i n i n g s t o r i e s o f a d v e n t u r e a nd p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . "

Fox a n d W i l l i a m s ( 19 7 4) c o n c u r w i t h t h e s e f i n d i n g s and

c o n c l u d e t h a t " c o n t e m p o r a r y l y r i c s u s u a l l y s t r e s s a d o l e s ­

c e n t p r o b l e m s t o t h e v i r t u a l e x c l u s i o n o f s o c i a l p r o b l e m s . "

Page 31: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

17

Rock a n d p o p u l a r m u s i c h a s more o r l e s s a l w a y s s t r e s s e d

a d o l e s c e n t p r o b l e m s a n d i s s u e s . The r e c o r d i n g c o m p a n i e s

do a s much a s p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t a s t e s a n d i s s u e s o f

young p e o p l e an d r e f l e c t them b a c k i n t h e r e c o r d s , i n

f a c t , many o f t h e w r i t e r s and m u s i c i a n s o f p o p u l a r mu s i c

a r e a d o l e s c e n t s t h e m s e l v e s w o r k i n g f r o m t h e i r own p e r ­

s p e c t i v e ( V u l l i a m y , 1 9 7 5 ) . I t s h o u l d a l s o be m e n t i o n e d

t h a t much o f t h e a p p e a l f o r p o p u l a r m u s i c among a d o l e s ­

c e n t s i s r e l a t e d t o v i s u a l c u e s an d t h e s t r u c t u r e and

s t y l e o f t h e m u s i c . To a s sume t h a t m u s i c c o u l d be s t u d i e d

i n o n l y one d i m e n s i o n ( l y r i c s , f o r e x a m p l e ) i s t o l o s e

some o t h e r e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s p o p u l a r a r t (Hey,

1 9 7 4 ) . To q u o t e D e n i s o f f an d L e v i n e ( 1 9 7 1 ) : " t h e d e v i a n t

a s p e c t o f P r e s l e y was e n t i r e l y v i s u a l a n d t i e d t o h i s

h y b r i d m u s i c a l g e n r e , r o c k - a - b i l l y , r a t h e r t h a n t h e l y r i ­

c a l c o n t e n t w h i c h d i d l i t t l e more t h a n e l a b o r a t e t h e s e n t ­

i m e n t s o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s y o u t h f u l r e b e l s , Romeo an d J u l i e t . "

( p . 9 1 1 ) . The e m p h a s i s o f r o c k m u s i c h a s b e e n s e e n t o be

p r o t e s t ; " p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e s t a t i c f o r m s , v e r b a l c l i c h e s ,

t i r e d h a r m o n i e s , i n s t r u m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s a n d t h e v a p i d

r o m a n t i c i s m o f T i n Pan A l l e y s o n g " (Shaw, 1971 , p . 2 0 8 ) .

The p r e s e n t s t u d y i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h tJie c o n n e c t i o n s

t h a t have b e e n shown t o e x i s t b e t w e e n a g i v e n m u s i c a l

s t y l e a n d t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f i t s l i s t e n e r s . Music p e r s e

h a s n o t p r o v e n t o p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s i n a t t i t u d e ,

v a l u e s , o r p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s , b u t m u s i c h a s b e e n shown

Page 32: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

18

t o be an a g e n t o f a f f e c t i v e c h a n g e . T h i s s t u d y w i l l

a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n an

a d o l e s c e n t ' s l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t and p r e f e r e n c e f o r a

g i v e n m u s i c a l s t y l e an d t h e c o n c e p t u a l a r e a of s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t w h i c h i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e n t a l h e a l t h and a d j u s t ­

m e n t . G i v e n t h e n a t u r e o f r o c k and p o p u l a r m u s i c , s p e c i f ­

i c a l l y t h e l y r i c a l e m p h a s i s on a d o l e s c e n t i s s u e s and p r o b ­

l e m s , and s t r u c t u r a l and s t y l i s t i c " d e v i a t i o n s " o f t h e

m u s i c a nd i t s p r a c t i t i o n e r s , i t would seem r e a s o n a b l e t h a t

s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p may e x i s t . T r o u b l e d a d o l e s c e n t s e x ­

p e r i e n c i n g a d j u s t m e n t o r o t h e r p r o b l e m s s u f f e r f rom emo­

t i o n a l d i s o r d e r s . The c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m u s i c a l p r e f e r ­

e n c e s , l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h m u s i c , and l i s t e n e r

a t t r i b u t e s may b e a r some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m u s i c ' s d e m o n s t r a ­

t e d a b i l i t y t o a l t e r an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a f f e c t i v e s t a t e .

Def i n i t i o n s

Rock - F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y , Rock i s d e f i n e d a sp o p u l a r m u s i c t h a t a p p e a r s on t h e "Rock" c h a r t sf o r B i l l b o a r d m a g a z i n e , a nd i s a i r e d on r a d i o s t a ­t i o n s t h a t f e a t u r e " c o n t e m p o r a r y r o c k , " and " a l b u m - o r i e n t e d r o c k " p r o g r a m f o r m a t s .

Hard Rock - P o p u l a r m u s i c t h a t i s c l a s s i f i a b l e a s s u c h bym u s i c i n d u s t r y p r e s s ( s u c h a s B i l l b o a r d ) , o p e r a t i o n ­a l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y i n t e r m s o f t h e s u b j e c t s ' r a t e d p r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r "Hard R o c k , " an d "Heavy M e t a l " c a t e g o r i e s on t h e Music I n v o l v e m e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (MIQ).

Pop Rock - F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y a l l o t h e r f o rm s o fRock m u s i c d e f i n e d by m u s i c i n d u s t r y p r e s s . PopRock i s o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y i n t e r m s of t h e s u b j e c t s ' r a t e d p r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r "New-Wave R o c k , " " C o u n t r y - R o c k , " and " S o f t R o c k / P o p ”

Page 33: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

19

c a t e g o r i e s on t h e MIQ.

Non-Rock - F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y a l l o t h e r s t y l e s o f m u s i c t h a t a r e n o t Rock , s u c h a s m u s i c t h a t a p p e a r s on t h e " J a z z , " " D i s c o , " " C o u n t r y , " a n d " S o u l " c h a r t s o f B i l l b o a r d .A l s o m u s i c t h a t i s a i r e d on r a d i o s t a t i o n s f e a t u r i n g " A d u l t C o n t e m p o r a r y , " " C o n t e m p o r a r y C o u n t r y , " " M i d d l e o f t h e R o a d , " " P o p u l a r Rhythm and B l u e s / J a z z , " " B e a u t i f u l M u s i c , " an d " C o n t e m p o r a r y C h r i s t i a n " p r o g r a m f o r m a t s . Non-Rock i s o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y a s s u b j e c t s ' r a t e d p r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r " C o u n t r y , " " J a z z , " " D i s c o , " " C l a s s i c a l , " a n d " O t h e r " c a t e g o r i e s on t h e MIQ.

High I n v o l v e m e n t - F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y a g r o u p i n g o f s u b j e c t s t h a t s c o r e h i g h ( above t h e mean) on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e o f t h e MIQ.

Low I n v o l v e m e n t - A g r o u p i n g o f s u b j e c t s t h a t s c o r el o w e r (on o r b e l o w t h e mean) on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e o f t h e MIQ.

Assumpt i o n s

The d e s i g n o f t h i s s t u d y r e s t s on a s s u m p t i o n s drawn

f ro m p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h i n t h e f i e l d , a s r e v i e w e d i n

C h a p t e r 2. The m os t i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n s a r e :

1. A d o l e s c e n t m u s i c l i s t e n e r s h av e d i f f e r e n t and d i s t i n c t m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s .

2. A d o l e s c e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y q u i t e i n t e r e s t e d and k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t p o p u l a r m u s i c .

3. I n d i v i d u a l s t h a t have d i f f e r e n t m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e r m s o f c e r t a i n p s y c h o ­l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s .

H y p o t h e s e s

The p r e s e n t s t u d y was d e s i g n e d a s an e x p l o r a t o r y

s u r v e y t o t e s t a number o f g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s e s . The se

m u l t i p l e h y p o t h e s e s c a n a l l be s e e n t o c o m p r i s e a p a i r o f

Page 34: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

20

r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s : W i l l s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s , i n c o n j u n c ­

t i o n w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e o f s e x , d i f f e r e n t i a t e t o a s i g n i f i ­

c a n t d e g r e e b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s who p r e f e r h a r d r o c k m us ic

v e r s u s pop r o c k m u s i c ? W i l l t h e s e same v a r i a b l e s d i f f e r ­

e n t i a t e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s v/ho

a r e h i g h l y i n v o l v e d i n m u s i c l i s t e n i n g v e r s u s t h o s e who

a r e n o t s o h i g h l y i n v o l v e d ?

T h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d b e l o w a s a s e r i e s

o f n u l l h y p o t h e s e s :

1. T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o ft h e ma le h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p and t h ema le pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on any o f t h eT e n n e s s e e S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e s u b s c a l e s c h o s e n f o r e v a l u a t i o n .

2. T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e mal e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a n d t h e ma l e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p on any o f t h e TSCS s u b ­s c a l e s c h o s e n f o r e v a l u a t i o n .

3. T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e f e m a l e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p and t h e f e m a l e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on any of t h e TSCS s u b s c a l e s c h o s e n f o r e v a l u a t i o n .

4 . T h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o ft h e f e m a l e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a n d t h e f e m a l e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p on any o f t h e TSCS s u b s c a l e s c h o s e n f o r e v a l u a t i o n .

L i m i t a t i o n s

T h e r e a r e a number o f l i m i t a t i o n s t o j t h i s s t u d y w hi ch

m us t be k e p t i n mind when i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s an d

when a t t e m p t i n g t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e r e s u l t s t o o t h e r c o n t e x t s .

The mos t i m p o r t a n t a r e l i s t e d :

Page 35: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

21

1. The p r e s e n t s a m p l e r e p r e s e n t s o n l y w h i t e , s u b u r b a n a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t v o l u n t e e r e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s s u r v e y . Thus t h e s a m p l e i s n o t r a nd om , o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l t e e n a g e r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The f a c t t h a t t h e s e s u b j e c t s c h o s e t o be a p a r t of t h i s s t u d y may i n t r o d u c e b i a s o f an unknown n a t u r e .

2. The d a t a u s e d i s e x c l u s i v e l y s e l f r e p o r t i n f o r m a t i o n . C u s t om ar y c a u t i o n mus t be u s e d when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f i n d i n g s .

3 . The s u r v e y d o e s n o t f o l l o w r e s p o n d e n t s t o s e e i f p r e f e r e n c e s o r l e v e l s o f i n v o l v e m e n t c h a n g e . The d u r a t i o n o f an a d o l e s c e n t ' s h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t i n m u s i c , f o r e x a m p l e , i s unknown. A l s o unknown i s t h e s t a b i l i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t a t e d p r e f e r e n c e .

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y

C o n s i d e r a b l e communi t y and a c a d e m i c i n t e r e s t h a s b een

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t s o f p o p u l a r m u s i c a s an

a g e n t o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n . I t h a s n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y demon­

s t r a t e d t h a t m u s i c p e r s e i s a c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r i n t e r m s of

a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , o r p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s , b u t i n d i v i d u ­

a l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s h av e b e e n shown t o

v a r y on t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s . The m e c ha n i s ms by w h i c h m u s i c

r e f l e c t s a l i s t e n e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n n e e d f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n

g i v e n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s ' c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g i l l i c i t b e h a v i o r

c o n t r o l a n d p o t e n t i a l m i s u s e s o f m u s i c . A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r ­

m a t i o n i n t h i s a r e a may a l s o be o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e t o

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a nd t h e r a p e u t i c communi ty .

The p r e s e n t s t u d y i s e x p l o r a t o r y i n n a t u r e a nd c o n ­

c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s '

Page 36: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

22

s e l f - c o n c e p t s , m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s , and l e v e l o f i n v o l v e ­

ment w i t h m u s i c l i s t e n i n g . The l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t

d i m e n s i o n i s i n c l u d e d a s an i m p o r t a n t i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e

t h a t h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i b e r a l i s m (Fox an d W i l l i a m s ,

1 9 7 4 ) , and c o n f l i c t s a b o u t i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s

( R i dg eway , 1 9 7 6 ) . T h i s s t u d y w i l l u t i l i z e t h e T e n n e s s e e

S e l f Co n c e p t S c a l e , an i n s t r u m e n t by w h i c h an i n d i v i d u a l ' s

s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s h ave b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o be d i r e c t l y

r e l a t e d t o h i s o r h e r g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y a nd s t a t e o f

m e n t a l h e a l t h . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t w i l l i d e n t i f y " d e v i a n t "

i n d i v i d u a l s f rom a n o r m a t i v e s t a n d p o i n t . The t e s t e m pl o ys

a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e s e l f - s t a t e m e n t s r e f l e c t

a h e a l t h y s e l f - c o n c e p t a nd a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a d j u s t m e n t .

A d o l e s c e n t s s u f f e r i n g f rom a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s

u s u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s

o f a n x i e t y o r d e p r e s s i o n . A d o l e s c e n t s ' u s e o f r o c k and

p o p u l a r m u s i c may b e a r some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m u s i c ' s demon­

s t r a t e d a b i l i t y t o a l t e r an i n d i v i d u a l ' s e m o t i o n a l s t a t e .

T h i s s t u d y d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a d i r e c t t e s t o f s u c h a r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p . No c a s u a l c o n n e c t i o n s a r e d e s i g n e d b e t w e e n

t h e p r i n c i p l e v a r i a b l e s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b u t open e n d e d

q u e s t i o n s a r e a s k e d o f t h e s u b j e c t s r e g a r d i n g t h e p u r p o s e s

f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t o r l a c k o f i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c . An e v a l u ­

a t i o n o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s w i l l augment t h e f i n d i n g s , and

s e r v e a s t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s t o d i r e c t f u t u r e i n v e s t i g a ­

t i o n s .

Page 37: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

23

The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o d e t e r m i n e i f

a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n an a d o l e s c e n t ’s s t a t e o f

m e n t a l h e a l t h an d h i s o r h e r i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c . I f s i g ­

n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e f o u n d t o e x i s t , t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f c l a r i f y i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s c o u l d g e n ­

e r a t e f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . I f s i g n i f i c a n t r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n o t f o u n d t o e x i s t t h e n many o f t h e g e n ­

e r a l i z e d c r i t i c i s m s of r o c k and p o p u l a r m u s i c wo ul d seem

t o l o s e c r e d i t a b i l i t y .

A d o l e s c e n c e i s a t i m e of many d e v e l o p m e n t s i n

p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l a nd b i o l o g i c a l a r e a s , and i s

c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e human d e v e l o p ­

m e n t a l s p a n . I t h a s b e e n do cu me n t e d t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s s p e n d

a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f t i m e l i s t e n i n g t o r o c k an d p o p u l a r

m u s i c . T h i s s t u d y s e e k s t o i n v e s t i g a t e p o s s i b l e c o n n e c ­

t i o n s b e t w e e n t y p e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s a nd t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n

m u s i c , i n an a t t e m p t t o document t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n t i n ­

u ed i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g young p e o p l e an d t h e i r u s e o f

p o p u l a r m u s i c .

Page 38: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

CHAPTER I I

L i t e r a t u r e Review

P s y c h o l o g y o f Music

The p s y c h o l o g y of m u s i c h a s more r e c e n t l y b e e n

r e f e r r e d t o a s m u s i c p s y c h o l o g y and r e p r e s e n t s a

r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g i n t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d . T r a d i t i o n a l

doma i ns of s t u d y i n c l u d e m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s , p s y c h o ­

a c o u s t i c s , m e a s u r e m e n t a n d p r e d i c t i o n o f m u s i c a l a b i l i t y ,

f u n c t i o n a l m u s i c , m u s i c l e a r n i n g , t h e a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e

t o m u s i c , an d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f r h y t h m ,

me l ody and h ar mo ny . The a r e a s o f m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s ,

and a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c ( i n c l u d i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l

m e a s u r e s , mood r e s p o n s e s and e x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s ) h ave

d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e t o t h i s s t u d y . A h i s t o r i c a l a nd r e p r e s e n ­

t a t i v e r e v i e w o f t h e s e a r e a s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d . A s u p ­

p l e m e n t a r y r e v i e w o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s of m u s i c t h e r a p y w i l l

a l s o be i n c l u d e d t o a i d i n i n t e g r a t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h

l i t e r a t u r e .

Music P r e f e r e n c e s

R e s e a r c h on m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t have r e l e v a n c y t o

t h i s s t u d y c a n be b r o a d l y c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o two m a j o r

24

Page 39: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

d i m e n s i o n s . The f i r s t w o u l d i n c l u d e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c s and p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s t h a t c o m p r i s e i n d i v i d u a l

d e t e r m i n a n t s o f p r e f e r e n c e s . The s e c o n d c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e s

a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s . The u s e o f t h e t e r m

" p r e f e r e n c e " i n t h i s r e v i e w r e f e r s t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f one

m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o r s t y l e o v e r a n o t h e r . A d i s t i n c t i o n

b e t w e e n " m u s i c a l t a s t e , " u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be l o n g ­

t e r m c omm i t me n t s t o s t y l e s o f m u s i c , a nd m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s ,

o f t e n r e l a t e d t o s h o r t - t e r m c h o i c e s , h a s n o t b e e n made i n

t h i s r e v i e w . R o e c k l e ( 19 6 8) i n a summary o f w r i t i n g s on

m u s i c a l t a s t e h a s n o t e d t h a t v a r i o u s a u t h o r s h ave p r o v i d e d

e v i d e n c e t h a t m u s i c t a s t e s a r e n o t s t a t i c . P e o p l e v a r y i n

t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s f o r s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e i n w h i c h a c h o i c e

i s i n v o l v e d . P e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s f o r c e r t a i n s t y l e s o f

m u s i c a r e r o o t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l b i o l o g i c a l n e e d s , c u l t u r e s ,

t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e . F a r n s w o r t h ( 19 69 ) d e f i n e s m u s i c a l

t a s t e a s a p e r s o n ' s o v e r a l l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d c o l l e c t i v e mu­

s i c a l phenomena .

The e f f e c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y on m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s h a s

g e n e r a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t o v e r t h e y e a r s .

An e a r l y c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h i s a r e a i s t h e Music P r e f e r e n c e

T e s t o f P e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p e d by C a t t e l l a n d A n d e r s o n

( 1 9 5 3 ) . The t e s t was d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e p e r s o n a l i t y

t r a i t s by s u b j e c t s ' p r e f e r e n c e s t o 100 b r i e f m u s i c a l s e ­

l e c t i o n s . S t e e n b e r g ( 1 S 5 9 ) , i n a r e v i e w o f t h e t e s t , com­

m e n t e d t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a p p e a r e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n

Page 40: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

26

n o r m a l and a b n o r m a l s u b j e c t s a s w e l l a s d i f f e r e n t c a t e ­

g o r i e s o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y . The r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e t e s t

w i t h n o r m a l c o l l e g e - a g e s u b j e c t s was e x a m i n e d by Lang

( 1 9 6 8 ) . The s u b j e c t s wer e t e s t e d u n d e r d i f f e r i n g mood

c o n d i t i o n s o f r e l a x a t i o n o r a n x i e t y , and i t was c o n c l u d e d

t h a t t h e Music P r e f e r e n c e T e s t of P e r s o n a l i t y d oe s r e ­

l i a b l y m e a s u r e t h e m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s and more e n d u r i n g

a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y o f n o r ma l s u b j e c t s .

F i s h e r and F i s h e r ( 1951) s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f two

p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s , i n s e c u r i t y and i n t e r n a l a n x i e t y , on

p r e f e r e n c e s f o r " u n f a m i l i a r d r a m a t i c m u s i c . " The r e s u l t s

showed t h a t s u b j e c t s w i t h marked p e r s o n a l i n s e c u r i t y r e ­

s p o n d e d i n a f a v o r a b l e o r u n f a v o r a b l e way t o t h e m u s i c ,

w h i l e o t h e r s u b j e c t s made more m o d e r a t e p r e f e r e n c e s . The

a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t p e r s o n a l i n s e c u r i t i e s , a n x i e t i e s a nd

f e a r s may i n f l u e n c e a p e r s o n ' s r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c . In

a n o t h e r s t u d y w h i c h e x a m i n e d p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s , Hahn

( 19 5 4 ) c o m p ar e d p e r s o n a l i t y a s s e s s m e n t s o f s t u d e n t s a t a

u n i v e r s i t y c o u n s e l i n g c e n t e r w i t h t h e i r m u s i c a l p r e f e r ­

e n c e s . P e r s o n a l i t y was r e f l e c t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l m u s i c a l

c h o i c e s w h i c h a l s o d e p e n d e d on a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s a nd n e e d s

f o r s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e . A e s t h e t i c v a l u e s i n t u r n wer e d e ­

p e n d e n t upon c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g , and

t h e g e n e r a l a t t r a c t i o n o f m u s i c .

K e s t o n a nd P i n t o (1955) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p r e f e r e n c e s

o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n t e r m s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n

Page 41: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

27

p r e f e r e n c e , a s i n d i c a t e d by p r e f e r e n t i a l c h o i c e s o f

m u s i c a l e x c e r p t s , and e i g h t v a r i a b l e s : i n t r o v e r s i o n -

e x t r o v e r s i o n , m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y , a g e , e d u c a t i o n a l

l e v e l , s e x , f o r m a l m u s i c t r a i n i n g , m u s i c r e c o g n i t i o n

a b i l i t y a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . M u s i c a l t r a i n i n g , m u s i c r e c o g ­

n i t i o n and i n t r o v e r s i o n wer e r e l a t e d t o a p r e f e r e n c e f o r

c l a s s i c a l m u s i c . In a more r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , Payne

( 1 9 6 7 ) c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t d i f f e r e d on

s t a b i l i t y - n e u r o t i c s c o r e s on a p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r y would

d i f f e r on m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s . She h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t

p e o p l e w i t h s t a b l e t e m p e r a m e n t s wou l d more l i k e l y p r e f e r

c l a s s i c a l m u s i c . C l a s s i c a l m u s i c was c o n s i d e r e d t o be

m u s i c t h a t f o c u s e d on f o rm a s o p p o s e d t o " r o m a n t i c m u s i c "

t h a t f o c u s e d on f e e l i n g . The s u b j e c t s we r e b o t h a d u l t s

a n d c o l l e g e - a g e i n d i v i d u a l s . Her r e s u l t s l e n d some s u p p o r t

t o h e r h y p o t h e s i s , b u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p r e p o r t e d i s n o t

s t r o n g .

I n g l e f i e l d (Not e l ) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s and c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r w i t h m u s i c a l

p r e f e r e n c e s . U s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s , u n d e r d i f f e r e n t

s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s i t u a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h e Asch ( 19 56 ) c o n ­

f o r m i t y e x p e r i m e n t s , he f o u n d t h a t n i n t h g r a d e r s showed a

t e n d e n c y t o a l t e r e x p r e s s e d p r e f e r e n c e s t o c o n f o r m t o

a c k n o w l e d g e d p e e r l e a d e r s . Th os e s u b j e c t s who wer e more

o u t e r d i r e c t e d t h a n i n n e r d i r e c t e d , more i n n e e d o f s o c i a l

a p p r o v a l , and more d e p e n d e n t t h a n i n d e p e n d e n t , a s i d e n t i f i e d

Page 42: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

28

by p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s , t e n d e d t o be t h e g r e a t e r c o n f o r m e r s .

B u t l e r ( 196 8) a l s o f o c u s e d on p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s i n

a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e c e p t i v i t y f o r e l e c t r o n i c m u s i c . P e r ­

s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s wer e m e a s u r e d u s i n g t h e C a t t e l l

16 F a c t o r P e r s o n a l i t y T e s t . The r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d s i g n i f i ­

c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e r a d i c a l i s m and

u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y s u b s c a l e s o f t h e t e s t and B u t l e r ' s

m e a s u r e of r e c e p t i v i t y f o r e l e c t r o n i c m u s i c .

The s e x of t h e s u b j e c t i s an e a s i l y r e c o r d e d p e r s o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t i s o f t e n i n c l u d e d i n s t u d i e s o f m u s i c

p r e f e r e n c e s . S t u d i e s s e l d o m have f o c u s e d on s e x a s t h e

p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Most s t u d i e s ( B i r c h ,

1963; Baumann, 1960; A p p l e t o n , 1970; S k i p p e r , 1975) show

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f ma l e

a n d f e m a l e s u b j e c t s f o r a v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s of m u s i c .

T h e s e s t u d i e s have s a m p l e d s t u d e n t s i n t h e ag e r a n g e f ro m

h i g h s c h o o l t o c o l l e g e . The l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t m a l e s

i n t h i s age r a n g e p r e f e r j a z z o r r o c k more t h a n f e m a l e s ,

and f e m a l e s p r e f e r c l a s s i c a l m u s i c more t h a n m a l e s .

S o c i a l c l a s s f a c t o r s h ave a l s o b e e n i n c l u d e d i n

s t u d i e s o f m us ic p r e f e r e n c e s . S c h u e s s l e r ( 1948 ) c o n t e n d s

t h a t s o c i o e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d i n t e r a c t s w i t h o t h e r v a r i ­

a b l e s s u c h a s m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g o r b e i n g e x p o s e d t o c e r t a i n

f o r m s o f m u s i c t o p r o d u c e d i f f e r e n c e s i n m u s i c a l t a s t e .

Bauman ( 19 6 0) i n v e s t i g a t e d s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s a s a d e t e r ­

m i n a n t o f t e e n a g e m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e 1950's.

Page 43: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Hi s r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s f ro m h i g h s o c i o ­

e c o n o m i c g r o u p s p r e f e r c l a s s i c a l m u s i c more t h a n s t u d e n t s

f ro m l o w e r s o c i o e c o n o m i c g r o u p s . A r e c e n t s u r v e y ( F r i t h ,

1981) e x a m i n e d m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f 105 f o u r t e e n t o

e i g h t e e n - y e a r - o l d s i n E n g l a n d . T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n d i s ­

c o v e r e d t h a t r o c k m u s i c l i s t e n i n g was common t o a l l young

p e o p l e s t u d i e d . The a u t h o r i d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s

o f m u s i c u s e an d t a s t e w i t h i n t h e c u s t o m a r y t e e n a g e f r a m e ­

wo rk . C l a s s , a c a d e m i c and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s wer e i n ­

t e r w o v e n w i t h s e x a n d age d i f f e r e n c e s . G i r l s t e n d e d t o be

more i n t e r e s t e d i n d a n c i n g a nd we r e more c o n c e r n e d w i t h

l y r i c s , e s p e c i a l l y r o m a n t i c l y r i c s . Male c o n s u m e r s t e n d

t o i d e n t i f y w i t h r o c k p e r f o r m e r s . T h i s i d e n t i t y i s

e x p r e s s e d i n s e x u a l t e r m s a n d i s r e l a t e d t o t h e m u s i c i a n ' s

d o m i n a n c e a n d p o w e r , c o n f i d e n c e and c o n t r o l . G r e e r , Dorow

a nd R a n d a l l ( 1 9 7 4 ) f o u n d a g r o w i n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r r o c k

m u s i c o v e r n o n r o c k m u s i c w i t h s u c c e s s i v e g r a d e l e v e l s i n

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . S k i p p e r ( 197 5) c o mp a r e d A me r i c a n and

C a n a d i a n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t , w i t h C a n a d i a n

s t u d e n t s , l i t t l e c l a s s e f f e c t was o b s e r v e d on m u s i c

p r e f e r e n c e s . D e f i n i t e c l a s s e f f e c t s wer e a p p a r e n t among

t h e A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s . C l a s s i c a l a n d f o l k , s t y l e s wer e

f a v o r e d by s t u d e n t s f ro m u p p e r - c l a s s b a c k g r o u n d s , and

h a r d r o c k a n d r h y t h m a nd b l u e s f a v o r e d by l o w e r s o c i o ­

e c o n o m i c s t u d e n t s .

Page 44: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

30

S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h ave f o c u s e d on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s a nd m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s .

Mashk i n and Volgy ( 1975 ) f o c u s e d on p o l i t i c a l a l i e n a t i o n ,

s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n , and f e m a l e s e x s t e r e o t y p i n g f a c t o r s

a f f e c t i n g p r e f e r e n c e s f o r r o c k , f o l k and c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n

m u s i c . The a u t h o r s n o t e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s on

p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d s e x s t e r e o t y p i n g w i t h r e s p e c t

t o m u s i c t a s t e . F o l k m u s i c l i s t e n e r s wer e mos t l i k e l y

t o r e j e c t t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - r o l e s , c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n l i s t e n ­

e r s wer e l e a s t i n c l i n e d t o r e j e c t t r a d i t i o n a l s e x r o l e s ,

a n d r o c k l i s t e n e r s wer e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n

g r o u p . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n h e l d f o r p o l i t i c a l a l i e n a t i o n .

F o l k l i s t e n e r s we r e mos t a l i e n a t e d , c o u n t r y / w e s t e r n l i s t e n ­

e r s t h e l e a s t , and r o c k l i s t e n e r s wer e c l o s e t o t h e f o l k

g r o u p i n t h i s g a s e . Fox and W i l l i a m s ( 1 97 4) a l s o s t u d i e d

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d m u s i c a l

t a s t e . T h e s e a u t h o r s u t i l i z e d a m u s i c i n v o l v e m e n t m e a s u r e

t h a t was c o m p r i s e d o f r o c k c o n c e r t a t t e n d a n c e and r e c o r d

p u r c h a s e s . T h e i r r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t a weak r e l a t i o n s h i p

e x i s t s b e t w e e n m u s i c i n v o l v e m e n t and p r e f e r e n c e s f o r

d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s o f m u s i c . C o n s e r v a t i v e s t u d e n t s showed

a g r e a t e r p r e f e r e n c e f o r c u r r e n t p o p u l a r h i t s , w h i l e

l i b e r a l s t e n d e d t o p r e f e r f o l k m u s i c . L i b e r a l s t u d e n t s

a l s o t e n d e d t o be more i n v o l v e d w i t h m u s i c t h a n c o n s e r v a ­

t i v e s t u d e n t s . I t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e c a u s e -

e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s i n t h e s e s t u d i e s have

Page 45: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

n o t b e e n e x p l o r e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c f a s h i o n . The l a c k o f

l o n g i t u d i n a l a n a l y s i s i n t h e s e s t u d i e s p r o h i b i t s f i r m c o n ­

c l u s i o n s , b u t M as hk in and Volgy ( 1 97 5 ) s t a t e , "on t h e

b a s i s o f o u r d a t a , we do s u s p e c t t h a t p r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e

t o t h e l y r i c a l c o n t e n t o f m u s i c h a s some d e f i n i t e r e i n ­

f o r c i n g , o r a c q u i s i t i v e c o n s e q u e n s e . Assuming t h e r e j e c ­

t i o n o f many o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a g e n t s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n

on t h e p a r t o f many c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , we w ou l d a r g u e t h a t

e v e n t h e r e i n f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n o f m u s i c s h o u l d be h i g h l y

s a l i e n t f o r s t u d e n t s ' g r o w t h an d d e v e l o p m e n t " (p . 4 5 8 ) .

T h i s s t a t e m e n t a nd s u b s e q u e n t f o c u s o f t h e l a s t s t u d i e s

r e v i e w e d m e r g e s w i t h t h e s e c o n d b r o a d c a t e g o r y o f m u s i c a l

p r e f e r e n c e s s t u d i e s , r e f e r r e d t o a s s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s .

T h e s e s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n p e r s o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may a f f e c t t a s t e .

Toohey ( 19 82 ) a l o n g w i t h Fox and W i l l i a m s ( 19 7 4)

a n d Mash kin and Volgy ( 19 75) i s c o n c e r n e d with s o c i a l

c o n d i t i o n i n g v i a m as s m e d i a . He h a s e x p l o r e d t h e c o n c e p t s

t h a t u n i v e r s i t y a n d h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s h ave c o n c e r n i n g

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o p u l a r m u s i c i n s h a p i n g s o c i a l v a l u e s .

One h u n d r e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s an d one h u n d r e d h i g h s c h o o l

s t u d e n t s r e s p o n d e d t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e

t h e s e c o n c e p t s a nd t o a s s e s s t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f p o p u l a r

l y r i c s . The a u t h o r c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a d o l e s c e n c e

a s a d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e f rom t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f

E r i c E r i k s o n . He a s s e r t s t h a t l y r i c s i n pop m u s i c c o u l d

Page 46: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

c o n t r i b u t e t o p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t . The m a j o r i t y o f

t h e u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e d t h a t m u s i c l y r i c s h av e a

s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on s h a p i n g v a l u e s . Of t h e one

h u n d r e d h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , o n l y 18% f e l t t h a t m u s i c

l y r i c s h av e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on s h a p i n g s o c i a l

v a l u e s , a nd 52% f e l t t h a t p o p u l a r m u s i c d i d p r o d u c e a

m i n o r i n f l u e n c e on v a l u e s . T h i s i s an i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d ­

i n g s i n c e t h i s a g e g r o u p r e p r e s e n t s a p r i m a r y m a r k e t f o r

p o p u l a r m u s i c . T o o h e y ' s c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s

o f p o p u l a r m u s i c a n d l y r i c s a nd t h e " r e l a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s

b e t w e e n u s e an d i n f l u e n c e o f p o p u l a r m u s i c on p e r s o n a l i t y

d e v e l o p m e n t an d s o c i a l v a l u e s " i s d e s e r v i n g o f f u t u r e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . F u t u r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e n e e d e d a s s c a n t

e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o c o n f i r m t h i s w i d e s p r e a d

n o t i o n .

S k i p p e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) , i n an a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s t u d y , f o c u s e d

on m a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

on t h e m u s i c a l t a s t e s o f C a n a d i a n u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .

H i s r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t b o t h A m er i c a n and C a n a d i a n s t u ­

d e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d a d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f m u s i c a l t a s t e s ,

a nd t h e m as s med i a i s n o t p r o d u c i n g a s t a n d a r d i z e d mass

t a s t e , a l t h o u g h a c l e a r a n d i n c r e a s i n g p r e f e r e n c e w i t h

g r a d e l e v e l h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r r o c k m u s i c i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s ( G r e e r , Dorow and R a n d a l l , 1974; G r e e r ,

Dorow an d H a n s e r , 1973; G r e e r e t a l . , 1 9 7 3 ) .

Page 47: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

T e a c h e r a p p r o v a l h a s b e e n f o u n d t o i n f l u e n c e c h i l ­

d r e n ' s p r e f e r e n c e s ( G r e e r , Dorow a nd H a n s e r , 1 9 7 3 ) .

C h i l d r e n c h a n g e d t o a p o s t - t e s t p r e f e r e n c e f o r s y mpho ni c

m u s i c . In a s i m i l a r s t u d y , P a n t l e ' s ( 19 77 ) r e s u l t s d i d

n o t p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t h a t t e a c h e r i n f l u e n c e e f f e c t e d p r e f ­

e r e n c e s f o r c l a s s i c a l m u s i c . A l p e r t ' s ( 1980 ) d a t a r e ­

v e a l e d t h a t " r e s p e c t e d a d u l t s , " b o t h t e a c h e r s a nd d i s c

j o c k e y s , t h a t wer e i n h i g h a p p r o v a l r o l e s had g r e a t e r

i n f l u e n c e on c l a s s i c a l m u s i c a l a t t i t u d e s of f i f t h g r a d e

s t u d e n t s t h a n d i d p e e r s p l a y i n g s i m i l a r r o l e s . P e e r i n ­

f l u e n c e h a s b e e n b e l i e v e d t o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n

m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s among a d o l e s c e n t s . J o h n s t o n e and Ka t z

( 1 9 5 7 ) f o u n d t h a t t e e n a g e g i r l s ' m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s were

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r p e e r s . H i g h l y p o p u l a r g i r l s c o n f o r m e d

more c l o s e l y t o n e i g h b o r h o o d norms r e g a r d i n g p a r t i c u l a r

s o n g s . In h i g h e r s o c i o e c o n o m i c n e i g h b o r h o o d s t h e g i r l s

who d a t e d f r e q u e n t l y p r e f e r r e d s o n g s s u g g e s t i n g t h e " b l u e s

an d d e p r i v a t i o n . G i r l s who d a t e d i n f r e q u e n t l y p r e f e r r e d

s o n g s s u g g e s t i n g happy o r " i n d u l g e n t " l o v e . P e r a ( 1965)

n o t e d t h a t p e e r g r o u p i n f l u e n c e a p p e a r e d t o d e c l i n e w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g a g e . P e e r g r o u p i n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t of

c l a s s l e a d e r s , was mos t n o t a b l e a t t h e s e v e n t h g r a d e l e v e l

a n d l e s s s o a t t h e e l e v e n t h g r a d e l e v e l . A sympos ium on

new p a t t e r n s o f m u s i c a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e y ou ng g e n e r a t i o n

s o u g h t t o e x a m i n e t h e phenomenon o f " po p m u s i c " a nd i t s

s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ( B o n t i n c h , 1 9 7 2 ) . T h e se

Page 48: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

34

sympos ium p a p e r s r e f l e c t e d i n f o r m a l s u r v e y s , p e r s o n a l

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t

p o p u l a r m u s i c i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r y o u t h

s u b c u l t u r e i n mos t n a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d . The e x t e n t t o

w h i c h t h e s e s u b c u l t u r e s i n f l u e n c e m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f

y o u t h i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e s o c i e t i e s i s u n c l e a r , b u t t h e

a u t h o r s s u s p e c t t h a t s u c h i n f l u e n c e s a r e g r e a t .

The i n f l u e n c e of d i s c j o c k e y s on t h e l i s t e n i n g b e ­

h a v i o r o f a d o l e s c e n t s h a s b een t h o u g h t t o be s u b s t a n t i a l .

B o ok e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) s a m p l e d a l m o s t 1 , 0 0 0 t e e n a g e r s , and 90% r e ­

v e a l e d a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d d i s c j o c k e y s . The

a u t h o r a l s o f o u n d t h a t t h e 75 m u s i c t e a c h e r s he s u r v e y e d

r e g a r d e d d i s c j o c k e y s a s a b ad i n f l u e n c e on s t u d e n t s .

T a n n e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) s t u d i e d c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s who r e v e a l e d t h a t

d i s c j o c k e y a p p r o v a l o f m u s i c p o s i t i v e l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r

m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s .

A f f e c t i v e R e s p o n s e t o Music

W i t h i n t h i s l a r g e c a t e g o r y o f r e s e a r c h e x i s t s a v a s t

number o f s t u d i e s i n w h i c h t h e e f f e c t s o f m u s i c have b e e n

i n v e s t i g a t e d . A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e v i e w w i l l be p r e s e n t e d

u n d e r t h r e e g e n e r a l h e a d i n g s : A) P h y s i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s ,

B) Mood r e s p o n s e s , a n d C) E x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s .

A. P h y s i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s

Many o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o m u s i c s e l e c ­

t i o n s w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a nd 1 9 6 0 ' s by

Page 49: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

m u s i c t h e r a p i s t s w o r k i n g t o s e c u r e a s c i e n t i f i c - r e s e a r c h

b a s i s f o r t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n . G a s t o n ( 195 1) p r o v i d e d a

f r a me wo r k f o r o r g a n i z i n g s u c h s t u d i e s by h i s d e f i n i t i o n s

o f s t i m u l a t i v e a nd s e d a t i v e m u s i c . S t i m u l a t i v e mu s i c

e m p h a s i z e s r h y t h m r a t h e r t h a n me l od y o r har mony . T h i s

m u s i c i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o u d s t a c c a t o p a s s a g e s w i t h wide

p i t c h r a n g e s and u n p r e d i c t a b l e c h a n g e s . S e d a t i v e mu s i c

e m p h a s i z e s melody a n d harmony more t h a n r h y t h m . T h i s

m u s i c i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s o f t , l e g a t o p a s s a g e s w i t h n a r ­

row p i t c h r a n g e s an d p r e d i c t a b l e c h a n g e s ( Ho dges , 1 9 8 0 ) .

A p o p u l a r n o t i o n , a n d o f t e n t e s t e d h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t

s t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c w i l l i n c r e a s e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s

and s e d a t i v e mu s i c w i l l d e c r e a s e s u c h r e s p o n s e s . T h i s

h y p o t h e s i s c a n n o t be u n a n i m o u s l y a c c e p t e d .

C o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t s have f o c u s e d on h e a r t a n d p u l s e

r a t e s , b l o o d p r e s s u r e , r e s p i r a t i o n , s k i n r e s p o n s e s , and

m u s c u l a r r e s p o n s e s . T h e s e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s w i l l be

r e v i e w e d s e q u e n t i a l l y r e l y i n g h e a v i l y on Radocy an d B o y l e ' s

( 1 9 7 9 ) , D a n i o w ' s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , a nd Ho d g e s ' ( 19 8 0) r e c e n t r e v i e w s

an d s y n t h e s e s .

S t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e h e a r t r a t e and

s e d a t i v e m u s i c t e n d s t o d e c r e a s e h e a r t r a t e (Col eman, 1920;

H i n c k e , 1970; L a n d r e t h and L a n d r e t h , 1 9 7 4 ) . S t i m u l a t i v e

and s e d a t i v e m us ic w i l l c a u s e c h a n g e s i n h e a r t an d p u l s e

r a t e , b u t t h e c h a n g e s a r e n o t p r e d i c t a b l e ( B i e r b a u m , 1958;

S e a r s , M. , 1 9 5 4 ) . Any t y p e o f m u s i c w i l l show a t e n d e n c y

Page 50: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

t o i n c r e a s e h e a r t a n d p u l s e r a t e ( B i n e t and C o u r t i e r ,

1895; S h a t i n , 1957; E l l i s and B r i g h o u s e , 1 9 5 2 ) . O t h e r

s t u d i e s ( B a r g e r , 1979; C o u t t s , 1965; Zimny an d Weiden-

f e l l e r , 1963) h av e r e v e a l e d t h a t m u s i c had no e f f e c t on

h e a r t o r p u l s e r a t e . T h e se c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n c l u s i o n s a r e

t y p i c a l i n t h e s e a r e a s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

B l o o d p r e s s u r e h a s b een f o u n d t o v a r y i n m u s i c l i s t e n

i n g s i t u a t i o n s ( D o g i e l , 1880; F o s t e r and Gamble, 1906;

Wascho, 1 9 4 8 ) . One s t u d y ( T r e n e s , 1973) h a s p r o v i d e d d a t a

t o t h e c o n t r a r y . I t i s a p p a r e n t l y unknown w h e t h e r s t i m u ­

l a t i v e o r s e d a t i v e m u s i c p r o d u c e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

c h a n g e s ( Ho dg es , 1 9 8 0 ) .

Music t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be p e r s o n a l l y e n j o y a b l e

t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e r e s p i r a t i o n (de J o n g e t a l . , 1973; P o o l e

G o e t y i n g e r , an d R o u s e y , 1966; R i e s , 1 9 6 9 ) . Any f o rm o f

m u s i c t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e r e s p i r a t i o n ( B i n e t an d C o u r t i e r ,

1895; D o g i e l , 1 8 8 0 ) . S e d a t i v e m u s i c a p p e a r s t o d e c r e a s e

r e s p i r a t i o n a n d s t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e r e s p i ­

r a t i o n ( E l l i s and B r i g h o u s e , 1952; F o s t e r a nd Gamble, 1906

J o h n s o n , 1964; W i l s o n and A i k e n , 1 9 7 7 ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e s (GSR)

wer e r e p o r t e d i n a number o f s t u d i e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v e r b a l r e p o r t s o f p r e f e r e n c e an d GSR

r e a d i n g s was d o c u m e n t e d by de J o n g e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) , and

P e r e t t i a nd Swenson ( 1 9 7 4 ) . R i e s ( 19 69 ) r e p o r t e d t h e

o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n . S t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c h a s p r o d u c e d

Page 51: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

37

g r e a t e r GSR d e f l e c t i o n s t h a n s e d a t i v e m u s i c ( M i c h e l , 1952;

S h r i f t , 1 9 5 5 ) , an d GSR r e a d i n g s h av e d e c r e a s e d d u r i n g

s t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c (Zimny an d W e i d e n f e l l e r , 1 9 6 3 ) .

V a r i o u s s t u d i e s ha ve i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n m u s c u l a r r e s p o n s e s an d m u s i c l i s t e n i n g . S t i m u l a ­

t i v e m u s i c h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d ( e l e c t r o m y o g r a p h y , EMG)

t o i n c r e a s e m u s c u l a r a c t i v i t y ( S e a r s , W., 1952, 1 9 6 0 ) .

L o r d ( 19 6 8) r e p o r t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n m u s c u l a r

a c t i v i t y d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i v e o r s e d a t i v e m u s i c l i s t e n i n g

c o n d i t i o n s . S p e c i f i c e m o t i o n s c a u s e d by l i s t e n i n g t o music

p r o d u c e d i s t i n c t , d i f f e r e n t i a l m u s c l e movements i n t h e

f i n g e r t i p s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e s u l t s o f a s t u d y by C l y n e s

( 1 9 7 8 ) . I n a somewhat s i m i l a r t y p e o f s t u d y , moder n p o p ­

u l a r m u s i c t h a t w o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d a s " h a r d r o c k " showed

a w e a k e n i n g of m u s c l e g r o u p s an d t h e t hymus (Diamond,

1 9 7 9 ) . T h i s i s a n o v e r a l l e f f e c t t h a t t h e a u t h o r c a l l s

" body r e v e r s a l . " Diamond t e s t s f o r t h i s r e v e r s a l by a

d e l t o i d m u s c l e t e s t w h i c h a m o u n t s t o e x e r t i n g s u d d e n down­

war d p r e s s u r e on a s u b j e c t ' s w r i s t when t h e arm i s e x t e n d e d

f r o m t h e s h o u l d e r . Under n e u t r a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r mos t s u b ­

j e c t s , t h e s h o u l d e r m u s c l e w i l l t e s t s t r o n g when t h e s u b ­

j e c t i s a s k e d t o r e p e a t p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , and weak f o r

n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . The same s u b j e c t s a f t e r e x p o s e d t o a

few m i n u t e s o f h a r d r o c k m u s i c showed a " r e v e r s a l . " T h e i r

m u s c l e s t e s t e d weak f o r p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a nd s t r o n g f o r

n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s .

Page 52: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

He b e l i e v e s t h a t one o f t h e m a j o r c a u s e s i s wha t he

r e f e r s t o a s a " s t o p p e d a n a p e s t i c b e a t . " T h i s r h y t h m i s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h a r d r o c k m u s i c , an d t h o u g h t t o be c o u n ­

t e r t o t h e b o d y ' s n o r m a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l r h y t h m . O t h e r f a c ­

t o r s , mo s t n o t a b l y h i g h d e c i b e l l e v e l s , c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s

" b o d y r e v e r s a l . " Neh er ( 1 9 6 2 ) , an a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , h a s e x ­

p l o r e d u n u s u a l b e h a v i o r i n c e r e m o n i e s i n v o l v i n g d r ums . He

d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g t h a t r h y t h m i c drum­

ming c a n p r o d u c e m u s c l e t w i t c h i n g and u n u s u a l p e r c e p t u a l

r e p o r t s . R e v i e w i n g a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e p o r t s he c o n t e n d s

t h a t drum r h y t h m s o f a b o u t 8 t o 13 c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d i n

v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , i f n o t t h e c a u s e o f ,

u n u s u a l b e h a v i o r . Music h a s b e e n shown t o be e f f e c t i v e i n

r a i s i n g t h e p a i n t h r e s h o l d ( J a c o b s e n , 1956; M e l z a c h , Weisz

a nd S p r a g u e , 1963) a n d i n e f f e c t i v e i n r a i s i n g t h e p a i n

t h r e s h o l d ( L a n c a s t e r , 1 9 5 6 ) . Music h a s a l s o b e e n shown t o

c a u s e more p i l o m o t o r o r " g o o s e f l e s h " r e s p o n s e s i n p s y c h o t i c

p a t i e n t s t h a n i n n o r m a l s u b j e c t s ( G ra y , 1 9 5 5 ) .

I t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d t h a t l i s t e n i n g t o

m u s i c d o e s a l t e r a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s .

I t i s n o t c l e a r wha t t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s i n f l u e n c e i s .

Daniow ( 1 9 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h t o d a t e

h a s p r o v i d e d l i m i t e d i n s i g h t i n t o t h e a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o

m u s i c b e c a u s e o f m u l t i p l e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . P a r t i c ­

u l a r c o n c e r n s w h i c h he n o t e s a r e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o s u b j e c t s ,

l o u d n e s s o f m u s i c a l s t i m u l i , s u p p r e s s i o n o f r e s p o n s e due t o

Page 53: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

39

f e a r o f d i s t u r b i n g e l e c t r o d e s , m e a s u r e s o f t h e p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e , a n d d i v e r s i t y o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s .

Hodges ( 1 98 0) a d d s t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f s t i m u l a t i v e and

s e d a t i v e m u s i c may be t o o g e n e r a l and n o t a l l o w f o r c l e a r

d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s o f m u s i c . The p r e s e n t

s t a t e o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o h i b i t s m ak ing any p r e ­

d i c t i o n s o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o

m u s i c a l s t i m u l i .

B. Mood r e s p o n s e s

An o v e r v i e w o f t h e m a j o r t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s w i t h

r e g a r d t o e m o t i o n a n d m u s i c w i l l a i d a s a p r e f a c e t o t h i s

s e c t i o n . Two p r i m a r y p o s i t i o n s e x i s t c o n c e r n i n g t h e a s s o ­

c i a t i o n o f m e a n i n g w i t h m u s i c . The v iew t h a t m e a n i n g i n

m u s i c i s r e l a t e d t o i t s s t r u c t u r e i s a f o r m a l i s t i c ( R e i me r ,

1970) o r i s o l a t i o n i s t ( S c h w ad r on , 1967) p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g

m u s i c a l a e s t h e t i c s . A l l a r t h a s p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h a r e a b l e

t o a r o u s e p e o p l e . The " c o l l a t i v e " v a r i a b l e s o f n o v e l t y ,

s u r p r i s e , c o m p l e x i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y r e l a t e d t o f o rm and

s t r u c t u r e i n f l u e n c e t h e r e s p o n s e o f one who l i s t e n s t o

m u s i c . In c o n t r a s t t o an i s o l a t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n i s a r e f e r ­

e n t i a l or c o n t e x t u a l a e s t h e t i c p o s i t i o n : Music i s m e a n i n g ­

l e s s e x c e p t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t c o m m u n i c a t e s e x t r a m u s i c a l

m e s s a g e s . Hamm, N e t t l e and B y r n s i d e ( 1 97 5) t i e m u s i c t o

s o c i e t y an d c u l t u r e an d a l l o w f o r i n d i v i d u a l u t i l i t y and

p e r s o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . A s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n h a s b e e n

Page 54: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

40

made b e t w e e n a f o r m a l i s t v e r s u s e x p r e s s i o n i s t a e s t h e t i c

t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n ( Hodg es , 1 9 8 0 ) . The f o r m a l i s t s s e e

m e a n i n g i n m u s i c a s p r i m a r i l y i n t e l l e c t u a l , a n d t h e e x ­

p r e s s i o n i s t s a r g u e t h a t m e a n i n g i n m u s i c i s p r i m a r i l y

e m o t i o n a l .

One o f t h e m os t i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r i e s o v e r t h e l a s t

t w e n t y y e a r s c o m b i n e s b o t h d i c h o t o m i e s o f f o r m a l i s t an d

e x p r e s s i o n i s t . Meyer ( 1 9 5 6 , 1964) h a s a p p l i e d i n f o r m a t i o n

t h e o r y t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f e m o t i o n and m e a n i n g i n m u s i c .

Meyer s u g g e s t s t h a t i f a m u s i c a l u n i t i s s o w e l l - o r g a ­

n i z e d t h a t wha t f o l l o w s i s h i g h l y e x p e c t e d t h e n l i t t l e

v a l u e i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e m u s i c . As m u s i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s

become l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e t h e n more i n f o r m a t i o n i s c o n ­

t a i n e d i n t h e m u s i c a n d t h e m u s i c ' s v a l u e i n c r e a s e s .

M e y e r ' s t h e o r y o f e m o t i o n i s a t h e o r y o f e x p e c t a t i o n w h i c h

h a s c u l t u r a l an d s t y l i s t i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . He s t a t e s ,

" A f f e c t o r e m o t i o n f e l t i s a r o u s e d when an e x p e c t a t i o n , a

t e n d e n c y t o r e s p o n d , a c t i v a t e d by t h e m u s i c a l s t i m u l u s

s i t u a t i o n , i s t e m p o r a r i l y i n h i b i t e d o r p e r m a n e n t l y b l o c k e d "

(Meyer , 1956, p . 3 1 ) . H i s " e x p e c t a n c y t h e o r y " h a s g u i d e d

many e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h e r s i n s t u d i e s o f m e a n i n g an d emo­

t i o n i n m u s i c .

A s e c o n d m a j o r t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o

e m o t i o n a nd m u s i c i s d e r i v e d f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y .

P i n c h a s Noy ( 19 66 , 1967 A, B, C, D) h a s p r e s e n t e d a s e r i e s

o f a r t i c l e s i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y w h i c h d e s c r i b e

Page 55: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

41

t h e m e a n i n g i n m u s i c a s r e l a t e d t o p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y .

P s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y i s c o m p l e x , and a d i s c u s s i o n o f s u c h

i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n . The t h e o r y s u g ­

g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m us ic an d e m o t i o n s d e ­

p e n d s on t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e of m u s i c an d the

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f m u s i c t h r o u g h ego f u n c t i o n s . Two

s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d among t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t ­

i c t h e o r i s t s w i t h r e g a r d t o e m o t i o n and m u s i c . " L i b i d o "

t h e o r i s t s s e e m u s i c a s an a c t i v i t y s t emmi ng f ro m i n s t i n c ­

t u a l e n e r g y , and " d r e a m " t h e o r i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f d e e p c o n t e n t s and u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h e s .

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s c o n d u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o s u p e r - e g o

demands . In t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h m u s i c i s c o n s i d ­

e r e d t o c o n v e y s y m b o l i c s e x u a l m e a n i n g .

A f i n a l t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n t h a t w i l l be p r e s e n t e d

c o n c e r n s n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a 1 e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o c e s s e s

i n w h i c h m u s i c c a n e v o k e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s i n l i s t e n e r s .

I t i s t h o u g h t t h a t e n j o y m e n t a nd d i s c o m f o r t o f m us ic may

be r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e b r a i n ' s l i m b i c s y s t e m .

R o e d e r e r ( 19 7 5) a s s e r t s t h a t t h e l i m b i c s y s t e m c a n r e a c t

t o n e u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g u n r e l a t e d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e

e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i n k i n g a b o u t m u s i c c a n c o n c e i v a b l y a r o u s e

r e w a r d and p u n i s h m e n t . The l i m b i c s y s t e m i n c l u d e s t h e

h y p o t h a l a m u s w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a " r e w a r d " c e n t e r

a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by e l e c t r i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n of a n i m a l b r a i n s .

The l i m b i c s y s t e m d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e

Page 56: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

42

- b r a i n ' s o t h e r p a r t s , an d a more d e t a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g

mus t a w a i t more g e n e r a l d a t a o f b r a i n f u n c t i o n i n g

( I s s a c s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) .

M u s i c i a n s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , an d laymen a g r e e t h a t

m u s i c c a n e v o ke mood r e s p o n s e s i n l i s t e n e r s . Mood r e ­

s p o n s e i n v o l v e s l e a r n i n g . D i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l g r o u p s l e a r n

t h a t m u s i c w i t h c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s e v o k e s p e c i f i c moods.

Moods i n t h i s l i n e o f i n q u i r y a r e d e s c r i b e d a s " r e l a t i v e l y

t r a n s i e n t s t a t e s , w h i c h c a n be c o g n i z e d by i n d i v i d u a l s

and d e s i g n a t e d w i t h w o r d s " ( E a g l e , 1 9 7 1 ) . E a g l e (1971)

n o t e s t h a t mood r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n s t u d i e d p r i m a r i l y i n

t e r m s o f v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f moods i n t h e f o rm o f a d ­

j e c t i v e c h e c k l i s t s , r a t i n g s c a l e s , a n d t h e s e m a n t i c d i f ­

f e r e n t i a l .

E a r l y s t u d i e s on mood e f f e c t s wer e c o n d u c t e d by

Schoen an d Gatewood ( 1 9 2 7 ) . D i f f e r e n t m u s i c a l s e l e c t i o n s

were u s e d w i t h 2 0 , 0 0 0 l i s t e n e r s t o o b t a i n d a t a w h i c h s u g ­

g e s t e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n mood c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o a

m u s i c a l s t i m u l u s . The s t u d i e s i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t s of

m e l o d y , t i m b r e , a n d harmony on mood e f f e c t s . W i t h o u t

s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t mood e f f e c t s

a r e d e p e n d e n t on d e f i n i t e m u s i c a l e l e m e n t s . H a v en e r ( 1935)

d e v e l o p e d an a d j e c t i v e c h e c k l i s t wh i c h s e r v e d a s t h e b a s i s

f o r much s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h on mood r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c .

She c o n d u c t e d a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s i n t h e t h i r t i e s t o a s c e r ­

t a i n t h e e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f m u s i c ( r h y t h m ,

Page 57: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

43

t e mp o , har mony , m e l ody and p i t c h ) on mood r e s p o n s e . She

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e m a j o r mode i s " h a p p y , g r a c e f u l , and

p l a y f u l " ; t h e m i n o r mode i s " s a d , d reamy, a nd s e n t i m e n t a l " ;

f i r m r h y t h m s a r e " v i g o r o u s an d d i g n i f i e d " ; d i s s o n a n t h a r ­

m o n i e s a r e " e x c i t i n g , a g i t a t i n g , v i g o r o u s a nd i n c l i n e d

t o w a r d s s a d n e s s . " She a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t r e s p o n s e s were

g e n e r a l l y t h e same f o r l i s t e n e r s of a l l t y p e s , i n t e l l i g e n t

a n d l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t , t r a i n e d and u n t r a i n e d . A f f e c t i v e

m e a n i n g s we r e mos t i n f l u e n c e d by t empo , t h e n m o d a l i t y ,

f o l l o w e d by p i t c h l e v e l .

S opchak ( 1 9 5 5 ) , u s i n g t h e a d j e c t i v e c h e c k l i s t m e t h o d ,

had 553 c o l l e g e s o p h o m o r e s r e s p o n d t o f i f t e e n c o m p o s i t i o n s ;

c l a s s i c a l , p o p u l a r , and f o l k s t y l e s b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d .

S u b j e c t s were a l s o a s k e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e i r moods on a

t h r e e - p o i n t s c a l e . I t was f o u n d t h a t a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e

o f gloomy s u b j e c t s r e s p o n d e d t o s o r r o w , j o y , c a l m , l o v e ,

e r o t i c i s m , j e a l o u s y , w on d e r , an d c r u e l t y . S op ch ak c o n ­

c l u d e d t h a t gloomy s u b j e c t s h ave many t e n s i o n s a n d t h u s

more r e a d i l y p r o j e c t i n t o t h e m u s i c , w h i l e c h e e r f u l s u b ­

j e c t s may h av e l e s s n e e d t o p r o j e c t i n t o t h e m u s i c .

W a l l a c h a n d G r e e n b e r g ( 19 60) d e v i a t e d f ro m t h e e s t a b ­

l i s h e d me t ho d o f d e p e n d i n g on o v e r t j u d g e m e n t s by t h e

l i s t e n e r . In a p r o j e c t i v e s t o r y t e l l i n g t a s k t h e s u b j e c t s '

r e s p o n s e s wer e a n a l y z e d w i t h i n a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c f r a m e w o r k .

F o u r g r o u p s wer e s e l e c t e d t o l i s t e n t o t h e m u s i c a l s e l e c ­

t i o n s an d w r i t e a f o u r m i n u t e s t o r y w h i c h t h e s e l e c t i o n s

Page 58: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

44

s u g g e s t e d t o them. Two h y p o t h e s e s wer e c o n f i r m e d by t h e

s t u d y : 1) T ho s e s u b j e c t s h i g h i n a d m i t t e d a n x i e t y l e v e l ,

d e s c r i b i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s s o c i a l l y i n t r o v e r t e d , d i s p l a y e d a

g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s y m b o l i c s e x u a l a r o u s a l t o m u s i c t h a n

t h o s e c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s s o c i a l l y e x t r o v e r t e d ; 2) Those

s u b j e c t s low i n a d m i t t e d a n x i e t y l e v e l , c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s

s o c i a l l y i n t r o v e r t e d , d i s p l a y e d a l e s s e r d e g r e e o f s y m b o l ­

i c s e x u a l a r o u s a l t o m u s i c t h a n t h o s e c o n s i d e r i n g t he m­

s e l v e s s o c i a l l y e x t r o v e r t e d . The s u b j e c t s w er e a l l f e m a l e

u n d e r g r a d u a t e s .

C r i c k m o r e ( 1 9 6 8 ) u s e d a p r o f i l e t e s t t o m e a s u r e a f f e c ­

t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o m u s i c . B r i t i s h c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s l i s t e n e d

t o s e l e c t i o n s t h a t i n c l u d e d p o p u l a r and " s e r i o u s m u s i c . "

The s e l e c t i o n s w er e r a t e d on a s e v e n - p o i n t s c a l e a c c o r d i n g

t o how much t h e y e n j o y e d e a c h s e l e c t i o n . The s u b j e c t s a l s o

i n d i c a t e d on o t h e r s c a l e s t h e i r i n t e r e s t , mood, t e n s e n e s s ,

d e s i r e t o t a l k , s a t i s f a c t i o n , and p r e s e n c e o f m e n t a l images .

C r i c k m o r e c o n t e n d e d p o s i t i v e a f f e c t t o w a r d s m u s i c was s u g ­

g e s t e d by a p a t t e r n o f h i g h l i k i n g , s u s t a i n e d i n t e r e s t , a

p o s i t i v e mood, r e l a x e d , a d e s i r e t o r e m a i n q u i e t , h i g h

s a t i s f a c t i o n , an d no m e n t a l i m a g e s .

The " i s o - m o o d i c " p r i n c i p l e e m p l oy e d i n m u s i c t h e r a p y

m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l i s t e n e r ' s mood c a n be i n f l u e n c e d most

e f f e c t i v e l y by f i r s t m a t c h i n g t h e m us ic t o t h e e x i s t i n g

mood, and t h e n c h a n g i n g t h e mood o f t h e m u s i c i n t h e d e ­

s i r e d d i r e c t i o n . ( A l t s h u l e r , 1 9 4 8 ) . E a g l e ( 19 71 ) u s e d

Page 59: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e i n a s t u d y wh ic h

s o u g h t t o a n s w e r t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : 1) Does e x i s t i n g

s t a t e d mood e f f e c t r a t e d r e s p o n s e s t o m u s i c ? 2) Does

p r e s e n t a t i o n o r d e r o f m u s i c e f f e c t r a t e d mood r e s p o n s e s ?

3) Do s i m i l a r l y r a t e d mood r e s p o n s e s h o l d t r u e f o r b o t h

v o c a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c ? S u b j e c t s wer e 274 u n d e r ­

g r a d u a t e a nd g r a d u a t e m u s i c m a j o r s . The m u s i c a l s e l e c ­

t i o n s i n c l u d e d r o c k , f o l k , c o u n t r y , hymns, j a z z , and

c l a s s i c a l s t y l e s . He f o u n d t h a t e x i s t i n g mood of t h e

l i s t e n e r d o e s i n f l u e n c e mood r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c , b u t n o t

o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . He a l s o f o u n d t h a t a p e r s o n r e ­

s p o n d s d i f f e r e n t l y t o v o c a l m u s i c t h a n t o i n s t r u m e n t a l

m u s i c , a l t h o u g h b o t h r e f l e c t t h e same mood q u a l i t i e s .

S h a t i n ( 1 9 7 0 ) e x a m i n e d t h e a b i l i t y o f m u s i c t o a l t e r t h e

mood o f " n o r m a l " s u b j e c t s . Hi s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was a l s o

b a s e d on t h e " i s o - p r i n c i p l e . " C o l l e g e a g e m a l e s r e p o r t e d

t h e i r m o o d / e m o t i o n s on f o u r v e r b a l s c a l e s . T h e i r r e ­

s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n v e r b a l r e ­

p o r t s o f mood / e m o t i o n o c c u r r e d on a l l f o u r s c a l e s .

Even t h o u g h a l a r g e amount o f r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n ­

d u c t e d on mood r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c , E a g l e ( 1 9 7 1 ) s t a t e s t h a t

t h e r e c o n t i n u e s t o be a " n e e d f o r many c a r e f u l l y d e s i g n e d

an d a n a l y z e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e f o r e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c a n be

made c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f mood an d m u s i c . "

A b e l e s ( 1 9 8 0 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h e e n t i r e a r e a o f a f f e c t i v e -

mood r e s p o n s e s t o m u s i c c a n b e n e f i t f rom new a s w e l l a s

Page 60: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

46

r e p l i c a t i v e work b e c a u s e o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t h a t have

t a k e n p l a c e a s a r e s u l t o f new m u s i c a l s o und s o u r c e s and

s t y l e s .

Though n o t d e a l i n g w i t h mood p e r s e , a s t u d y by

Ri dgeway ( 1 9 7 6 ) c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h a f f e c t i n t h e a r e a

o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . Music i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be

a s t r u c t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r " s y m b o l i c mo de l " o f s o c i a l

i n t e r a c t i o n . M u s i c a l s t y l e an d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ( t h e

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f ) h a s b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y e xa m i n e d by Lomax

( 1 9 6 8 ) , and t h e r e s u l t s a r e s u p p o r t i v e . The s t y l e and

s t r u c t u r e o f f o l k s o n g s p r o d u c e d by a s o c i e t y a r e s e e n

a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s o f e v e r y d a y

i n t e r a c t i o n i n t h a t s o c i e t y . Adorno ( 19 7 3) h a s a l s o

a s s um ed a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i a l

a c t i o n and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f m u s i c . Ridgeway b o r r o w s f rom

M e y e r ' s ( 1 9 5 6 ) t h e o r y and s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s a n a l y s i s a l l o w s

a p r o p o s a l t h a t m u s i c m o d e l s n o t o n l y s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ,

b u t a l s o t h e a f f e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n . Ridgeway

was i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l of

a b s o r p t i o n ( h i g h o r low) o f m u s i c l i s t e n e r s , and t h e i r u s e

o f m u s i c a l l i s t e n i n g a s a n a i d i n d e a l i n g w i t h i n t e r p e r s o n ­

a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . The s u b j e c t s were c o l l e g e - a g e and wer e

c a t e g o r i z e d a s h i g h o r low m u s i c l i s t e n e r s by e m p l o y i n g

s e v e r a l m e a s u r e s . The s u b j e c t s r a t e d t h e l e v e l o f l i s t e n ­

i n g a b s o r p t i o n t h e y u s u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g u s u a l l i s t e n ­

i n g e x p e r i e n c e s . The s u b j e c t s wer e a l s o r a t e d on a

Page 61: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

47" TA T - t y p e " m e a s u r e of i n t e r p e r s o n a l a f f e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n .

Her r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t e x p o s u r e t o a n a f f e c t i v e i n t e r ­

a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n i n c r e a s e s h i g h m u s i c l i s t e n e r s ' a b s o r p ­

t i o n i n m u s i c , and h i g h a b s o r p t i o n m u s i c l i s t e n e r s a r e

l i k e l y t o d e s c r i b e mu s i c e f f e c t s i n t e r m s o f s y m b o l i c p a r ­

t i c i p a t i o n i n g r o u p p r o c e s s e s . Ridgeway s t a t e s , "Some

p e o p l e may t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s a s p e c t of m u s i c l i s t e n ­

i n g t o h e l p them manage t h e i r c o n f l i c t i n g p o s i t i v e and

n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r ­

a c t i o n w i t h i n a s o c i a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d an d a c c e p t a b l e p a t ­

t e r n o f b e h a v i o r " ( 19 7 6 , p. 4 2 6 ) .

C. E x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s

E x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e o t h e r

a p p r o a c h e s r e v i e w e d h a s a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h i s t o r y , a l ­

t h o u g h B e r l y n e ( 1 9 7 4 ) t r a c e s i t s r o o t s t o t h e work o f

F e c h n e r i n t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s . E x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s i s t h e

s t u d y o f a e s t h e t i c b e h a v i o r t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n u s i n g

m e t h o d s and o b j e c t i v e s s i m i l a r t o e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e . Re­

s e a r c h i n m u s i c u s i n g t h e t h e o r y and m e t h o d o l o g y o f e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d by J . B. C r o z i e r

( 1 9 7 4 ) . In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , McMullen a p p e a r s t o be t h e

c h i e f p r o p o n e n t . Two e x a m p l e s o f t h i s t y p e o f r e s e a r c h

a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1974 - C r o z i e r s o u g h t t o a n a l y z e l e v e l s o f u n ­c e r t a i n t y i n m e l o d i c s t r u c t u r e . De pe n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d v e r b a l r a t i n g s c a l e s i n f o u r c l a s s e s - d e s c r i p t i v e , e v a l u a t i v e ,

Page 62: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

48

i n t e r n a l - s t a t e and s t y l i s t i c . Two b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s - l i s t e n i n g t i m e an d e x p l o r a t o r y ( l i s t e n i n g ) c h o i c e . He f o u n d t h a t v a r i a t i o n s i n i n f o r m a t i o n ( l e v e l s o f u n c e r t a i n t y ) a f f e c t e d s u b ­j e c t s ' r a t i n g s o f " p l e a s i n g n e s s " and " i n t e r e s t i n g n e s s . " He a l s o r e p o r t e d a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n t e r p r e d i c t a b i l i t y b e t w e e n mean v e r b a l r a t i n g s a nd n o n­v e r b a l m e a s u r e s o f e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r . ( C r o z i e r , 1974)

1976 - McMul len a n d A r n o l d e x a m i n e d t h e e f f e c t so f d i s t r i b u t i o n a l r e d u n d a n c y on p r e f e r e n c e and i n t e r e s t r e s p o n s e f o r r h y t h m i c s e ­q u e n c e s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r e f e r e n c e t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e a s r e d u n d a n c y d e c r e a s e d t o a p o i n t a f t e r wh i c h p r e f e r e n c e b e g an t o d e c r e a s e . I n t e r e s t g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d a s r e d u n d a n c y d e c r e a s e d . (McMul len and A r n o l d , 1976)

Music T h e r a p y

Many o f t h e s t u d i e s t h u s f a r r e v i e w e d u n d e r t h e

s e c t i o n o f a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s wer e c o n d u c t e d w i t h t h e

i n t e r e s t s o f m u s i c t h e r a p y i n mind . The N a t i o n a l

A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Music T h e r a p y (NAMT) was f o u n d e d i n 1950,

a nd h a s a l w a y s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h h a v i n g a s t r o n g r e ­

s e a r c h b a s e .

The p r i n c i p l e s w h i ch u n d e r l i e t h e r a p e u t i c u s e s o f

m u s i c a r e :

" 1 . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

2. The b r i n g i n g a b o u t o f s e l f - e s t e e m t h r o u g h s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n .

3. The u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e u n i q u e p o t e n t i a l o f r h y t h m t o e n e r g i z e an d b r i n g o r d e r " ( G a s t o n , 1968, p . v ) .

Page 63: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

49

Music t h e r a p i s t s h a v e two s p e c i f i c u s e s o f m u s i c w i t h

w h i c h t o work:

1. The b a s i c power o f m u s i c t o s t i m u l a t e or s o o t h e a c t i v i t y .

2. M u s i c ' s t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a l v a l u e s a s a s o c i a l i z i n g a g e n t and a s a symbol o r v e h i c l e f o r e x p r e s s i n g p a t r i o t i s m , r e l i g i o n o r f r a t e r n i t y . ( M i c h e l , 1976 , pp. 1 1 - 1 3 )

Music t h e r a p i s t s f u n c t i o n i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s

w i t h m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d c h i l d r e n , p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d

c h i l d r e n , a d u l t s w i t h e m o t i o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l d i s o r d e r s ,

c h i l d r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s w i t h e m o t i o n a l a nd b e h a v i o r a l

d i s o r d e r s , an d g e r i a t r i c p a t i e n t s . Music i s u s e d a s a

medium t o h e l p i n f l u e n c e d e s i r a b l e b e h a v i o r a l and e m o t i o n ­

a l c h a n g e s i n i n d i v i d u a l s . The m u s i c t h e r a p i s t o f t e n

s e l e c t s m u s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h a r e b a s e d on t h e s t i m u ­

l a t i v e a n d s o c i a l i z i n g s t r e n g t h s o f m u s i c t o a s s i s t t h e

p a t i e n t become more a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d . At t h e same t i m e

t h e t h e r a p i s t i s w o r k i n g t o w a r d s m e e t i n g d e s i r a b l e b e ­

h a v i o r a l an d e m o t i o n a l g o a l s . Music t h e r a p i s t s a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h e i t h e r s t i m u l a t i n g o r s u p p r e s ­

s i n g a c t i v i t y . The t y p e o f m u s i c s e l e c t e d f o r i n f l u e n c i n g

t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r s u s u a l l y r e f l e c t s t h e d i f f e r e n t

s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t i m u l a t i v e o r s e d a t i v e

m u s i c t h a t h a ve b e e n d e s c r i b e d . The l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d

t o t h e s e e f f e c t s h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d , b u t a f ew a d d i t i o n a l

s t u d i e s a r e w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g .

Page 64: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

The e f f e c t o f m u s i c on a n x i e t y h a s b e e n o f c o n s i d e r ­

a b l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e f i e l d o f m u s i c t h e r a p y a n d m u s i c

p s y c h o l o g y . G r e e n b e r g a n d F i s h e r ( 1966) and F i s h e r and

G r e e n b e r g ( 19 72 ) h ave n o t e d t h a t s t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c p r o ­

d u c ed more a n x i e t y and a g g r e s s i o n t h a n c a l m m u s i c . S m i t h

and M o r r i s ( 19 70 ) c o n c e r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e e f f e c t s o f

s t i m u l a t i v e and s e d a t i v e m u s i c on t e s t a n x i e t y . T h e i r

r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s t i m u l a t i v e mu s i c s i g n i f i c a n t l y

i n c r e a s e d a n x i e t y a n d s e d a t i v e m u s i c d i d n o t , a l t h o u g h

t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e was n o t e f f e c t e d i n e i t h e r c o n d i t i o n .

J e l l i s o n ( 19 75 ) e x a m i n e d t h e e f f e c t s o f m u s i c ( p h y s i o l o g i ­

c a l an d v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s ) i n a s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g

c o l l e g e - a g e m a l e s . Hi s r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d no d i f f e r e n c e i n

p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s , b u t

t h e v e r b a l r e p o r t d a t a showed t h a t b o t h m u s i c g r o u p s

( s t i m u l a t i v e and s e d a t i v e ) d e m o n s t r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s

a n x i e t y t h a n a " w h i t e n o i s e " g r o u p . T h i s r e s u l t c o n t r a s t s

w i t h t h e o t h e r r e p o r t e d s t u d i e s i n t h a t t h e r e was no

d i f f e r e n c e i n r e p o r t e d a n x i e t y b e t w e e n s t i m u l a t i v e a nd

s e d a t i v e m u s i c c o n d i t i o n s .

I t i s a p p a r e n t f rom t h e s e v e r a l s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d

t h a t m u s i c c a n a f f e c t a n x i e t y . The d a t a a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h r e g a r d s t o wha t t y p e o f m u s i c w i l l p r o d u c e wha t

s p e c i f i c e f f e c t . S t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e

a n x i e t y a n d s e d a t i v e m u s i c t e n d s t o r e d u c e a n x i e t y , b u t

n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y . Haack ( 1 9 8 0 ) , i n a r e c e n t r e v i e w ,

Page 65: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

51

a s s e r t s t h a t m a j o r q u e s t i o n s i n t h i s a r e a a r e s t i l l

u n a n s w e r e d . The q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e

e f f e c t s on a n x i e t y and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of m u s i c i n t o

t h e c a t e g o r i e s of s t i m u l a t i v e and s e d a t i v e .

S e l f - C o n c e p t

The c o n c e p t o f s e l f h a s a l o n g and r i c h h i s t o r y i n

p s y c h o l o g y . Over t h e y e a r s i t h a s b een v a r i o u s l y d e f i n e d ,

a nd h a s become one o f t h e c e n t r a l c o n s t r u c t s o f p e r s o n a l ­

i t y t h e o r y . T h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t u s a g e s o f t h e t e r m

" s e l f " i n modern p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y ( M i s k i m i n s , Not e 2 ) .

One u s a g e r e f e r s t o s e l f - a s - o b j e c t , t h e s e t o f a t t i t u d e s ,

p e r c e p t i o n s and e v a l u a t i o n s a p e r s o n h a s o f h i m s e l f . The

o t h e r u s a g e r e f l e c t s t h e s e l f - a s - p r o c e s s , t h e c ompl ex p r o ­

c e s s e s w h i c h g o v e r n i n d i v i d u a l s ' i n t e r n a l and m a n i f e s t b e ­

h a v i o r . In an e a r l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w o f s e l f - a s - o b j e c t

Wyl i e ( 1 9 6 1 ) e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n of r e f e r r i n g t o

t h i s a s p e c t of t h e s e l f a s s e l f - c o n c e p t .

A v a r i e t y o f i n s t r u m e n t s have b e e n d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e

y e a r s t o m e a s u r e t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f an i n d i v i d u a l . T h e s e

i n s t r u m e n t s have e a c h b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t a s d e f i n e d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c t h e o r y o f s e l f a nd p e r ­

s o n a l i t y . S e l f - c o n c e p t s h av e b e e n m e a s u r e d i n v a r i o u s

ways : t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f r a t i n g s c a l e s and q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

( B e r g e r , 1 9 5 2 ) ; L e a r y , 1957; F i t t s , 1 9 6 5 ) ; t h r o u g h t h e

s o r i n g o f c a r d s w i t h t h e names o f t r a i t s on them

Page 66: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

52

( S t ep he n so n , 1 9 5 3 ) ; a n d t h r o u g h t h e c o d i n g o f v e r b a l

b e h a v i o r i n i n t e r v i e w s (Raimy, 1948; L i p k i n , 1954; V a r g a s ,

1 9 5 4 ) . Some o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s u t i l i z e a n o r m a t i v e a p ­

p r o a c h , i m p l y i n g a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e s e l f ­

s t a t e m e n t s r e f l e c t a h e a l t h y s e l f - c o n c e p t an d a r e c o r r e l a ­

t e d w i t h a d j u s t m e n t . O t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s h av e a s su med a

n o n - n o r m a t i v e a p p r o a c h an d m e a s u r e t h e l e v e l o f a d j u s t m e n t

a s r e l a t e d t o t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of

t h e s e l f and t h e s u b j e c t ’ s " i d e a l " s e l f .

To t h i s w r i t e r ' s k n o w l ed g e s e l f - c o n c e p t s c a l e s have

n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u t i l i z e d i n s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h m us ic

p r e f e r e n c e s . D i m e n s i o n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y h av e b e e n i n v e s t i ­

g a t e d a s t h i s r e v i e w r e v e a l s , b u t n o t s e l f - c o n c e p t p e r s e .

S e l f - c o n c e p t i s c h o s e n f o r t h i s s t u d y b e c a u s e o f i t s c e n ­

t r a l i t y t o a d o l e s c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t , an d f o r i t s a b i l i t y

( s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e ) t o d i s ­

t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s i n a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f

c o n t e x t s .

The T e n n e s s e e S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e was d e v e l o p e d by

F i t t s ( 1 9 6 5 ) . The o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e was t o d e v e l o p a s c a l e

t h a t wo ul d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d i f f i c u l t c r i t e r i o n p r o b l e m

i n m e n t a l h e a l t h r e s e a r c h . T h i s s c a l e i s i n t e n d e d t o be

" s i m p l e f o r t h e s u b j e c t , w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e , w e l l s t a n d a r d ­

i z e d an d m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l i n i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e l f -

c o n c e p t . " How a p e r s o n p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f h a s

p r o v e n t o be u s e f u l i n e v a l u a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . P e o p l e

Page 67: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

53

who s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s u n d e s i r a b l e , o r w o r t h l e s s t e n d t o

a c t a c c o r d i n g l y . Th os e i n d i v i d u a l s who have v e r y d e v i a n t

s e l f - c o n c e p t s t e n d t o b e h a v e i n d e v i a n t ways .

P e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t t h a t g r o u p s

w h i c h d i f f e r on s p e c i f i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d

a l s o d i f f e r i n s e l f - c o n c e p t . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s have

b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o e x i s t b e t w e e n p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s

a n d n o n - p a t i e n t s , a n d b e t w e e n d e l i n q u e n t s and n o n - d e l i n ­

q u e n t s u s i n g t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f C on c e p t S c a l e .

S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s wer e p e r f o r m e d i n w h i ch a l a r g e

g r o u p o f p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s were co mp ar e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l

norm g r o u p o f t h e s c a l e ( F i t t s , 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e se d e m o n s t r a t e d

h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( m o s t l y a t t h e . 00 1 l e v e l ) d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n p a t i e n t s a n d n o n - p a t i e n t s f o r a l m o s t e v e r y s c o r e

u t i l i z e d on t h e s c a l e . V a r i o u s s t u d i e s have d e m o n s t r a t e d

s i m i l a r p a t i e n t v e r s u s n o n - p a t i e n t d i f f e r e n c e s ( H a v en e r

a n d I z a r d , 1962; P i e t y , Not e 3; Wayne, No t e 4 ) .

The T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co n ce p t S c a l e (TSCS) h a s b e e n u s e d

e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e a r e a o f j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y . D i e t c h e

( Note 5) s t u d i e d 50 d e l i n q u e n t b oys o f 15 and 16 y e a r s of

a g e . A m a t c h e d n o n - d e l i n q u e n t c o n t r o l g r o u p was u t i l i z e d

f r o m a l o c a l s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n . The g r o u p s were m a t c h e d

f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , a g e , e t h n i c o r i g i n , a n d s t a b i l i t y o f t h e

home. He c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t

g r o u p was s i g n i f i c a n t l y more n e g a t i v e t h a n t h e n o n - d e l i n ­

q u e n t g r o u p .

Page 68: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

54

U s i n g t h e TSCS, L e f e b e r (Not e 6) e x a m i n e d t h e e f f e c t

i n c a r c e r a t i o n h a s on t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t

m a l e . The s a m p l e c o n s i s i s t e d o f t h r e e g r o u p s o f 58 you th s ;

n o n - d e l i n q u e n t s , f i r s t o f f e n d e r s and r e c i d i v i s t s , m a t c h e d

f o r s e x , s o c i a l e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , a g e , m e n t a l h e a l t h , and

e t h n i c i t y . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were r e p o r t e d b e t w e e n

a l l t h r e e g r o u p s a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l .

Watson ( No te 7) u s e d t h e TSCS an d v a r i o u s o t h e r i n ­

s t r u m e n t s i n a s t u d y o f m a l e j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t s . He

f o r m e d a h i g h , m i d d l e , a n d low p e r s o n a l i t y i n t e g r a t i o n

g r o u p u s i n g t e s t d a t a . Watson f o u n d a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r ­

r e l a t i o n a t t h e . 0 1 l e v e l b e t w e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t and b e ­

h a v i o r o f t h e o f f e n d e r w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n .

U s i n g t h e TSCS i n a s t u d y w i t h d e l i n q u e n t g i r l s ,

Kalman ( No t e 8) c o m p a r e d t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f i n s t i t u t i o n ­

a l i z e d g i r l s . Kalman f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e

e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d g i r l s had

l o w e r s e l f - c o n c e p t s . Al ong t h e s e same l i n e s , w o r k i n g w i t h

g i r l s , E p s t e i n ( 1 9 6 2 ) u t i l i z e d an e x p e r i m e n t a l f orm o f t h e

TSCS. She f o u n d t h a t t h e d e l i n q u e n t ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t i s s i g ­

n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f h e r n o n - d e l i n q u e n t c o u n t e r ­

p a r t .

Page 69: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

CHAPTER I I I

D e s i g n a nd P r o c e d u r e o f t h e R e s e a r c h

T h i s s t u d y was e x p l o r a t o r y i n n a t u r e , a nd u t i l i z e d a

c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s u r v e y . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was

t o d e t e r m i n e i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n an a d o l e s ­

c e n t ' s l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t and p r e f e r e n c e f o r a g i v e n

m u s i c a l s t y l e and t h e c o n c e p t u a l a r e a of s e l f - c o n c e p t .

From c l i n i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s and p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d

by t h i s w r i t e r , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e f o u r ­

t e e n t o s e v e n t e e n y e a r a ge g r o u p , t h a t were h i g h l y

i n t e r e s t e d / i n v o l v e d i n r o c k m u s i c , e x p e r i e n c e d more a d ­

j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s t h a n a s i m i l a r g r o u p t h a t was l e s s i n ­

v o l v e d w i t h p o p u l a r m u s i c . The o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s

s t u d y was t o c ompar e t h r e e p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s . T h e s e g r o u p s

we r e c l a s s i f i e d a s : h a r d r o c k , pop r o c k , and n o n - r o c k . Not

e n o u g h s u b j e c t s i n t h e n o n - r o c k g r o u p (N=7) em er g ed f rom

t h e t o t a l s a m p l e t o i n c l u d e them i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l ­

y s i s . F o u r m a j o r g r o u p s were i d e n t i f i e d by t h e s u b j e c t s '

r e s p o n s e s on t h e Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T he se

g r o u p s i n c l u d e d two p r e f e r e n c e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ( h a r d r o c k

an d pop r o c k ) , and two l e v e l s o f i n v o l v e m e n t ( h i g h and low).

Page 70: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

56

T h e s e g r o u p i n g s we r e f u r t h e r a ug m e n t e d by t h e v a r i a b l e

s e x .

S u b j e c t s

The s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s u r v e y c o n s i s t e d o f 97 a d o l e s ­

c e n t s ; 50 m a l e s a n d 47 f e m a l e s . The s u b j e c t s r a n g e d i n

a ge f ro m 14 t o 17 y e a r s , an d wer e i n t h e n i n t h , t e n t h ,

o r e l e v e n t h g r a d e a t v a r i o u s s u b u r b a n s c h o o l s i n t h e

Col umbus , Ohi o a r e a . A l l s u b j e c t s were C a u c a s i a n .

T h i s s a mpl e i s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l t e e n a g e r s

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t r e p r e s e n t s o n l y w h i t e , s u b u r b a n

s t u d e n t s t h a t v o l u n t a r i l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y .

I n s t r u m e n t s

Two i n s t r u m e n t s we r e u s e d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a

i n t h e s t u d y . The T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e was u t i ­

l i z e d a s a m e a s u r e o f s e l f - c o n c e p t . The Music I n t e r e s t

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e was u s e d t o c l a s s i f y s u b j e c t s i n t e r m s o f

m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s , l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t , an d t o g a t h e r

a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s i n

m u s i c .

The T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e

The T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e (TSC£>) was d e v e l o p e d

by W i l l i a m F i t t s . T h i s s c a l e was d e s i g n e d t o be s i m p l e

f o r t h e s u b j e c t , w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e , w e l l s t a n d a r d i z e d , and

m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l i n i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t .

Page 71: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

F i t t s b e g a n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l work on t h i s s c a l e w i t h t h e

T e n n e s s e e D e p a r t m e n t o f M e n t a l H e a l t h i n 1955 . Hi s

o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n was t o d e v e l o p a r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t

t h a t w ou l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d i f f i c u l t c r i t e r i o n p r o b l e m

i n m e n t a l h e a l t h r e s e a r c h . I t h a s s i n c e become one o f t h e

m os t w i d e l y u s e d a n d a c c e p t e d p s y c h o m e t r i c t o o l s f o r b o t h

r e s e a r c h and c l i n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . The p o o l o f i t e m s f o r

t h e s c a l e was o r i g i n a l l y s e l e c t e d f ro m e a r l i e r work by

s u c h w r i t e r s a s T a y l o r ( No te 9 ) , E n g l e ( No t e 1 0 ) , and

B a l e s t e r (Note 1 1 ) . I t e m s wer e a l s o i n c l u d e d t h a t wer e

o b t a i n e d f ro m s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n s f ro m b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y

d i s t u r b e d a nd n o r m a l s u b j e c t s . N i n e t y i t e m s wer e s e l e c t e d

t o c o m p r i s e t h e body o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t . In a d d i t i o n , t e n

q u e s t i o n s make up a s e l f - c r i t i c i s m s c a l e . The s e l f - c r i t i ­

c i s m i t e m s a r e a l l MMPI L i e s c a l e i t e m s , w h i c h m e a s u r e t h e

t e s t - t a k e r s ' a b i l i t y t o a d m i t t o n e g a t i v e t r a i t s .

The p r i n c i p a l q u e s t i o n s o f t h i s s c a l e a r e g r o u p e d i n t o

f i f t e e n c e l l s , w h i c h a r e a r r a n g e d c o n c e p t u a l l y i n a 3x5

m a t r i x . The c o lu mn s an d r o w s o f t h i s m a t r i x p r o v i d e t h e

e i g h t p r i n c i p a l s u b s c a l e s o f t h e TSCS. The f i v e c o l um ns

r e p r e s e n t f i v e a s p e c t s o f l i f e i n w h i c h t h e s e l f i s o b ­

s e r v e d : i n t e r m s o f p e r s o n a l s e l f , s o c i a l s e l f , f a m i l y

s e l f , p h y s i c a l s e l f , and m o r a l - e t h i c a l s e l f . The t h r e e

r o w s r e p r e s e n t t h r e e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f s e l f :

b e h a v i o r , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h s e l f , and i d e n t i t y . In

a d d i t i o n , m a j o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g s c o r e s a r e d e r i v e d :

Page 72: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

58

S e l f - c r i t i c i s m S c o r e ; T o t a l P o s i t i v e S c o r e , r e f l e c t i n g t h e

o v e r a l l l e v e l o f s e l f - e s t e e m ; V a r i a b i l i t y S c o r e s , r e f l e c t ­

i n g t h e amount of c o n s i s t e n c y f rom one a r e a o f s e l f - p e r ­

c e p t i o n t o a n o t h e r ; an d D i s t r i b u t i o n S c o r e , a m e a s u r e o f

e x t r e m i t y r e s p o n s e s t y l e . A l s o t h e C l i n i c a l and R e s e a r c h

Form y i e l d s s c o r e s f o r T r u e - F a l s e R a t i o , a m e a s u r e of

r e s p o n s e s t y l e ; Net C o n f l i c t S c o r e , r e f l e c t i n g r e s p o n s e s

t o p o s i t i v e v e r s u s n e g a t i v e i t e m s ; E m p i r i c a l S c a l e s f o r

g r o u p d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s ; and Number of D e v i a n t S i g n s S c o r e ,

a c c u n t o f t h e number o f d e v i a n t f e a t u r e s o f a l l o t h e r

s c o r e s .

In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y f i v e o f t h e s e s c o r e s were u se d :

S e l f - c r i t i c i s m S c o r e , T o t a l P o s i t i v e S c o r e , S e l f - S a t i s f a c ­

t i o n S c o r e , S o c i a l S e l f S c o r e , and Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s

S c o r e . T h e s e f i v e s c o r e s we r e c h o s e n f rom t h e t o t a l o f

t w e n t y - n i n e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o t h e s t u d y , and

b e c a u s e o f s t a t i s t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o m i n i m i z e t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f Type I o r a l p h a e r r o r s .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , w i t h t h e number of s u b j e c t s i n t h e

s t u d y ( N - 9 7 ) , t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s u s e d i n a m u l t i v a r i ­

a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e mus t be k e p t t o a minimum. The

c h a n c e s o f a n u l l h y p o t h e s i s b e i n g r e j e c t e d when i t s h o u l d

n o t h ave b e e n i n c r e a s e s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e number of

d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s .

B e n t l e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) h a s p r e s e n t e d r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y

d a t a f o r t h e TSCS. He r e p o r t s v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e t e s t

Page 73: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e v a r i o u s s c o r e s , b u t t h e a v e r a g e

r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e m a j o r s u b s c a l e s i s i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d

o f . 8 0 . B e n t l e r h a s a l s o r e p o r t e d c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y

t h r o u g h c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e T a y l o r A n x i e t y S c a l e and MMPI

s u b s c a l e s ; i n t h e . 5 0 t o . 7 0 r a n g e . Hi s r e v i e w c r i t i c i z e s

t h a t s c a l e f o r t h e a u t h o r ' s l a c k of any r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e

i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e s u b s c a l e s . W i t h o u t t h i s d a t a

i t c a n n o t be a s s u m ed t h a t e a c h s u b s c a l e i s u n i - d i m e n s i o n a l .

S u i n n ( 1 9 7 2 ) , i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e s c a l e , a l s o b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h e l a c k o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y

o f t h e s u b s c a l e s i s a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . F a c t o r a n a l y s i s by

V a c c i a n o an d S t r a u s s ( 1 96 8 ) and R e n t z and Whi te ( 1967) do

n o t s u p p o r t t h e e m p i r i c a l s u b s c a l e s d e s c r i b e d by F i t t s .

S u i n n ' s r e v i e w c o n c l u d e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s an

immense body o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t h a s shown t h e a b i l i t y of

t h e m a j o r s u b s c a l e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n g r o u p s i n a

l a r g e v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s . He f u r t h e r a s s e r t s t h a t t h e

T e n n e s s e e S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e i s one o f t h e m o s t • e f f e c t i v e

m e a s u r e s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t a v a i l a b l e .

The Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e

The Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (MIQ) was d e v e l o p e di

by t h i s w r i t e r t o s e r v e t h r e e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s : To

i d e n t i f y m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s , t o p r o v i d e a

m e a s u r e o f " i n v o l v e m e n t ” i n m u s i c l i s t e n i n g , an d t o g a t h e r

a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t e e n a g e r s ' i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c .

Page 74: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

60

T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l d e s c r i b e t h e s e t h r e e a r e a s i n d e t a i l .

To a s s e s s t h e r e s p o n d e n t ' s m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e , he

o r s h e i s f i r s t a s k e d t o c h e c k "Rock" o r " N o n - R o c k , " n o t

b o t h . The Rock c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s a l l s t y l e s o f r o c k m u s i c ,

a n d s i m i l a r l y t h e Non-Rock c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s a l l f o r m s of

m u s i c t h a t wou l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d r o c k . The s u b j e c t i s

t h e n a s k e d t o l i s t h i s o r h e r f a v o r i t e m u s i c a l g r o u p s ,

p e r f o r m e r s , c o m p o s e r s , a nd s o n g or c o m p o s i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g

t h i s i s a l i s t i n g o f a l l s t y l e s o r c a t e g o r i e s o f m u s i c

a r r a n g e d on s e v e n p o i n t s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t i n g

s c a l e s . The s u b j e c t i s a s k e d t o r a t e t h e m u s i c he o r s h e

a c t u a l l y l i s t e n s t o on a w e e k l y b a s i s . In a d d i t i o n , a

b l a n k b e s i d e e a c h c a t e g o r y was p r o v i d e d f o r t h e s u b j e c t t o

l i s t a n e x a m p l e o f t h a t s t y l e o f m u s i c . T h i s was done t o

a s s e s s t h e a d o l e s c e n t ' s k n o wl e dg e of p o p u l a r and o t h e r

c a t e g o r i e s a s i d e n t i f i e d by m u s i c i n d u s t r y p u b l i c a t i o n s

a n d s t a n d a r d s . A l s o i t was d e c i d e d t h a t a s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e

o f e a c h s t y l e wo ul d n o t be p r o v i d e d f o r t h e s u b j e c t , b e ­

c a u s e t h e r i s k o f i n f l u e n c i n g o r a l t e r i n g t h e r e s p o n s e was

t h o u g h t t o be t o o g r e a t . The p r o b l e m r e s i d e s i n t h e g l o b a l

c a t e g o r y o f r o c k m u s i c . W i t h i n t h i s l a r g e c a t e g o r y a r e

i n c l u d e d f i v e s t y l e s o f r o c k m u s i c f o r t h i s s t u d y . T h e s e

i n c l u d e : H a r d - R o c k , New-Wave Rock, H e a v y - M e t a l , C o u n t r y -

Rock , a nd S o f t R o c k / P o p . T h e s e s p e c i f i c s t y l e s o f r o c k

m u s i c e a c h h av e a d e v o u t f o l l o w i n g among t h e y o un g . In

p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d by t h i s w r i t e r i t became

Page 75: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t t h a t mos t a d o l e s c e n t s w i l l e x p r e s s a

c l e a r p r e f e r e n c e f o r one o f t h e s e s t y l e s , a nd q u i t e n e g a ­

t i v e f e e l i n g s f o r one o r more o f t h e o t h e r s . T h e i r

p r e f e r e n c e s a r e s e l d o m s t a t e d i n a d i s p a s s i o n a t e t o n e ,

r a t h e r t h e y t e n d t o w a r d s e m o t i o n a l e x t r e m e s s u g g e s t i n g a

g r e a t d e a l o f ego or s e l f i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e i r c h o s e n

s t y l e . T h i s a p p e a r s mos t p r o n o u n c e d among t h e m a l e s , a s

t h e y o f t e n e x p r e s s e d q u i t e s p e c i f i c and i d i o s y n c r a t i c ,

a l t h o u g h s e l d o m i n c o r r e c t , v i e w s a s t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n

b e t w e e n s t y l e s of r o c k m u s i c . The m a l e s wer e s e n s i t i v e

t o t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d o f t e n r e s i s t e d t h e i n t e r v i e w e r ' s

a t t e m p t s t o i n c l u d e a d d i t i o n a l s o n g s o r p e r f o r m e r s w i t h i n

t h e i r c h o s e n s t y l e . The i n t e r v i e w e r ' s a d d i t i o n a l s u g g e s ­

t i o n s wer e n o t i n c o r r e c t a c c o r d i n g t o m u s i c i n d u s t r y s t a n ­

d a r d s , b u t t h e m a l e s , a n d f e m a l e s t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , were

r e s i s t i v e a nd o f t e n i n s u l t e d i n a way t h a t s u g g e s t e d s e l f

i d e n t i t y i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e i r c h o s e n f a v o r i t e s . I t i s

b e c a u s e o f t h e s e r e a s o n s , an d c o n s u l t a t i o n s w i t h v a r i o u s

r a d i o p r o g r a m m e r s i n t h e a r e a , t h a t s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s were

n o t p r o v i d e d .

The a r e a of p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e Rock c a t e g o r y r e ­

m a i n s a p r o b l e m . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e n o t c l e a r c u t by

any means . R a d i o s t a t i o n p r o g r a m m e r s a n d m u s i c i n d u s t r y

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w o u l d be i n g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t , b u t

d i f f e r e n c e s i n o p i n i o n w i l l e x i s t o v e r s p e c i f i c s e l e c t i o n s .

The p r o b l e m i n t e r m s o f a d o l e s c e n t f a n s o f r o c k mus ic

Page 76: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

62

a p p e a r s t o be t h a t t h e y t e n d t o f a v o r s p e c i f i c p e r f o r m e r s

o r m u s i c a l g r o u p s r a t h e r t h e n a s t y l e d i m e n s i o n p e r s e .

F o r t h e mos t p a r t t h i s i s n o t a p r o b l e m b e c a u s e many

p o p u l a r m u s i c a l g r o u p s c o n f o r m t o a s p e c i f i c s t y l e o f

r o c k m u s i c . N o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s e x i s t , t h o u g h , s u c h a s

t h e R o l l i n g S t o n e s . T h i s r o c k g r o u p h a s b e e n h i g h l y p o p ­

u l a r f o r t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s and i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h H a r d - R o c k , b u t t h e i r m u s i c a l s o r e p r e s e n t s t h e

a d d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s o f S o f t R o c k / P o p , a nd e v e n C o u n t r y -

Rock. Twenty y e a r s a go t h e m u s i c o f t h e R o l l i n g S t o n e s

was t h e " n e w- w av e” m u s i c a nd c a t e g o r i e s s u c h a s Ha r d - R oc k

d i d n o t e x i s t . T h e s e s t y l e s a nd c a t e g o r i e s a r e n o t s t a t i c

and c o n t i n u e t o e v o l v e . P r e f e r e n c e s f o r p o p u l a r m u s i c , by

d e f i n i t i o n , c a n o n l y be e v a l u a t e d w i t h t e m p o r a l r e s t r i c ­

t i o n s .

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t ' s m u s i c

p r e f e r e n c e i s composed of a number o f e l e m e n l s . F i r s t ,

w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s u b j e c t c h e c k e d Rock o r Non-Rock

g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s a nd an e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s o r h e r

f a v o r i t e p e r f o r m e r s a nd s o n g s . The s u b j e c t s ' s e l e c t i o n s

wer e v a l i d a t e d by c h e c k i n g t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e on t h e c o r ­

r e s p o n d i n g " c h a r t " f r o m B i l l b o a r d m a g a z i n e . B i l l b o a r d i s

an i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t n ews week ly t h a t i s a c c e p t e d

by t h e R e c o r d i n g I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , a nd

r e c o g n i z e d by t h e m u s i c i n d u s t r y a s t h e a u t h o r i t y on p o p ­

u l a r m u s i c . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n r a n k s p o p u l a r m u s i c

Page 77: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

/

63

s e l e c t i o n s by c a t e g o r i e s i n t e r m s of p r o d u c t s s h o w i n g t h e

g r e a t e s t a i r p l a y a n d s a l e s s t r e n g t h .

The n e x t s t e p i n s p e c i f y i n g t h e s u b j e c t ' s p r e f e r e n c e

i s a n e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s o r h e r r a t i n g s on t h e s e m a n t i c

d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e s f o r s t y l e s o f m u s i c . T h e s e p r e f e r e n c e

c a t e g o r i e s a r e : H a r d - R o c k , C o u n t r y , New-Wave, J a z z , D i s c o ,

H e a v y - M e t a l , C l a s s i c a l , C o u n t r y - R o c k , S o f t R o c k / P o p , and

O t h e r . Th o se s t y l e s a s u b j e c t l i s t e n s t o a r e r a t e d on a

1 t o 7 s c a l e f rom L e a s t P r e f e r r e d t o Most P r e f e r r e d . In

a d d i t i o n , a l i s t i n g o f a l l l o c a l r a d i o s t a t i o n s i s i n c l u d ­

e d . The s u b j e c t i s a s k e d t o r a t e h i s o r h e r p r e f e r e n c e of

t h e s t a t i o n s he o r s h e a c t u a l l y l i s t e n s t o on a w e e k l y

b a s i s . T h e s e s t a t i o n s e a c h f e a t u r e s p e c i f i c p r og rammi ng

t h a t r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e c a t e g o r i e s .

F o r a s u b j e c t t o be c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e Har d-Ro ck g r o u p

he o r s h e w i l l n e e d t o m ee t f o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t p r o v i d e

a n o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n f o r H ar d - Ro ck i n t h i s

s t u d y . Rock w o u l d be c h e c k e d a s a g e n e r a l c a t e g o r y , and

t h e s e s e l e c t i o n s w ou l d be v e r i f i a b l e a s H ar d - R o c k . Hard-

Rock o r H e a v y - M e t a l wou l d r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t p r e f e r e n c e

r a t i n g w i t h t h e o t h e r r e c e i v i n g t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t r a t i n g .

A l s o , t h e s u b j e c t ’ s f a v o r i t e Columbus a r e a r a d i o s t a t i o n

w o u l d be QFM96 w h i c h f e a t u r e s " a l b u m - o r i e n t e d Rock"

p r o g r a m m i n g t h a t f e a t u r e s H ar d - Ro ck s e l e c t i o n s . I t s h o u l d

be m e n t i o n e d t h a t H e a v y - M e t a l i s a f o rm o f Har d-Rock and

t h u s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s g r o u p i n g . F o r a s u b j e c t t o be

Page 78: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

64

c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e Pop-Rock g r o u p he o r s h e w i l l n e e d t o

mee t t h e same f o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t p r o v i d e an o p e r a t i o n ­

a l i z e d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f Pop Rock f o r t h i s s t u d y . The

s u b j e c t ' s h i g h e s t p r e f e r e n c e r a t i n g s w i l l n e e d t o a p p e a r

i n two o f t h e o t h e r Rock s t y l e s , and h i s o r h e r c h o s e n

r a d i o s t a t i o n w i l l f e a t u r e a " C o n t e m p o r a r y Rock" p r o g r a m ­

ming f o r m a t . F o r s u b j e c t s t o be i n c l u d e d i n t h e Non-Rock

g r o u p he o r s h e w i l l n e e d t o meet t h e f i r s t t h r e e r e q u i r e ­

m e n t s t h a t p r o v i d e an o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of

Non-Rock f o r t h i s s t u d y . The r a d i o s t a t i o n p r e f e r e n c e was

d r o p p e d b e c a u s e t h e r e s p o n s e s d i d n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e o v e r ­

a l l i n t e n d e d s c h em e . T h i s i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s c o n t e m p o ­

ra ry r a d i o p r o g ra m mi n g i s o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d by r o c k m u s i c .

The s u b j e c t ' s h i g h e s t p r e f e r e n c e r a t i n g s w i l l n e e d t o

a p p e a r i n two o f t h e Non-Rock s t y l e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e :

C o u n t r y , J a z z , D i s c o , C l a s s i c a l , and O t h e r .

The s e c o n d p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e MIQ was t o i d e n t i f y

a " h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t " g r o u p and a " low i n v o l v e m e n t " w i t h

m u s i c g r o u p . T h i s d i m e n s i o n woul d a p p e a r t o be an i m p o r ­

t a n t , o r e v e n e s s e n t i a l , one i n an e v a l u a t i o n o f m u s i c

p r e f e r e n c e s . I t h a s b e e n known t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s s p e n d a

good amount o f t i m e l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c a s a g e n e r a l c a t e ­

g o r y o f i n d i v i d u a l s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e

w h i c h a d o l e s c e n t s h a ve t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l of i n t e r e s t and

e x p o s u r e f r o m t h o s e who have o n l y a m o d es t o r p a s s i n g

i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c . T h i s i s c r i t i c a l b e c a u s e a l m o s t a l l

Page 79: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

65

a d o l e s c e n t s w i l l s a y t h e y l i s t e n t o and e n j o y some f o r m

o f p o p u l a r m u s i c . T h a t i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i ­

c i e n t f o r a more c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

Two p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s h ave u t i l i z e d s u c h a d i m e n s i o n .

Fox and W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 7 4 ) i d e n t i f i e d " h i g h ” , "medium", an d

" l ow i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h m u s i c " g r o u p s . T h e s e g r o u p s wer e

c h o s e n on t h e b a s i s o f q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o : r o c k c o n c e r t

a t t e n d a n c e , r e c o r d p u r c h a s e s , r e c o r d l i s t e n i n g a n d r a d i o

l i s t e n i n g . Ridgeway ( 19 76) c o n s t r u c t e d a m e a s u r e o f

" l i s t e n i n g i n v o l v e m e n t " t o i d e n t i f y p e o p l e who l i s t e n

i n t e n s e l y t o m u s i c an d make m u s i c l i s t e n i n g an i m p o r t a n t

p a r t o f t h e i r l i v e s . Her " m u s i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n d e x "

c o n t a i n e d t h r e e f a c t o r s : l i s t e n i n g f r e q u e n c y , d e g r e e o f

l i s t e n i n g a b s o r p t i o n , a n d b r e a d t h o f m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t .

L i s t e n i n g f r e q u e n c y was a s s e s s e d w i t h R o b e r t ' s an d

R i d g e w a y ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) i n s t r u m e n t wh ich c o n s i s t e d o f t h e s u b ­

j e c t ' s s e l f - r e p o r t e d e s t i m a t e of h o u r s p e r week e n g a g e d

i n no o t h e r a c t i v i t y t h a n l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c . L i s t e n i n g

a b s o r p t i o n was m e a s u r e d w i t h s e l f - e s t i m a t e s o f t h e l e v e l

o f a b s o r p t i o n mos t f r e q u e n t l y m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g m u s i c

l i s t e n i n g (100%, 50% o r 0%). B r e a d t h o f m u s i c i n t e r e s t

was m e a s u r e d by r a t i n g s c a l e r e s p o n s e s t o 39 m u s i c

s e l e c t i o n s on t a p e . The t a p e c o n t a i n e d 20 c l a s s i c a l

s e l e c t i o n s , and 19 p o p u l a r s e l e c t i o n s . S u b j e c t s wer e

c l a s s i f i e d a s " h i g h l i s t e n e r s " o r " l ow l i s t e n e r s " on t h e

t h r e e f a c t o r s i f t h e y s c o r e d abo ve o r b e l o w t h e s a m p l e

Page 80: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

66

mean.

A s c a l e was d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t o

d i f f e r e n t i a t e a h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p f ro m a l e s s i n ­

v o l v e d g r o u p . T h r e e q u e s t i o n s were a s k e d t o i d e n t i f y

a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t c o n s i d e r m u s i c l i s t e n i n g t o be an i m p o r ­

t a n t p a r t o f t h e i r l i v e s . The t h r e e q u e s t i o n s were : How

" i n - t o " y o u r f a v o r i t e m u s i c woul d you s a y you a r e ? , How

i m p o r t a n t t o you i s l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c e v e r y d a y ? , and How

i m p o r t a n t t o y o u r l i f e i n g e n e r a l ( w e l l - b e i n g , mood, r e ­

l a x a t i o n , s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e t c . ) i s y o u r f a v o r i t e m u s i c ?

T h e s e q u e s t i o n s w e r e d e r i v e d f r o m p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h

a d o l e s c e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r u s e of m u s i c , and i n t e r e s t s

i n m u s i c . The r e s p o n d e n t i s a s k e d t o c i r c l e t h e a ns we r

t h a t mos t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s h i s o r h e r f e e l i n g on t h e

i t e m . The p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s a r e : n o t much a t a l l , a

l i t t l e , a l o t , a n d v e r y i m p o r t a n t o r v e r y " i n - t o " i t .

T h e s e i t e m s a r e t h e n s c o r e d f r o m 0 t o 3 ( n o t much a t a l l =

0, t h r o u g h v e r y i m p o r t a n t = 3 ) . T o t a l s c o r e s f o r t h e

s c a l e r a n g e f r o m 0 t o 9 . The mean f o r t h e s a m p l e on t h e

i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e was 6 . 2 8 . To d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p f r o m t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p , t h e

s a m p l e was s p l i t a t t h e mean. Thos e s u b j e c t s who s c o r e d

a t t h e mean o r l o w e r (6 o r l e s s ) f o r m e d t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t

g r o u p . T h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h m u s i c i s n o t r e a l l y low i n

a l i t e r a l s e n s e , b u t wo ul d be more a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d

a s l e s s i n v o l v e d . The h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a r e t r u l y

Page 81: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

67

i n t e r e s t e d i n m u s i c , and a r e s e l e c t e d f o r t h a t g r o u p by

s c o r i n g 7 o r h i g h e r on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e .

F o r p u r p o s e s o f v a l i d a t i o n , a s e c o n d ( b e h a v i o r a l )

s c a l e was d e v e l o p e d . T h i s " l i s t e n i n g " s c a l e c o n s i s t e d o f

two q u e s t i o n s : How many h o u r s a day wo ul d you s a y you

l i s t e n t o m u s i c on t h e r a d i o ? , and How many h o u r s a day

wou l d you s a y you l i s t e n t o r e c o r d s / t a p e s a t home o r a t

a f r i e n d ' s h o u s e ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s wer e d e r i v e d f ro m a

l a r g e r p o o l o f e i g h t q u e s t i o n s t h a t wer e d e v e l o p e d f rom

p i l o t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s . I t was d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t t h e s e we r e t h e o n l y q u e s t i o n s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s

u n i f o r m l y r e s p o n d e d t o . The means f o r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s

a r e a s f o l l o w s : R a d i o l i s t e n i n g , 3 . 3 5 h o u r s ; a n d l i s t e n i n g

a t home, 1 . 9 h o u r s . The r aw d a t a f o r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s was

t h e n c o n v e r t e d t o a n o m i n a l s c a l e . F o r e a c h q u e s t i o n t h e

s u b j e c t r e c e i v e d f ro m 0 t o 3 p o i n t s b a s e d on t h e means

f o r e a c h i t e m . On t h e r a d i o l i s t e n i n g q u e s t i o n a s u b j e c t

wou l d r e c e i v e t h e s c o r e o f 0 f o r 0 t o 1 h o u r o f l i s t e n i n g ,

1 f o r 1 . 5 t o 3 h o u r s , 2 f o r 3 . 5 t o 5 h o u r s , a nd 3 f o r 5 . 5

o r more h o u r s . On t h e l i s t e n i n g t o r e c o r d s o r t a p e s q u e s ­

t i o n , a s u b j e c t w o u l d r e c e i v e t h e s c o r e o f 0 f o r 0 h o u r s

l i s t e n i n g , 1 f o r . 5 t o 1 . 5 h o u r s , 2 f o r 2 t o 3 h o u r s , and

3 f o r 3 . 5 o r more h o u r s . An i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t f o r t h i s

s c a l e c o u l d t h e n r e c e i v e a s c o r e f ro m 0 t o 6.

The s c o r e s f o r t h e t h r e e i t e m s on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t

s c a l e a r e h i g h l y i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d . "How ' i n - t o ' y o u r

Page 82: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

68

f a v o r i t e m u s i c w ou l d you s a y you a r e ? " i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

"How i m p o r t a n t t o you i s l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c e v e r y d a y ? "

( . 7 0 ) and "How i m p o r t a n t t o y o u r l i f e i n g e n e r a l i s y o u r

f a v o r i t e m u s i c ? " ( . 6 0 ) . A d d i t i o n a l l y , l i s t e n i n g e v e r y day

i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h how i m p o r t a n t i n g e n e r a l a t . 6 4 . The

l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a l l i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s i s g r e a t e r

t h a n t h e . 001 l e v e l , and t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e

s c a l e i s . 8 4 . The s c o r e s f o r t h e two i t e m s on t h e b e ­

h a v i o r a l s c a l e a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d ( . 5 2

g r e a t e r t h a n t h e . 001 l e v e l ) , and t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s ­

t e n c y o f t h i s s c a l e i s . 6 8 .

An i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y of

t h e i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e i n v o l v e s i t s c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e

b e h a v i o r a l / l i s t e n i n g s c a l e . An a d o l e s c e n t ' s e x p o s u r e t o

m u s i c w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h how i m p o r ­

t a n t he o r s h e f e e l s m u s i c i s i n t h e i r l i v e s . A young

p e r s o n may l i s t e n t o m u s i c f o r many h o u r s a day j u s t b e ­

c a u s e o f p r o x i m i t y t o f r i e n d s , s i b l i n g s , o r o t h e r s who

p l a y m u s i c . The a d o l e s c e n t e x p e r i e n c e i n g e n e r a l t e n d s t o

f e a t u r e p o p u l a r m u s i c a s a b a c k g r o u n d t o d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t wou l d seem r e a s o n a b l e t h a t an i n ­

d i v i d u a l who r a t e d h i g h on i n v o l v e m e n t ( mus ic l i s t e n i n g

b e i n g i m p o r t a n t i n t h e i r l i f e ) wou ld a l s o s p e n d a good

amount o f t i m e a c t u a l l y l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c . The i n v o l v e ­

ment s c a l e and t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c a l e a r e h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d

w i t h e a c h o t h e r ( . 5 2 , g r e a t e r t h a n t h e .001 l e v e l ) . The

Page 83: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

69

i t e m s f rom t h e i n v o l v e m e n t s c a l e and t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c a l e ,

c o m b i n e d , have an i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y of . 6 2 . T h i s s u g ­

g e s t s t h e i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n , a s d e s i g n e d i n t h e s t u d y ,

d e m o n s t r a t e s f a c e v a l i d i t y .

The t h i r d f u n c t i o n o f t h e MIQ was t o g a t h e r a d d i t i o n ­

a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c . The

s u b j e c t s wer e a s k e d t o r a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e t h e y

s p e n d l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c a l o n e and w i t h f r i e n d s . I t was

t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s v a r i a b l e c o u l d be u s e d t o f u r t h e r d i f ­

f e r e n t i a t e t h e g r o u p s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s u b j e c t s were

a s k e d t h r e e open e n d e d q u e s t i o n s : Why i s o r i s n o t m us ic

a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f y o u r l i f e ? , What d o e s l i s t e n i n g t o

y o u r f a v o r i t e s t y l e o f m u s i c do f o r y o u ? , and Any a d d i ­

t i o n a l comments you may h a ve a b o u t y o u r i n t e r e s t o r l a c k

o f i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s wer e l o o s e l y

s t r u c t u r e d t o m a x i m i ze t h e i r y i e l d , i n l i n e w i t h t h e e x ­

p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h i s s t u d y . Very l i t t l e i s a c t u a l l y

known i n t h e s e a r e a s . I t was hoped t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s '

r e s p o n s e s wo ul d a i d i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e f i n d i n g s ,

and p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t f u t u r e r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s . T he se

r e s p o n s e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d a s p a r t o f t h e

r e s u l t s .

In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e MIQ c a n be u s e d t o a s s e s s an i n d i ­

v i d u a l ' s m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e , l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h

m u s i c , and g a t h e r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t s '

m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t s . F a c e v a l i d i t y f o r t h e p r e f e r e n c e and

Page 84: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

i n v o l v e m e n t s e c t i o n s h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d . Da ta on

r e l i a b i l i t y h ave n o t b e e n g e n e r a t e d . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n

t o a s sume t h a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n woul d be r e l i a b l e i n a

p s y c h o m e t r i c s e n s e f o r any l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e , a l b e i t i t

c o u l d be r e l i a b l e o v e r a p e r i o d of weeks o r m o n t h s .

L o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s of m us ic p r e f e r e n c e s do n o t e x i s t .

Over t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d of a d o l e s c e n c e i t wou l d be r e a s o n ­

a b l e t o as sume t h a t m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s woul d c h a n g e c o n ­

s i d e r a b l y , and i n v o l v e m e n t l e v e l may be e v e n more v a r i a b l e .

S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s

The s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s t u d y , a s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d ,

we r e a t t e n d i n g t h e n i n t h , t e n t h , o r e l e v e n t h g r a d e s i n

v a r i o u s s u b u r b a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s i n t h e Columbus , Ohio

a r e a : G r a n d v i e w , Upper A r l i n g t o n , H i l l i a r d , W o r t h i n g t o n ,

a nd W e s t e r v i l l e . A l l o f t h e s e s c h o o l s y s t e m s wer e r e ­

q u e s t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y , b u t o n l y G r a n dv i ew

High S c h o o l c h o s e t o f o r m a l l y be i n v o l v e d (23 s t u d e n t s

p a r t i c i p a t e d ) . S c h o o l o f f i c i a l s , t e a c h e r s , and s t u d e n t s

f rom t h e o t h e r d i s t r i c t s a s s i s t e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g and

c o n t a c t i n g a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t wou l d be i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r ­

t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e s t u d y . Two j u n i o r E n g l i s h c l a s s e s p a r ­

t i c i p a t e d f rom W e s t e r v i l l e t h r o u g h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e i r

t e a c h e r who was i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o p o s a l . S c h o o l

p e r s o n n e l who wer e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e p r o p o s a l f rom t h e

o t h e r d i s t r i c t s we r e c a l l e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o recommend

Page 85: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

71

i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s o r g r o u p s t h a t wou l d be i n t e r e s t e d .

I n t e r e s t e d s t u d e n t s f r o m W o r t h i n g t o n High S c h o o l were

i d e n t i f i e d by t e a c h e r s a nd combined w i t h a y o u t h g r o u p a t

t h e M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h i n W o r t h i n g t o n i n w h i c h some s t u d e n t s

w e r e members . S c h o o l p e r s o n n e l and p a r e n t s f rom t h e r e ­

m a i n i n g s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s ( H i l l i a r d an d Upper A r l i n g t o n )

a s s i s t e d t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n l o c a t i n g a d d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s .

The i n v e s t i g a t o r w o r k s i n t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h f i e l d i n t h e

n o r t h w e s t a r e a o f F r a n k l i n Co un t y , and c o n s e q u e n t l y was

known t o v a r i o u s s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l a nd communi ty mi nded

p a r e n t s . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s c o n t a c t e d i n t e r e s t e d s t u d e n t s ,

a nd t h e s t u d e n t s , i n t u r n , e n l i s t e d t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of

t h e i r f r i e n d s and c l a s s m a t e s . The o n l y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s r e s e a r c h were ag e ( 1 4 - 1 7 y e a r s o l d ) ,

a nd s i g n e d c o n s e n t f rom b o t h s t u d e n t and p a r e n t .

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t s and Data C o l l e c t i o n

The s u b j e c t s who a g r e e d t o be i n v o l v e d f rom Gr an dv iew

Hi gh S c h o o l w er e t e s t e d a s a g r o u p d u r i n g a s t u d y h a l l

p e r i o d . The c o n s e n t f o r m s were c o l l e c t e d p r i o r t o t h a t

t i m e by s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s t o v e r i f y t h a t e a c h s t u d e n t had

r e c e i v e d p a r e n t a l c o n s e n t . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o n s e n t

f o r m , t h e s u b j e c t s wer e p r o v i d e d w i t h b o t h a v e r b a l and

w r i t t e n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and t h e p u r p o s e

o f t h e s t u d y . The a s s i s t a n t p r i n c i p a l , John C a r o n i s , w i t ­

n e s s e d t h e v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n . The s t u d e n t s were e a c h

Page 86: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

72

h a n d e d a p a c k e t t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e TSCS a nd t h e MIQ. Th e se

p a c k e t s were c o d e d n u m e r i c a l l y and r e q u e s t e d o n l y t h e

s t u d e n t ' s g r a d e , a g e , and s e x . The e x p e r i m e n t e r i n s t r u c t ­

e d t h e s t u d e n t s n o t t o p l a c e t h e i r name on t h e f o r m s . No

l i n k b e t w e e n t h e c o n s e n t f o rm and t h e two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

was made.

B o t h t h e MIQ a nd t h e TSCS a r e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d f o r m s

and r e q u i r e no i n s t r u c t i o n b eyond t h o s e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n .

The p r e s e n c e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r d u r i n g t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e

t e s t i n g was hoped t o i m p a c t on t h e m o t i v a t i o n a nd s i n c e r i ­

t y o f t h e s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s .

The s u b j e c t s f rom t h e r e m a i n i n g s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s

(N=74) were a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n s m a l l t o

c l a s s s i z e d g r o u p s (5 t o 1 9 ) . To i n s u r e p r o c e d u r a l s t a n ­

d a r d i z a t i o n t h e r e s e a r c h e r was p r e s e n t a t a l l o f t h e s e

t e s t i n g s e s s i o n s , w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e same f o r m a t a s t h e

s e s s i o n a t t h e h i g h s c h o o l . T h e se s e s s i o n s wer e c o n v e n e d

a t i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t ' s homes, t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s home, and

i n one c a s e t h e M e t h o d i s t C hu r c h i n W o r t h i n g t o n .

T e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , and s t u d e n t s a s s i s t e d t h e r e s e a r c h ­

e r i n o r g a n i z i n g t h e g r o u p s i n t h e v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s . A

p a r e n t o r a d u l t was p r e s e n t a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , and he

o r s h e v e r i f i e d t h e a c c u r a c y and c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e c o n ­

s e n t f o r m s . T h e se i n d i v i d u a l s a l s o w i t n e s s e d t h e o r a l

e x p l a n a t i o n . As w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s t e s t e d a t t h e h i g h

s c h o o l , no met hod e x i s t e d t o l i n k s p e c i f i c s t u d e n t s w i t h

Page 87: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

73

t h e i r q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o r c o n s e n t f o r m s . The a n o n y m i t y o f

t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y was g u a r a n t e e d .

A n a l y s i s o f Data

The two c a t e g o r i e s of e a c h p r i m a r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

( p r e f e r e n c e an d i n v o l v e m e n t ) were a n a l y z e d i n d i v i d u a l l y

f o r e a c h s e x u s i n g a m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e .

The f i v e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s c h o s e n f rom t h e TSCS were

a n a l y z e d w i t h i n a 2x2 f a c t o r a l model t h a t c o n t a i n e d two

l e v e l s o f p r e f e r e n c e ( h a r d r o c k o r pop r o c k ) an d i n v o l v e ­

ment ( h i g h o r low) f o r e a c h s e x .

H y p o t h e s i s one s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e m a l e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p

an d t h e m a l e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on a ny o f t h e

c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s . H y p o t h e s i s two s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e

i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e m a l e h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a n d t h e mal e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p on

a ny o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s . T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s w i l l

be a n a l y z e d t o g e t h e r . T h i s a l l o w s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t

o n l y o f a s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s

b e t w e e n t h e two c a t e g o r i e s o f e a c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r

m a l e s , b u t a l s o t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f an i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . An i n t e r a c t i o n e x i s t s

when t h e r e i s a s t r o n g v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n one o f t h e p o s ­

s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e two i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s an d t h e

o t h e r c e l l s o f t h e t a b l e .

Page 88: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

H y p o t h e s i s t h r e e s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e f e m a l e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e

g r o u p a nd t h e f e m a l e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on any

o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s . H y p o t h e s i s f o u r s t a t e s

t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e

f e m a l e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a n d t h e f e m a l e low i n v o l v e ­

ment g r o u p on any o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s . T h e se

h y p o t h e s e s a r e a n a l y z e d t o g e t h e r f o r t h e f e m a l e s , u s i n g

t h e same m e t ho d a s d i s c u s s e d f o r h y p o t h e s e s one and two.

I n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t a t t h e f i n a l

p o i n t o f t h e a n a l y s i s w i l l be s u b j e c t e d t o f u r t h e r m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t e s t s . D i f f e r i n g l e v e l s o f

t h e p r i m a r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a r i a b l e s w i l l b e a n a l y z e d f o r

e a c h s e x t o c l a r i f y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s .

I n f o r m a t i o n t h a t was g a t h e r e d a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t s '

i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c w i l l a l s o be a n a l y z e d . The r e s u l t s t o

t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t wh a t p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e t h e y s p e n d

l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c a l o n e a nd w i t h f r i e n d s w i l l be p r e ­

s e n t e d . The r e s u l t s t o t h e t h r e e open e n d e d q u e s t i o n s

w i l l be c a t e g o r i z e d a n d co mp ar e d t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e

h y p o t h e s e s t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e t o a i d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

d a t a .

Page 89: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

CHAPTER IV

R e s u l t s

In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , a d o l e s c e n t s r a n g i n g i n age f rom

f o u r t e e n t o s e v e n t e e n were s t u d i e d t o o b s e r v e t h e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p b e t w e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t a s m e a s u r e d by f i v e s e l e c t e d s u b ­

s c a l e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co n ce p t S c a l e (TSCS), and

v a r i o u s o t h e r f a c t o r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y t e s t e d was t h e r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s and t y p e s o f a d o ­

l e s c e n t m u s i c l i s t e n e r s .

The s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d of 97 s t u d e n t s w i t h a mean age

o f 1 5 . 5 y e a r s a nd a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f . 9 4 . The s u b ­

j e c t s we r e a l l C a u c a s i a n and a t t e n d i n g t h e n i n t h , t e n t h or

e l e v e n t h g r a d e a t v a r i o u s s u b u r b a n s c h o o l s i n t h e Columbus ,

Ohio a r e a . The s t u d e n t s had a mean g r a d e l e v e l o f 1 0 . 2

w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f . 7 7 . F i g u r e s 1 and 2 i n d i c a t e

a more c o m p l e t e b r e a k d ow n o f t h e ag e and g r a d e l e v e l s o f

t h e s a m p l e .

The o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n of t h e s t u d y was t o a n a l y z e

t h r e e m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s . T h e s e g r o u p s we r e c l a s s i ­

f i e d a s h a r d r o c k , pop r o c k , and n o n - r o c k a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s s e t f o r t h i n t h e s t u d y . When

t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s wer e s c o r e d t h e n o n - r o c k g r o u p was

75

Page 90: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Figure 1.

Age Level

in Y

ears

U1 o U1

S am ple Number

NJ M UJo U1 O u i

-|"T r r j -[ l l i | i | i i | rf" [' >' [ '> 'T~i” | ~| t r i j I i m i ' j 'T i i [ | |~ r r

■J —L-L J I I LJ I I » I 1J I J L I K-Jlui O Ln O

rocn

ojo

U)U I

P e r c e n t o f T o t a l Sample

Page 91: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Sam

ple

Num

ber

77

N i n t h T e n t h E l e v e n t h

F i g u r e 2. Gr ade L e v e l

Per

cent

of

T

otal

S

ampl

e

Page 92: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

78

f o u n d t o be t o o s m a l l (Na 7, 7.3% o f t o t a l s a m p l e ) t o be

i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . The means and

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d

f o r c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e o t h e r g r o u p s l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

The r e m a i n i n g 90 s u b j e c t s i n t h e s t r a t i f i e d s a m p l e were

d i v i d e d n e a r l y e q u a l l y i n t o h a r d r o c k (N=40), pop r o c k

(N=50) , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t (N=43) , low i n v o l v e m e n t (N=47) ,

m a l e ( N = 4 5 ) , and f e m a l e (N=45) g r o u p i n g s . F i g u r e 3

d i s p l a y s t h e b r e a k d o w n of t h e s a mp l e i n t o t h e 8 c e l l s o f

t h e c o m p l e t e 2x2x2 f a c t o r a l mo de l .

H y p o t h e s e s 1 an d 2

H y p o t h e s i s 1 s t a t e d t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e

s c o r e s o f t h e mal e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p and male pop

r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on any o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s .

H y p o t h e s i s 2 s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s o f t h e ma le h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p on

any o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s .

T h e s e two h y p o t h e s e s were t e s t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u s i n g

a 2x2 m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e d e s i g n , w i t h t h e

two l e v e l s o f p r e f e r e n c e and t h e two l e v e l s o f i n v o l v e m e n t

f o r m a l e s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e p e r m i t s o b s e r v a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e

i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two v a r i a b l e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

The p r o g r a m c o m p u t e s t h r e e s t a t i s t i c s u s e d f o r m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t s : P i l l a i ' s c r i t e r i o n , H o t e l l i n g ' s

t r a c e , an d W i l k ' s l am bd a . T h e se s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t s a r e a l l

Page 93: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Pop Rock Hard RockMale Female Male Female

LowInvolvement

HighInvolvement

12 17 12 6

Subjects Subjects Subjects Subjects

9 12 12 10

Subjects Subjects Subjects Subjects

Figure 3. Group Division of Sairple

Page 94: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

80

f u n c t i o n s of t h e e i g e n v a l u e s o f t h e m a t r i x . In a d d i t i o n ,

u n i v a r i a t e F - t e s t s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r e a c h d e p e n d e n t v a r i ­

a b l e .

The two way i n t e r a c t i o n ( p r e f e r e n c e by i n v o l v e m e n t )

was f o u n d t o be n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a l l t h r e e m u l t i v a r i a t e

t e s t s . The ma i n e f f e c t s f o r p r e f e r e n c e p r o v e d t o be s i g ­

n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l f o r t h e t h r e e m u l t i v a r i a t e t e s t s .

The u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e r e v e a l e d one s c a l e

(SSA, s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n ) t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01

l e v e l . T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 1. The means and

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i v e TSCS s u b s c a l e s c o r e s f o r

m a l e s by p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n t a b l e 2. The

m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s c o r e d h i g h e r on

t h e s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n s c a l e t h a n t h e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k

p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p . The s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n s u b s c a l e on t h e

TSCS i s d e r i v e d f ro m t h e i t e m s wher e t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e ­

s c r i b e s how he f e e l s a b o u t t h e s e l f he p e r c e i v e s . In

g e n e r a l t h i s s c o r e r e f l e c t s h i s l e v e l o f s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n

o r s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e .

The ma i n e f f e c t s f o r i n v o l v e m e n t wer e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t

a t t h e .01 l e v e l f o r t h e t h r e e m u l t i v a r i a t e t e s t s . The

u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s of s i g n i f i c a n c e r e v e a l e d one s c a l e (NDS,

Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s ) t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 001

l e v e l , a s c a n be s e e n i n t a b l e 3. In t a b l e 4 t h e means

a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i v e TSCS s u b s c a l e s c o r e s

a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r m a l e s by i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s . The m a l e s

Page 95: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

81

T a b le 1

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c eo f F i v e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by

M usic P r e f e r e n c e f o r M a les

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s of S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name Val ue Appr ox . F Hypo t h . DF

P i l l a i s . 2 9 3 6 0 3 . 0 7 5 6 *H o t e l l i n g s . 4 1 5 6 2 3 . 0 7 5 6 *W i l k s . 7 06 40 3 . 0 7 5 6 *

5 . 0 05 . 0 05 . 0 0

E r r o r DF

3 7 . 0 03 7 . 0 03 7 . 0 0

* P > . 05

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi th ( 1 , 4 1 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS

SCTOTSSASOSNDS

1 6 . 8 3 9 71 8 9 6 . 2 6 8 31 4 6 2 . 8 5 7 1

9 0 . 6 6 8 3 4 1 8 . 5 4 3 3

7 9 9 . 6 3 8 9 3 1 1 6 0 . 9 7 2 2

8 1 2 2 . 4 7 2 2 1 8 5 4 . 7 5 0 0

1 3 9 3 3 . 3 8 8 9

1 6 . 8 3 9 71 8 9 6 . 2 6 8 31 4 6 2 . 8 5 7 1

9 0 . 6 6 8 3 418. 5433

1 9 . 5 0 3 4 7 6 0 . 0 2 3 7 1 9 8 . 1 0 9 1

4 5 . 2 3 7 8 3 3 9 . 8 3 8 8

.8634 2 . 4 9 5 0 7 . 384 1* 2 . 0 0 4 3 1 . 2 3 1 6

* P > .0 1

Page 96: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

82

T a b l e 2

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l eS c o r e s f o r M a le s by P r e f e r e n c e Groups

TSCS Pop Rock Hard RockS c a l e s Mean Mean

SC 36. 65 38. 08( 4 . 6 7 ) ♦ ( 3 . 9 5 )

TOT 3 1 7 . 2 6 3 3 0 . 5 8( 3 0 . 8 4 ) ( 2 4 . 7 6 )

SSA 9 6 . 9 0 1 0 8 . 3 3( 1 1 . 8 2 ) ( 1 5 . 1 1 )

SOS 6 3 . 4 6 6 6 . 0 8( 5 . 1 7 ) ( 7 . 6 6 )

NDS 1 8 . 9 0 2 3 . 8 7( 1 4 . 3 3 ) ( 1 8 . 3 0 )

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS S c a l e s : SC - S e l f - C r i t i c i s mTOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f S e l f - E s t e e mSSA - S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o nSOS - S o c i a l S e l fNDS - Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s

Page 97: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

83

T a b le 3

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r ia n c eo f F i v e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by

Music I n v o l v e m e n t f o r M ales

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name V al ue Approx . F Hypoth . DF E r r o r DF

P i l l a i s . 33 091 3 . 6 5 9 9 * 5 . 0 0 3 7 . 0 0H o t e l l i n g s . 4 9 4 5 8 3 . 6 5 9 9 * 5 . 0 0 3 7 . 0 0W i l k s . 66 90 9 3 . 6 5 9 9 * 5 . 0 0 3 7 . 0 0

* P > .01

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi th ( 1 , 4 1 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS

SCTOTSSASOSNDS

1 4 . 5 0 7 3 1 0 8 8 . 7 1 9 8

3 6 9 . 2 3 2 6 2 2 . 5 6 5 9

7 9 9 . 6 3 8 93 1 1 6 0 . 9 7 2 2

8 1 2 2 . 4 7 2 21 8 5 4 . 7 5 0 0

1 4 . 5 0 7 3 1 0 8 8 . 7 1 9 8

3 6 9 . 2 3 2 6 2 2 . 5 6 5 9

1 9 . 5 0 3 47 6 0 . 0 2 3 71 9 8 . 109 1

4 5 . 2 3 7 8

F

,7438432586384988

4 9 8 3 . 2 4 2 2 1 3 9 3 3 . 3 8 8 9 4 9 8 3 . 2 4 2 2 3 3 9 . 8 3 8 8 1 4 . 6 6 3 6 *

* P > .0 0 1

Page 98: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

84

T a b le 4

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l eS c o r e s f o r M a le s by I n v o l v e m e n t Groups

TSCS S e a l e s

Low I n v o l v e m e n t Me a n

High I n v o l v e m e n t Mea n

SC 3 8 . 0 0 3 6 . 7 4( 4 . 5 3 ) * ( 4 . 0 9 )

TOT 3 2 8 . 6 6 3 1 9 . 1 8( 2 4 . 9 8 ) ( 3 0 . 6 2 )

SSA 1 0 5 . 2 9 9 9 . 9 4( 1 0 . 9 9 ) ( 1 5 . 9 5 )

SOS 6 4 . 0 0 65. 54( 5 . 7 5 ) ( 7 . 0 8 )

NDS 1 2 . 9 3 2 4 . 0 3( 7 . 8 7 ) ( 2 4 . 7 6 )

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS S c a l e s : SC - S e l f - C r i t i c i s mTOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f S e l f - E s t e e mSSA - S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o nSOS - S o c i a l S e l fNDS - Number of D e v i a n t S i g n s

Page 99: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

85

i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p m a n i f e s t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

g r e a t e r number o f " d e v i a n t s i g n s " t h a n t h e m a l e s i n t h e

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s s u b ­

s c a l e i s t h e t e s t ' s s i n g l e b e s t i n d e x o f " p s y c h o l o g i c a l

d i s t u r b a n c e , " w h i c h w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r V. N u l l

h y p o t h e s e s 1 and 2 w er e b o t h r e j e c t e d .

H y p o t h e s e s 3 an d 4

H y p o t h e s i s 3 s t a t e d t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

t h e s c o r e s o f t h e f e m a l e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p on any

o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s .

H y p o t h e s i s 4 s t a t e d t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e

s c o r e s o f t h e f e m a l e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a nd t h e f e m a l e

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p on a ny o f t h e c h o s e n TSCS s u b s c a l e s .

T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s wer e t e s t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , u t i ­

l i z i n g t h e same p r o c e d u r e a s u s e d w i t h h y p o t h e s e s 1 and 2.

The two way i n t e r a c t i o n ( p r e f e r e n c e by i n v o l v e m e n t ) was

f o u n d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a l l m u l t i v a r i a t e t e s t s a t t h e

. 01 l e v e l . The u n i v a r i a t e F - t e s t s showed two d e p e n d e n t

v a r i a b l e s t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n . The v a r i a b l e s

wer e SC, o r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m s u b s c a l e ( s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5

l e v e l ) , a n d SOS, o r s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e ( s i g n i f i c a n t a t

t h e . 001 l e v e l ) . T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 5. T h i s

i n t e r a c t i o n was s u b j e c t e d t o f u r t h e r m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s

o f v a r i a n c e c o n t r o l l i n g f o r l e v e l s o f p r e f e r e n c e t o s p e c i f y

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s . The pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p was f i r s t

Page 100: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

86

T a b l e 5

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c eo f F i v e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by Music

P r e f e r e n c e and L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a le s

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name V a l u e Appr ox . F Hypo t h . DF

P i l l a i s . 7 2 5 5 7 1 9 . 5 6 4 7 *H o t e l l i n g s 2 . 6 4 3 8 8 1 9 . 5 6 4 7 *W i l k s . 2 7 4 4 3 1 9 . 5 6 4 7 *

5 . 0 05 . 0 05 . 0 0

E r r o r DF

37. 003 7 . 0 03 7 . 0 0

* P > .01

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi t h ( 1 , 4 1 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS

SCTOTSSASOSNDS

7 9 . 8 5 5 11 6 5 9 . 7 6 6 1

5 0 . 9 8 9 01 2 1 9 . 2 8 2 3

1 1 0 . 0 6 0 1

7 0 2 . 4 4 9 03 2 6 3 7 . 4 3 1 4

6 4 4 9 . 0 8 1 41 5 6 9 . 6 2 0 65 5 1 2 . 3 4 1 2

7 9 . 8 5 5 11 6 5 9 . 7 6 6 1

5 0 . 9 8 9 01 2 1 9 . 2 8 2 3

1 1 0 . 0 6 0 1

1 7 . 1 3 2 9 4 . 6 6 0 9 a7 9 6 . 0 3 4 9 2 . 0 8 5 01 5 7 . 2 9 4 7 . 3 2 4 2

3 8 . 2 8 3 4 3 1 . 8 4 8 8 b 1 3 4 . 4 4 7 4 . 8 18 6

a P > . 0 5 b P > . 0 0 1

Page 101: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

87

c o m pa r e d on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t l e v e l s . S i g n i f i c a n t m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e t e s t s ( . 0 0 1 l e v e l ) we r e o b t a i n e d f o r i n v o l v e m e n t .

The u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e r e v e a l e d b o t h v a r i ­

a b l e s (SC, an d SOS) wer e s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l .

T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 6. The means and s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i v e TSCS s u b s c a l e s f o r f e m a l e s by

p r e f e r e n c e and i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 7.

In c o n t r a s t i n g t h e i n v o l v e m e n t l e v e l s f o r t h e pop r o c k

p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p , t h e r e s u l t s showed t h a t h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t

i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e l e v a t e d s c o r e s on s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and

s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e s . High s c o r e s on t h e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m

s u b s c a l e i n d i c a t e a n o r m a l , h e a l t h y o p e n n e s s and c a p a c i t y

f o r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m . The s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e r e f e r s t o t h e

s e l f a s p e r c e i v e d i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s t h a t a r e n o t f a m i l y

members , a nd e l e v a t e d s c o r e s on t h i s s u b s c a l e i n d i c a t e a

p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g a b o u t a p e r s o n ' s s o c i a l s e l f . T h u s , t h e

f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p w i t h h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment i n m u s i c a r e more open a nd f e e l more p o s i t i v e a b o u t

t h e m s e l v e s i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s t h a n t h e f e m a l e s t h a t

p r e f e r pop r o c k i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

C o n t i n u i n g t o c o n t r o l f o r p r e f e r e n c e , t h e h a r d r o c k

g r o u p was c o m pa r e d on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t f a c t o r . The m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e t e s t s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 001 l e v e l , and of

t h e u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s one s c a l e , SOS, was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e

. 001 l e v e l . Of t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e

g r o u p , t h o s e w i t h low i n v o l v e m e n t s c o r e d more f a v o r a b l y on

Page 102: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

88

T a b l e 6

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r ia n c eo f Two S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e s by L e v e l o f

I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a l e s , Pop Rock P r e f e r e n c e

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name Val ue Appr ox . F Hypo t h . DF E r r o r DF

P i l l a i s . 4 4 7 1 0 1 0 . 5 1 2 3 * 2 . 0 0 2 6 . 0 0H o t e l l i n g s . 80 8 64 1 0 . 5 1 2 3 * 2 . 0 0 2 6 . 0 0W i l k s . 4 4 7 1 0 1 0 . 5 1 2 3 * 2 . 0 0 26. 00

*P > . 001

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi t h ( 1 , 2 7 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS F

SC 1 6 3 . 0 0 2 7 5 8 3 . 5 4 9 0 1 6 3 . 0 0 2 7 2 1 . 6 1 2 9 7 . 5 4 1 9 *SOS 2 0 7 . 1 4 1 5 1 2 6 4 . 7 2 0 6 2 0 7 . 1 4 1 5 5 6 . 8 4 1 5 4 . 4 2 2 2 *

* P > . 0 5

Page 103: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

89

T a b l e 7

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b c c a l eS c o r e s f o r F e m a l e s by P r e f e r e n c e

and I n v o l v e m e n t Groups

TSCS S e a l e s I n v o l v e m e n t

Pop Rock Mean

Hard Rock Mea n

SC Low 3 6 . 3 5 3 8 . 0 0( 5 . 5 4 ) * ( 1 . 8 9 )

TOT Low 3 3 5 . 1 2 3 2 2 . 0 0( 3 2 . 5 9 ) ( 3 . 1 6 )

SSA Low 1 0 1 . 1 2 9 6 . 0 0( 1 3 . 0 5 ) ( 1 . 2 6 )

SOS Low 6 6 . 8 2 7 7 . 0 0( 7 . 8 4 ) ( 1 . 2 6 )

NDS Low 1 4 . 9 4 12. 17( 1 2 . 2 1 ) ( 3 . 4 9 )

SC High 4 1 . 1 6 3 7 . 1 0( 2 . 8 8 ) ( 3 . 3 4 )

TOT High 3’2 9 .17 2 9 0 . 0 0( 3 1 . 9 0 ) ( 2 2 . 1 3 )

SSA High 9 7 . 0 8 8 7 . 4 0( 1 3 . 8 8 ) ( 1 3 . 3 2 )

SOS High 7 2 . 2 5 6 0 . 1 0( 5 . 0 4 ) ( 5 . 7 4 )

NDS High 21. 17 25. 10( 1 3 . 8 5 ) (10, .30)

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS SC - S e l f C r i t i c i s m SOS - S o c i a l S e l fS c a l e s : TOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f NDS - Number of

S e l f - E s t e e m D e v i a n t S i g n sSSA - S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o n

Page 104: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

90

s o c i a l s e l f t h a n t h o s e i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 8.

The main e f f e c t s f o r p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e f e m a l e s were

f o u n d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 01 l e v e l f o r t h e m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e t e s t s . The u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e r e ­

v e a l e d two s c a l e s (TOT, o r t o t a l p o s i t i v e , a t t h e . 001

l e v e l , and SSA, o r s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n , a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l )

t o be s i g n i f i c a n t . T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 9.

The means a nd s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i v e TSCS s u b ­

s c a l e s c o r e s f o r f e m a l e s by p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s a r e d i s p l a y e d

i n t a b l e 10. The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p

s c o r e d h i g h e r on t o t a l p o s i t i v e ( s e l f - c o n c e p t ) and s e l f -

s a t i s f a c t i o n s u b s c a l e s . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e i r o v e r a l l l e v e l

o f s e l f e s t e e m a nd d e g r e e o f s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e i s b e t t e r t h a n

t h e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p .

The main e f f e c t s f o r i n v o l v e m e n t f o r t h e f e m a l e s wer e

f o u n d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l f o r a l l m u l t i ­

v a r i a t e t e s t s . The u n i v a r i a t e t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e r e ­

v e a l e d one s c a l e (NDS, Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s ) t o be s i g ­

n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l . T h i s d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n

t a b l e 11. The means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i v e

TSCS s u b s c a l e s c o r e s f o r f e m a l e s by i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s a r e

p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 12. As w i t h t h e m a l e s , t h e f e m a l e s i n

t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p m a n i f e s t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

g r e a t e r number o f " d e v i a n t s i g n s " t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p , a l t h o u g h t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e

Page 105: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

91

T a b l e 8

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r ia n c eo f Two S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e s by L e v e l o f

I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a l e s , Hard Rock P r e f e r e n c e

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name V a l ue Appr ox . F Hypo t h . DF E r r o r DF

P i l l a i s . 78 07 1 2 3 . 1 4 0 6 * 2 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0H o t e l l i n g s 3 . 5 6 0 1 0 2 3 . 1 4 0 6 * 2 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0W i l k s . 21 92 9 2 3 . 1 4 0 6 * 2 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0

*P > . 0 0 1

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi th ( 1 , 1 4 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS F

SC 3 . 0 3 7 5 1 1 8 . 9 0 0 0 3 . 0 3 7 5 8 . 4 9 2 9 . 3 57 7SOS 1 0 7 1 . 0 3 7 5 3 0 4 . 9 0 0 0 1 0 7 1 . 0 3 7 5 2 1 . 7 7 8 6 4 9 . 1 7 8 5 *

*P > .001

Page 106: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

92

T a b l e 9

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c eo f T hree S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e sby Music P r e f e r e n c e f o r F e m a l e s

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name V al ue App rox . F Hy p o t h . DF

P i l l a i s . 61289 1 1 . 7 1 6 0 *H o t e l l i n g s 1 . 5 8 3 2 5 1 1 . 7 1 6 0 *W i l k s . 38711 1 1 . 7 1 6 0 *

5. 00 5. 00 5 . 0 0

E r r o r DF

3 7 . 0 03 7 . 0 0 37. 00

*P > . 0 0 1

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi t h ( 1 , 4 1 ) D.F .

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS F

TOT 9 6 8 9 . 7 5 9 4 3 2 6 3 7 . 4 3 1 4 9 6 8 9 . 7 5 9 4 7 9 6 . 0 3 4 9 1 2 . 1 7 2 5 aSSA 8 0 2 . 7 2 2 0 6 4 4 9 . 0 8 1 4 8 0 2 . 7 2 2 0 1 5 7 . 2 9 4 7 5 . 1 0 3 3 bNDS 7 7 . 0 0 3 1 5 5 1 2 . 3 4 1 2 7 7 . 0 0 3 1 1 3 4 . 4 4 7 4 .5727

a p > .001 b p > .05

Page 107: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

93

T a b l e 10

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l eS c o r e s f o r F e m a l e s by P r e f e r e n c e Groups

TSCSS c a l e s

Pop Rock Mean

Hard Rock Mean

SC 3 8 . 7 6 37. 55( 4 . 2 2 ) * ( 2 . 6 2 )

TOT 3 3 2 . 1 4 3 0 6 . 0 0( 3 2 . 2 3 ) ( 1 2 . 6 5 )

SSA 9 9 . 1 0 9 1 . 7 0( 1 3 . 4 5 ) ( 7 . 2 9 )

SOS 6 9 . 5 4 68. 55( 6 . 4 5 ) ( 3 . 5 0 )

DS 1 8 . 0 5 1 8 . 6 3( 1 8 . 3 0 ) ( 1 3 . 0 3 )

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS S c a l e s : SC - S e l f - C r i t i c i s mTOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f S e l f - E s t e e mSSA - S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o nSOS - S o c i a l S e l fNDS - Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s

Page 108: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

94

T a b le 11

M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c eo f T h r ee S e l f - C o n c e p t S u b s c a l e s by

Music I n v o l v e m e n t f o r F e m a le s

M u l t i v a r i a t e T e s t s o f S i g n i f i c a n c e

T e s t Name Va l u e Appr ox . F H ypoth . DF E r r o r DF

P i l l a i s . 24 673 2 . 4 2 3 9 * 5 . 0 0 3 7 . 0 0H o t e l l i n g s . 32 7 5 5 2 . 4 2 3 9 * 5. 00 3 7 . 0 0W i l k s . 753 27 2 . 4 2 3 9 * 5 . 0 0 3 7 . 0 0

* P > . 0 5

U n i v a r i a t e F - T e s t s Wi t h ( 1 , 4 1 ) D.F.

V a r i a b l e H y p o t h . S S E r r o r SS Hypoth.MS E r r o r MS

TOT 2 4 2 9 . 3 5 4 3 3 2 6 3 7 . 4 3 1 4 2 4 2 9 . 3 5 4 3 7 9 6 . 0 3 4 9SSA 3 4 0 . 8 5 2 1 6 4 4 9 . 0 8 1 4 3 4 0 . 8 5 2 1 1 5 7 . 2 9 47NDS 7 8 9 . 8 4 0 1 5 5 1 2 . 3 4 1 2 7 8 9 . 8 4 0 1 1 3 4 . 4 4 7 4

F

3 . 0 5 1 8 2 . 1 6 7 0 5 .8 747 *

* P > . 0 5

Page 109: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

95

T a b le 12

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l eS c o r e s f o r F e m a l e s by I n v o l v e m e n t Groups

TSCS S e a l e s

Low I n v o l v e m e n t Mean

High I n v o l v e m e n t Mean

SC 3 7 . 1 8 39. 13( 3 . 7 2 ) * ( 3 . 6 6 )

TOT 3 2 8 . 5 6 3 0 9 . 5 8( 1 7 . 8 8 ) ( 2 7 . 0 1 )

SSA 98. 56 9 2 . 2 4( 7 . 1 6 ) ( 1 3 . 6 0 )

SOS 7 1 . 9 1 6 6 . 1 8( 4 . 5 5 ) ( 1 0 . 7 9 )

NDS 1 3 . 5 5 2 3 . 1 3( 9 . 1 0 ) ( 2 1 . 3 4 )

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS S c a l e s : SC - S e l f - C r i t i c i s mTOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f S e l f - E s t e e mSSA - S e l f ̂ - S a t i s f a c t i o nSOS - S o c i a l S e l fNDS - Number of D e v i a n t S i g n s

Page 110: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

96

i s l o w e r ( . 0 0 1 m a l e s v s . . 0 5 f e m a l e s ) . The r e s u l t s r e v e a l

t h a t b o t h h y p o t h e s e s 3 and 4 a r e r e j e c t e d .

Summary of H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g on S t r a t i f i e d Sample

Of t h e mal e g r o u p one v a r i a b l e , s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

was f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h a r d r o c k g r o u p and

t h e pop r o c k g r o u p , and one v a r i a b l e , number o f d e v i a n t

s i g n s , was f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment and low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s . The m a l e s i n t h e h a r d

r o c k g r o u p had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n

s c o r e s , an d t h e m a l e s i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p had a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r number o f d e v i a n t s i g n s .

Of t h e f e m a l e g r o u p f i v e s c a l e s w er e f o u n d t o d i s ­

t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e p r e f e r e n c e an d i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s .

The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s c o r e d h i g h e r

on t o t a l p o s i t i v e ( s e l f - c o n c e p t ) an d s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n

t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k g r o u p . The v a r i a b l e s

s e l f - c r i t i c i s m an d s o c i a l s e l f w er e i n v o l v e d i n a p r e f e r ­

e n c e by i n v o l v e m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop

r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d h i g h e r on t h e s e l f -

c r i t i c i s m a n d s o c i a l s e l f s c a l e s t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e

pop r o c k , low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d

r o c k , low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d h i g h e r bn t h e s o c i a l

s e l f s c a l e t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment g r o u p . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment g r o u p had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r number o f d e v i a n t

Page 111: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

97

s i g n s t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

Non-Rock Gr oup C o m p a r i s o n

The means a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e n o n - r o c k

g r o u p a r e c o m p a r e d t o t h e o t h e r p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s i n t a b l e

13. T h i s t a b l e i n c l u d e s a l l f i v e s c a l e s f ro m TSCS an d a

b r e a k d o w n i n t o h i g h an d low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s . The s c o r e s

o f t h e n o n - r o c k g r o u p w er e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y c ompar ed b e ­

c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l number . The a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y

t h a t p r e f e r r e d m u s i c t h a t i s n o t r o c k c o m p r i s e d o n l y 7.3%

o f t h e t o t a l s a m p l e . I t c a n n o t be a s s um ed t h a t t h i s number

wo u ld be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n c e t h e s a m p l e was n o t random.

Of t h e n o n - r o c k c a t e g o r i e s o f m u s i c , t h r e e t y p e s were

c h o s e n . T h r e e m a l e s a nd two f e m a l e s c h o s e c l a s s i c a l m u s i c

a s t h e i r f a v o r i t e , one m a l e c h o s e c o u n t r y m u s i c , a nd a n ­

o t h e r m a l e p r e f e r r e d d i s c o m u s i c . As e v i d e n c e d f rom

t h e i r comments on t h e MIQ, t h e c l a s s i c a l g r o u p wer e a l l

s e r i o u s s t u d e n t s o f m u s i c . F o u r m e n t i o n e d t h e i r m u s i c a l

i n s t r u c t i o n , and t h e i r d e s i r e t o p u r s u e a m u s i c a l c a r e e r .

One m al e p l a y e d a t r u m p e t , F r e n c h h o r n , a nd f l u g e l h o r n ,

a nd was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n m u s i c p l a y e d on t h e r a d i o . One

f e m a l e h o p e d t o s omeday become a c o n c e r t b a s s o o n i s t i n a

symphony o r c h e s t r a , an d a n o t h e r f e m a l e had s t u d i e d p i a n o

f o r t e n y e a r s . S e v e r a l o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s m e n t i o n e d t h e i r

d e s i r e t o m a j o r i n m u s i c i n c o l l e g e . T h e i r comments wer e

o f a d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y t h a n t h e s u b j e c t s t h a t p r e f e r r e d pop

Page 112: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

98

T a b l e 13

T e n n e s s e e S e l f - C o n c e p t S c a l e S u b s c a l e S c o r e s f o r V a r i o u s Type s o f Music L i s t e n e r s

TSCSSCALES

INVOLVE­MENT

Pop Ma l e s Mea n

MUSIC PREFERENCES Rock Hard Rock Non- F e m a l e s Ma le s F e m a l e s Males

Mean Mean Mean Mean

-Rock F e m a l e s

Mean

SC Low 38. 08 36 .35 37 .91 38 .00 33. 40(5. 51) ♦ (5 . 5 4 ) (3 . 55) (1 . 8 9 ) (6 . 43) ----

TOT Low 319. 42 335, . 12 337, .92 322, .00 336. 60 ----( 26 . 60) (32 .5 9 ) (23 . 36) (3, . 16 ) (41 . 55) ----

SSA Low 96. 92 101,. 12 113, , 67 96, .00 99. 40 ___(1 1 . 46) (13, .05) (10, ,52) (1, . 26 ) (18 . 10) ----

SOS Low 61. 92 66,,82 66,,08 77, .00 61. 60 ___( 2 . 81) (7, ,84) (8, , 69) (1, ,26) ( 9 . 20) ----

NDS Low 10. 92 14,,94 11,,08 12., 17 18. 00 ___( 7 . 96) (12. ,21) (7. ,77) (3, , 49) (20 . 53) — -

SC High 35. 22 41. 16 38. , 25 37. ,10 _ _ 41,. 00(3 . 83) (2 . 88) (4. .35) (3. ,34) — - (2, . 80)

TOT High 315. 11 329. 17 323. 25 290. 00 — >77 ,, 00( 35 . 08) (31. 90) (26. 16) (22 . 13) - - <:32. , 52)

SSA High 96 . 88 97. 08 103. 00 87. 40 — - 121, , 50( 1 2 . 19) (13 . 88) (19 . 70) ( 13 . 32) - - <:23. .33)

SOS High 65. 00 72. 25 66. 08 60. 10 — - 67.,00(7 . 53) (5. 04) (6 . 62) (5 . 74) — - (8. ,48)

NDS High 26. 89 21. 17 36. 67 25. 10 — _ 5. 50(20 . 69) (13 . 85) (28. 83) (10 . 30) — — (4. 94)

♦ P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

TSCS S c a l e s : SC - S e l f C r i t i c i s mTOT - O v e r a l l L e v e l o f S e l f - E s t e e mSSA - S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o nSOS - S o c i a l S e l fNDS - Number of D e v i a n t S i g n s

Page 113: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

99

m u s i c . One ma le i n r e s p o n d i n g t o wha t i n t e r e s t e d him

a b o u t m u s i c w r o t e : " I c o u l d g e t a l o n g f i n e w i t h o u t m u s i c ,

o r I s h o u l d s a y r o c k m u s i c . I l i k e t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e

n e x t n o t e s t h a t w i l l be p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g c o m p l i c a t e d

p a s s a g e s . "

The m a l e s i n t h e c l a s s i c a l g r o u p , and two o t h e r n o n­

r o c k c a t e g o r i e s w er e a l l m e a s u r e d a s low i n v o l v e m e n t . The

two r e m a i n i n g f e m a l e s ( c l a s s i c a l ) we r e b o t h i n t h e h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Co mpar i ng t h e s c o r e s o f t h e

n o n - r o c k g r o u p s t o t h e o t h e r g r o u p s on t a b l e 13, t h e non­

r o c k g r o u p s f a r e w e l l .

The s c o r e s o f t h e f e m a l e g r o u p a r e e s p e c i a l l y h i g h ,

w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f " s o c i a l s e l f " t h a t d o e s n o t a p p e a r

t o be d i f f e r e n t . T h i s g r o u p woul d seem t o be v e r y w e l l

a d j u s t e d . The number of d e v i a n t s i g n s i s q u i t e low, and

t h i s i s a h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The number o f d e v i a n t

s i g n s f o r t h e ma le c l a s s i c a l g r o u p a r e a l s o v e r y low w i t h

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f one i n d i v i d u a l t h a t s c o r e d 53 wh ic h

d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h e mean. T h e se r e s u l t s c a n n o t

be c o n s i d e r e d t o o s e r i o u s l y b e c a u s e of t h e s m a l l numbers

o f s u b j e c t s , b u t s u g g e s t t h a t r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s may e x i s t

on s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t p r e f e r

c l a s s i c a l m u s i c v e r s u s p o p u l a r m u s i c .

Page 114: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

100

R e s u l t s o f L i s t e n i n g t o Music Al one o r Wi t h F r i e n d s

A q u e s t i o n on t h e MIQ a s k e d t h e s u b j e c t s t o r a t e what

p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e . t o t a l t i m e t h e y s p e n d l i s t e n i n g t o m us ic

i s s p e n t a l o n e , o r w i t h f r i e n d s . I t was t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s

v a r i a b l e would p e r m i t f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e p r i ­

mary g r o u p s i n t h e s t u d y . An a d o l e s c e n t t h a t s p e n d s a

g r e a t d e a l o f t i m e l i s t e n i n g t o m us ic a l o n e i n h i s room

c o u l d have d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s f o r h i s i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c

t h a n an a d o l e s c e n t t h a t l i s t e n s t o m u s i c p r i m a r i l y i n

s o c i a l s e t t i n g s . The s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y d i d n o t d i f ­

f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y on t h i s d i m e n s i o n . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e

s u b j e c t s (68%) c i r c l e d 25% w i t h f r i e n d s and 75% a l o n e .

U s i n g t h e c r i t e r i a o f 75% o r more t i m e s p e n t a l o n e , t h e

m a j o r i t y o f a l l s u b j e c t s i n a l l g r o u p s were r e p r e s e n t e d .

A l l g r o u p s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f two, had 70 t o 85 p e r ­

c e n t o f t h e i r members l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c m o s t l y a l o n e a t

t h e 75% o r more l e v e l . T he se wer e : t h e m a l e , pop r o c k ,

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a t 57%; and t h e f e m a l e , pop r o c k ,

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p a t 59%. No g r o u p had a m a j o r i t y o f

s u b j e c t s l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c m o s t l y w i t h f r i e n d s . T h u s ,

f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y g r o u p s , and s u b ­

s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s was n o t i n d i c a t e d .

A n a l y s i s o f Open Ended Q u e s t i o n s

T h r e e q u e s t i o n s on t h e MIQ were i n c l u d e d t o g a t h e r

a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c .

Page 115: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

101

The r e s p o n s e s e c t i o n s were l e f t u n s t r u c t u r e d i n l i n e w i t h

t h e e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h e s t u d y . T h e se t h r e e q u e s t i o n s

w e r e : Why i s o r i s n o t m u s i c a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f y o u r

l i f e ? , What d o e s l i s t e n i n g t o y o u r f a v o r i t e s t y l e o f mu s i c

do f o r y o u ? , and Any a d d i t i o n a l comments you may have

a b o u t y o u r i n t e r e s t o r l a c k o f i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c? The

s u b j e c t s ' a n s w e r s we r e e v a l u a t e d and c a t e g o r i e s d e v e l o p e d

t o i n c l u d e t h e m a j o r i t y of r e s p o n s e s . E i g h t m a j o r c a t e ­

g o r i e s wer e d e v e l o p e d . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

i n d i v i d u a l l y .

The l a r g e s t c a t e g o r y t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f s u b j e c t s

commented a b o u t was r e l a x a t i o n . F i f t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e

s a m p l e made a comment a b o u t how m u s i c i s an a i d t o r e l a x ­

a t i o n . Some e x a m p l e s f o l l o w : " I t h e l p s me r e l a x , " " I t

c a l m s me down, " " I t h e l p s me r e l a x and e s c a p e t h e w o r l d , "

"Mus i c i s r e l a x i n g an d a c h a n g e f rom t h e p r e s s u r e s a t

s c h o o l , " "Mus ic i s h e l p f u l by ways of a s e d a t i v e , "

" S o o t h i n g , a g r e a t r e l e a s e o f t e n s i o n . " F o r t y - e i g h t p e r ­

c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment a b o u t how m us ic can

i m p ro ve a p e r s o n ' s mood. F o r a r e s p o n s e t o be i n c l u d e d i n

t h i s c a t e g o r y an imp ro v em en t i n mood had t o be n o t e d . Some

e x a m p l e s f o l l o w : " I t i m p r o v e s my mo od , " " G e t s me i n t o a

good mo od , " " P i c k s me up when I g e t down or s a d , " " G i v e s

me a n a t u r a l h i g h , " "Mus ic c a n make you f e e l b e t t e r i f you

g i v e i t a t r y and i t ' s a l o t c h e a p e r and b e t t e r f o r you

t h a n d r u g s , " " I t ' s t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t c an c h a n g e my mood

Page 116: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

102

i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . " A n o t h e r s i m i l a r c a t e g o r y

i n c l u d e s a comment a b o u t m u s i c m a k i n g t h e s u b j e c t f e e l

" go od " o r " h a p p y " w i t h o u t t h e m e n t i o n of " i m p r o v e m e n t " o f

mood. F o r t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e s a m p l e made s u c h a comment.

Some e x a m p l e s f o l l o w : "Makes me h a p p y , " "Makes me f e e l

g o o d , " " I e n j o y i t , " " I t d e l i g h t s m e . "

The f o u r t h c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e s a r e s p o n s e r e l a t e d t o

t h e s t i m u l a r i o n v a l u e o f m u s i c . F o r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e

s u b j e c t s r e s p o n d e d t h a t m u s i c was o f some v a l u e i n t e r m s

o f s t i m u l a t i o n . Some e x a m p l e s f o l l o w : " I t g e t s me r o w d y , "

" H e l p s me h u r r y up when I n e e d i t , " " S o m e t i m e s t h e b e a t

w i l l l i f t you up a n d make you f e e l l i k e w o r k i n g , " " G e t s me

h y p e r , " " I t ' s l i k e a s t r o n g c u p o f c o f f e e , makes you a l e r t ,

makes me want t o g e t g o i n g . " The n e x t c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e s

t h e e x p e r i e n c i n g o f e m o t i o n s a n d m u s i c ' s a b i l i t y t o b r i n g

a b o u t a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s . F o r t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b ­

j e c t s made a comment t o t h i s e f f e c t . Some e x a m p l e s a r e a s

f o l l o w s : " I t h e l p s me e x p r e s s my f e e l i n g s , " " G i v e s me a

v a r i e t y of f e e l i n g s , " "Mus ic i s t h e o n l y p u r e e x p r e s s i o n

o f raw e m o t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g a n d t h r o u g h m u s i c you c a n r e a c h

new d e p t h s , " "An o u t l e t f o r my e m o t i o n s b e t t e r l e f t u n ­

e x p r e s s e d , " " G i v e s me a f r e e d o m I c a n ' t e x p r e s s an ywh er e

e l s e , a r o u n d my f r i e n d s i t ' s h a r d t o open up, m u s i c t h a t I

c a n r e l a t e t o g i v e s me t h e c h a n c e t o c r y i f I wan t t o , "

" A l l o w s me t o f e e l e m o t i o n s I m i g h t n o t l e t o u t o t h e r w i s e . "

Page 117: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

103

The s i x t h c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

T h i r t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment t h a t

i n d i c a t e d t h a t m u s i c a i d s i n s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Some

e x a m p l e s a r e : "The w o r d s o r l y r i c s r e l a t e t o my l i f e , I

c a n e x p r e s s my c a r e s and w o r r i e s i n l i s t e n i n g t o t h e

s o n g s , " " I t l e t s me u n l o c k my i n n e r s e l f and f i n d more

m e a n i n g i n l i f e , " " I t h e l p s me u n d e r s t a n d m y s e l f , "

" L i s t e n i n g t o t h e B e a t l e s and P a u l McCar t ney h a s h e l p e d

me l e a r n more a b o u t m y s e l f , " "Mus ic g i v e s i n s i g h t i n t o

o n e s e l f . " The s e v e n t h c a t e g o r y i n v o l v e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n ,

a n d how i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c c a n i m p ro v e f r i e n d s h i p s and p e e r

r e l a t i o n s . T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment

o f t h i s s o r t . Some e x a m p l e s a r e : " I t i s s o m e t h i n g I have

i n common w i t h o t h e r s my a g e , " " I l i s t e n t o p o p u l a r m us ic

t o k e e p c u r r e n t t o wha t my f r i e n d s l i k e , " "Mus ic i s a b i g

p a r t o f my l i f e , my f r i e n d s an d I have had a l o t o f f u n

w i t h m u s i c . " The l a s t c a t e g o r y t h a t a good number o f s u b ­

j e c t s r e s p o n d e d t o i n v o l v e d t h e u s e of m u s i c w i t h homework.

Twent y p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d t h e y u s e d m u s i c w i t h homework,

u s u a l l y a s a n a i d . Some e x a m p l e s f o l l o w : "Music can h e l p

p e o p l e do ho me wo r k , " " G i v e s me a ' b a c k g r o u n d ' f o r homework,"

" I l i s t e n t o m u s i c b e c a u s e I h ave homework t o d o , " "Fun t o

l i s t e n t o w h i l e d o i n g homewor k , " " H e l p s me s t u d y . "

The r e m a i n d e r o f r e s p o n s e s f ro m t h e s u b j e c t s were

more i d i o s y n c r a t i c a nd n o t s o e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d . Not a l l

o f t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n m u s i c and

Page 118: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

104

v a r i o u s comments w e r e made t o t h i s e f f e c t : " I l i k e o t h e r

t h i n g s , t o o , m u s i c i s n o t my mos t i m p o r t a n t p a s t i m e , "

"Mus i c i s n ' t i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e I h a ve no m u s i c a l h o b b i e s , "

"Mu s i c d o e s n o t h i n g f o r m e , " Very few o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s

m e n t i o n e d t h e i r u s e o f m u s i c f o r " e n t e r t a i n m e n t " p u r p o s e s

( l e s s t h a n 5%), a n d v e r y few m e n t i o n e d i t s u s e i n r e ­

d u c i n g boredom (4%).

One f i f t e e n y e a r o l d f e m a l e w r o t e a l o n g , t h o u g h t

p r o v o k i n g comment t h a t was r a t h e r a t y p i c a l b u t q u i t e

i n t e r e s t i n g . She w r o t e :

" I f e e l t h e r e a s o n mos t k i d s ( t e e n a g e r s ) l i k e r o c k and h e a vy m e t a l i s b e c a u s e t h e i r p a r e n t s d o n ' t wan t them t o . They j u s t r e b e l and want t o do wha t t h e i r p a r e n t s d o n ' t want them t o do . Cau se i f you l o o k a t mos t pop s t a r s t h e y a r e r e b e l l i o u s and r a d i c a l . They h av e wha t t e e n a g e r s w a n t . S o c i e t y ' s a c c e p ­t a n c e t o be d i f f e r e n t . They h ave power and t h e a b i l i t y t o make t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e c l a p t h e i r h a n d s a n d s to mp t h e i r f e e t i n t i m e t o t h e m u s i c . They h a ve u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l . I t i s s o m e t h i n g e v e r y t e e n a g e r w a n t s . I t ' s a g r e a t f e e l i n g t o know when you s n a p y o u r f i n g e r s o r w a l k a c r o s s a s t a g e p e o p l e w i l l s c r e a m an d s h o u t an d f a i n t f o r you . I hope you u n d e r s t a n d a nd t h i s h e l p s . I t ' s j u s t t h a t t e e n a g e r s a l w a y s want t o be t h e one n o t i c e d t o s t a n d o u t , b u t s t i l l be t h e same.L i k e r o c k s t a r s f e e l g r e a t when t h e r e on s t a g e a n d s e e d r u n k , h i g h , r e a l l y m e s s e d up p e o p l e y e l l i n g an d f i g h t i n g a nd t h e y f e e l g r e a t . Bu t w o u l d n ' t t h e y f e e l g u i l t y o r s o r r y down i n s i d e ? I d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t . ' "

Comments t h a t m e n t i o n e d t h e word r e b e l l i o n wer e few

( l e s s t h a n 3%) among t h e t o t a l s a m p l e . Thus, s h e may n o t

be r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e g r o u p ' s f e e l i n g s on t h i s i s s u e , b u t

h e r t h o u g h t s on power a nd c o n t r o l a r e t y p i c a l , s p e c i f i c a l l y

Page 119: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

105

on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h " r o c k s t a r s " a n d some r e s u l t ­

i n g c o n f u s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s . I b e l i e v e s h e c l e a r l y p o r ­

t r a y s t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d an a d o l e s c e n t ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h " r o c k s t a r " m o d e l s .

The e i g h t p r i m a r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f r e s p o n s e s were

c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e s i g n of t h e s t u d y ,

s p e c i f i c a l l y i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e f o u r ma i n h y p o t h e s e s .

The d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e n t a g e of s u b j e c t s w i t h i n g r o u p s

t h a t made c e r t a i n comments wer e c o m p a r e d . M u l t i p l e

c o m p a r i s o n s a r e p o s s i b l e , an d many d i f f e r e n c e s were

f o u n d t o e x i s t . The g r o u p s u s e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s

we r e t h e g r o u p s i n w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s we r e o b t a i n e d

on t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s . The p u r p o s e was t o augment

an d c l a r i f y e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s . The p r e s e n t a t i o n , a nd s u b ­

s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n , o f f i n d i n g s w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o

t h o s e t h a t b e a r a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s ,

and d e m o n s t r a t e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e s t o

v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s o f comments .

In t h e h y p o t h e s e s t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e t h e m a l e s were

f o u n d t o d i f f e r on p r e f e r e n c e and i n v o l v e m e n t . The p e r ­

c e n t a g e s of m a l e s i n t h e s e f o u r g r o u p s we r e c a l c u l a t e d t o

a s c e r t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , i n r e s p o n s e s t o t h e

e i g h t c a t e g o r i e s o f comments . No s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s

we r e f o u n d when c o m p a r i n g p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s , b u t d i f ­

f e r e n c e s wer e e v i d e n c e d on " r e l a x a t i o n " a n d " i m p r o v e s

mood" on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n . A h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e

Page 120: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

106

o f m a l e s i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p v e r s u s t h e low

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p commented t h a t m u s i c h e l p s them r e l a x

a nd i m p r o v e s t h e i r mood. T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d

i n f i g u r e 4.

In t h e h y p o t h e s e s l i s t i n g p r o c e d u r e t h e f e m a l e s were

f o u n d t o d i f f e r on p r e f e r e n c e , i n v o l v e m e n t and i n t e r a c t i o n s

w e r e e v i d e n c e d . The p e r c e n t a g e s o f f e m a l e s i n t h e v a r i o u s

g r o u p s wer e c a l c u l a t e d t o a s c e r t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r ­

e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e s t o t h e e i g h t c a t e g o r i e s o f comments .

V a r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s we r e f o u n d . The r e s u l t s w h i c h b e a r a

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s a r e d i s c u s s e d . The

f e m a l e s d i f f e r on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n on " r e l a x a ­

t i o n , " " i m p r o v e s mood" a n d " e x p e r i e n c e s e m o t i o n s . " A

g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t

g r o u p made comments i n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . R e s u l t s a r e

i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5. The f e m a l e s d i f f e r on t h e

p r e f e r e n c e d i m e n s i o n on " s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g " a nd " i m p r o v e s

s o c i a l i z a t i o n . " A g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e f e m a l e s i n

t h e pop r o c k g r o u p made comments i n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a s

c a n be s e e n i n f i g u r e 6. The " i m p r o v e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n "

comments we r e f o u n d t o i n v o l v e an i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

p r e f e r e n c e and i n v o l v e m e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r f e m a l e s . The

f e m a l e , pop r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d a

g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s t h a n t h e f e m a l e , pop

r o c k , low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The r e s u l t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d

i n f i g u r e 7.

Page 121: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

107

H e lp s R e la x Im p ro v es Mood

71% 37% 52% 33%High Low High Low

I n v o l v e m e n t I n v o l v e m e n t

85

8075

7065

6055

50454035

30

2520

1510

5

F i g u r e 4. . P e r c e n t a g e o f Ma le s C o m m e n t i n g - a b o u t R e l a x i n g a n d Mood I m p r o v i n g E f f e c t s o f Mu si c by I n v o l v e m e n t Groups

Page 122: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

108

Im p roves Mood

72% 27% 63% 30%High Low High Low

I n v o l v e m e n t I n v o l v e m e n t

E x p e r i e n c i n g E m o t i o n s

64% 30%High Low

I n v o l v e m e n t

F i g u r e 5. P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing a b o u t R e l a x i n g , Mood I m p r o v i n g , an d E x p e r i e n c i n g E m o t i o n s E f f e c t s o f Mus ic by I n v o l v e m e n t Groups

Page 123: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

109

S e l f - U n d e r s t a n d i n g Im p ro v es S o c i a l i z a t i o n

to * ;,..v t m* r J

55% 25% 51% 24%Pop Hard Pop Hard

P r e f e r e n c e P r e f e r e n c e

F i g u r e 6. P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing a b o u t I m p r o v i n g S e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and S o c i a l i z a t i o n E f f e c t s o f Music by P r e f e r e n c e Groups

Page 124: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

110

Pop Rock I m p r o v e s S o c i a l i z a t i o n

a.poHu

o+Jaaiopa;

Ah

*' 1 k66 %

HighI n v o l v e m e n t

F i g u r e 7. P e r c e n t a g e o f F e m a l e s Comment ing a b o u t I m p r o v i n g S o c i a l i z a t i o n E f f e c t s o f M u s i c . Pop Rock, High I n v o l v e m e n t Group C o n t r a s t e d t o Pop Rock, Low I n v o l v e m e n t Group.

Page 125: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

CHAPTER V

Summary and D i s c u s s i o n

The p r e s e n t s t u d y was d e s i g n e d a s an e x p l o r a t o r y s u r ­

vey t o t e s t a number o f g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s e s , and g a t h e r i n ­

f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d o l e s c e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c . The p a i r

o f r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s t h a t were i n v e s t i g a t e d wer e : W i l l

s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s e x

d i f f e r e n t i a t e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s

who p r e f e r h a r d r o c k m u s i c v e r s u s pop r o c k m u s i c ? W i l l

t h e same v a r i a b l e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e

b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s who a r e h i g h l y i n v o l v e d i n mu s i c

l i s t e n i n g v e r s u s t h o s e who a r e n o t so h i g h l y i n v o l v e d ?

C o n s i d e r a b l e communi ty and a c a d e m i c i n t e r e s t h a s b een

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t s o f p o p u l a r m u s i c a s an

a g e n t o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n . I t h a s n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y demon­

s t r a t e d t h a t m us ic p e r s e i s a c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r i n t e r m s

o f a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , o r p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s , b u t i n d i ­

v i d u a l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s have b e e n shown

t o v a r y on t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s . The m e c ha n i s ms by w h i c h m us ic

r e f l e c t s a l i s t e n e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n n e e d f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n

g i v e n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s ' c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g i l l i c i t b e h a v i o r

111

Page 126: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

112

c o n t r o l and p o t e n t i a l m i s u s e s o f mu s i c by a d o l e s c e n t s .

T h i s s t u d y u t i l i z e d t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f C on c e p t S c a l e ,

an i n s t r u m e n t by w h i c h an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s

h av e b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o h i s o r

h e r g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y and s t a t e o f m e n t a l h e a l t h . The

i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p

e x i s t s b e t w e e n an a d o l e s c e n t ' s s t a t e o f m e n t a l h e a l t h and

h i s o r h e r i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c . T h i s w r i t e r t h o u g h t s u c h a

r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d e x i s t f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , a d o l e s ­

c e n t s s u f f e r i n g f r o m a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s u s u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e

e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f a n x i e t y o r d e ­

p r e s s i o n and m u s i c l i s t e n i n g h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o

a l t e r an i n d i v i d u a l ' s e m o t i o n a l s t a t e . S e c on d , t h e n a t u r e

o f r o c k an d p o p u l a r m u s i c f e a t u r e s t h e l y r i c a l e m p h a s i s on

a d o l e s c e n t i s s u e s a n d p r o b l e m s an d s t r u c t u r a l an d s t y l i s t i c

" d e v i a t i o n s " o f t h e m u s i c a nd i t s p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

To e x p l o r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

a d o l e s c e n t s ' m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t s a nd a m e n t a l h e a l t h v a r i ­

a b l e a p p e a r e d t o be a p r a c t i c a l m et hod t o s u p p o r t t h e

i m p o r t a n c e of c l a r i f y i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s

i n f u t u r e r e s e a r c h , o r d i m i n i s h i n g t h e g e n e r a l i z e d c r i t i ­

c i s m s o f r o c k an d p o p u l a r m u s i c .

The f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y s u p p o r t t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d

r e l a t i o n s h i p an d s u g g e s t t h e a r e a o f a d o l e s c e n t s ' m u s i c a l

i n t e r e s t s i s d e s e r v i n g o f f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

Page 127: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

113

Summary o f R e s u l t s

H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g

1. Of t h e m a l e g r o u p one v a r i a b l e , s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

was f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h a r d r o c k g r o u p and

t h e pop r o c k g r o u p . The m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k g r o u p had

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r ( P . ^ . 0 1 ) s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n s c o r e s on

t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e ( TSCS) . The m a l e s i n t h e

h a r d r o c k g r o u p w e r e more s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r s e l f .

2. Of t h e ma le g r o u p one v a r i a b l e , number o f d e v i a n t

s i g n s , was f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment a n d t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s . The m a l e s i n t h e

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

( P ^ . 0 0 1 ) on t h e number o f d e v i a n t s i g n s s u b s c a l e o f t h e

TSCS t h a n t h e m a l e s i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

3. W i t h i n t h e f e m a l e g r o u p s , t h e v a r i a b l e s s e l f -

c r i t i c i s m a nd s o c i a l s e l f w e r e f o u n d t o be i n v o l v e d i n a

p r e f e r e n c e by i n v o l v e m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . The f e m a l e s i n t h e

pop r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y

h i g h e r ( P > . 0 5 ) on t h e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and s o c i a l s e l f

TSCS s u b s c a l e s t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k , low

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k , low

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r (P-^ . 0 0 1 ) on

t h e s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k ,

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

4. Of t h e f e m a l e g r o u p two s e l f - c o n c e p t v a r i a b l e s

we r e f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r e n c e

Page 128: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

114

g r o u p an d t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p . The f e m a l e s i n

t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

(P > . 0 0 1 ) on t o t a l p o s i t i v e ( s e l f - c o n c e p t ) and s e l f - s a t i s ­

f a c t i o n ( P > . 0 5 ) on t h e TSCS t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d

r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p .

5. Of t h e f e m a l e g r o u p one v a r i a b l e , number of

d e v i a n t s i g n s , was f o u n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t an d t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The f e m a l e s i n

t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

( P - ^ . 0 5 ) on t h e number o f d e v i a n t s i g n s s u b s c a l e o f t h e

TSCS t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

Non-Rock Group Com par i son

1. The TSCS s c o r e s o f t h e n o n - r o c k g r o u p wer e n o t

s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o m p a r e d b e c a u s e of t h e s m a l l number (Nm7,

7.3% o f s a m p l e ) .

2. Compared t o t h e s c o r e s o f t h e o t h e r g r o u p s , t h e

n o n - r o c k g r o u p s c o r e s wer e f a v o r a b l e .

3 . R e a l d i f f e r e n c e s may e x i s t on s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s

b e t w e e n a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t p r e f e r c l a s s i c a l m u s i c v e r s u s

p o p u l a r m u s i c .

L i s t e n i n g t o Music Al one o f Wi th F r i e n d s

1. No s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s wer e

e v i d e n c e d on t h i s d i m e n s i o n .

Page 129: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

115

Open Ended Q u e s t i o n s

1. F i f t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment

a b o u t how m u s i c was u s e d a s an a i d t o r e l a x a t i o n .

2. F o r t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment

a b o u t how m u s i c c a n i mpr ove a p e r s o n ' s mood.

3. F o r t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e s a m p l e made a comment

a b o u t mu s i c mak i ng t h e s u b j e c t f e e l " g o o d " o r " h a p p y . "

4 . F o r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s r e s p o n d e d t h a t

m u s i c was o f v a l u e i n t e r m s o f s t i m u l a t i o n .

5. F o r t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment

a b o u t m u s i c ' s a b i l i t y t o b r i n g a b o u t a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s .

6. T h i r t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s made a comment

t h a t i n d i c a t e d m u s i c l y r i c s a i d i n s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

7. T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e s a m p l e i n d i c a t e d t h a t

i n t e r e s t i n mu s i c c a n i mp rov e f r i e n d s h i p s and p e e r r e l a ­

t i o n s .

8 . Twenty p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y

u s e d m u s i c w i t h homework, u s u a l l y a s an a i d .

C o m p a r i s o n of Comments f ro m Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o R e s u l t s f rom H y p o t h e s e s T e s t i n g P r o c e d u r e

1. A s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f m a l e s i n t h e

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p v e r s u s t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p

commented t h a t m u s i c h e l p s them r e l a x and i m p r o v e s t h e i r

mood.

2. A s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f f e m a l e s i n

t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t v e r s u s t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p

Page 130: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

116

commented t h a t m u s i c h e l p s them r e l a x , e x p e r i e n c e e m o t i o n s ,

a n d i m p r o v e s t h e i r mood.

3. A s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e of f e m a l e s i n

t h e pop r o c k p r e f e r e n c e g r o u p v e r s u s t h e h a r d r o c k p r e f e r ­

e n c e g r o u p made comments t h a t m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t an d l i s t e n ­

i n g i m p r o v e s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

4. The f e m a l e , pop r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p r e p ­

r e s e n t e d a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f comments a b o u t " i m p r o v e s

s o c i a l i z a t i o n " t h a n t h e f e m a l e , pop r o c k , low i n v o l v e m e n t

g r o u p .

The r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l f o c u s on a d i s ­

c u s s i o n , a nd i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s by s e c t i o n s .

F i r s t c o n s i d e r e d w i l l be g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o

t h e two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s s t u d i e d : m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s and

l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t . S e c on d , d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be p r e ­

s e n t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e f a i l u r e t o f i n d s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r ­

e n c e s on t h e " l i s t e n i n g a l o n e o r w i t h f r i e n d s " d i m e n s i o n .

The t h i r d s e c t i o n w i l l f o c u s on f u t u r e r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t i o n s ,

a n d t h e l a s t s e c t i o n i n v o l v e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c a l

a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s .

G e n e r a l I m p l i c a t i o n s

The f i n d i n g t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t s c o r e s among t y p e s o f a d o l e s c e n t m u s i c l i s t e n e r s e x i s t

i s n o t a b l e . T h i s i s i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t s c o r e s a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l s t a t e o f

Page 131: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

117

m e n t a l h e a l t h . The f i n d i n g t h a t t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t

g r o u p s e v i d e n c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s i g n s o f " p s y c h o l o g i ­

c a l d i s t u r b a n c e " i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y . C o n s i d e r a b l e

c a u t i o n mu s t be u s e d i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e f i n d i n g s i f

e r r o r s i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a r e t o be a v o i d e d .

The p r e s e n t s t u d y was e x p l o r a t o r y i n n a t u r e and

u t i l i z e d a n o n - r a n d o m s a m p l e . I t was i n t e n d e d a s a f i r s t

s t e p i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y i g n o r e d a r e a o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The

d e s i g n o f t h e s t u d y d o e s n o t p e r m i t t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f

c a u s e a n d e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Al mos t no e v i d e n c e e x i s t s

f r o m p a s t s t u d i e s t o a t t r i b u t e p e r s o n a l i t y o r o t h e r p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s i n f l u e n c e d by m u s i c p e r s e . I t

w o u l d be a s e r i o u s e r r o r a t t h i s p o i n t t o a t t r i b u t e t h e

o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s , i n t h i s s t u d y , a s c a u s e d by t h e

m u s i c . L i n e a r , a n t e c e d e n t - c o n s e q u e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of

c a u s a l i t y wou ld p r o v e t o be t o o s i m p l i s t i c i n t h i s a r e a ,

e v e n t h o u g h t h e c r i t i c s o f r o c k m u s i c h av e u s u a l l y f o c u s e d

on t h e " e f f e c t s " o f m u s i c on t e e n a g e r s . The c o n c e p t i o n of

c a u s a l i t y i s a s s u m e d t o be l i n e a r , when i n r e a l i t y a d i a ­

l e c t i c a l , c o n t e x t u a l c o n c e p t i o n o f c a u s a l i t y w o ul d a p p e a r

more r e a s o n a b l e , a l b e i t more c o m p l e x . The a d o l e s c e n t m us ic

l i s t e n e r s c a n n o t be t h o u g h t o f a s a p a s s i v e a u d i e n c e and

t h e r e c o r d i n d u s t r y c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s i m p l e

c a u s e . The m u s i c i n d u s t r y i s h i g h l y e f f e c t e d by t h e

a d o l e s c e n t s t h e m s e l v e s . The i n d u s t r y c a t e r s t o a d o l e s c e n t

i n t e r e s t s an d e x p e r i e n c e s , many o f t h e a r t i s t s a r e

Page 132: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

118

a d o l e s c e n t s t h e m s e l v e s w r i t i n g f ro m t h e i r own p e r s p e c t i v e .

The a d o l e s c e n t s i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m and s t y l e of p o p u l a r

m u s i c , an d t h e m u s i c i n t u r n c o u l d i n f l u e n c e t h e a d o l e s ­

c e n t s .

Music P r e f e r e n c e s

The t o p i c o f m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l

c a t e g o r y of r o c k m u s i c i s r a t h e r c o n f u s i n g , and n e e d s t o

be e v a l u a t e d c a r e f u l l y . The a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y do

h av e d i f f e r e n t and d i s t i n c t p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t c a n be c a t e ­

g o r i z e d a s h a r d o r pop by m u s i c i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d s . One

f o r m i s a l m o s t a l w a y s c l e a r l y f a v o r e d o v e r t h e o t h e r ,

b u t t h e f o r m and s t y l e o f t h e m u s i c i s v e r y s i m i l a r . To

c o n f u s e t h e m a t t e r f u r t h e r m u s i c i n d u s t r y p r e s s have r e ­

c e n t l y b e e n r e f e r r i n g t o a n o t h e r f o rm o f r o c k m us ic t e r m e d

" h a r d p o p . " T h i s f o r m o f r o c k m u s i c h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y s o l d

w e l l among r o c k f a n s . C o n s i d i n e ( 19 81 ) h a s c o i n e d t h e

t e r m , h a r d pop: " h a r d , b e c a u s e i t s s o u nd d e r i v e s f rom t h e

c o n t o u r s o f h a r d r o c k and h e a vy m e t a l ; p op , b e c a u s e i t s

f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s p o p s o n g m e l o d i c i s m . "

Many s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y f a v o r e d t h i s f o rm o f m u s i c and

i t was c l a s s i f i e d a s pop on t h e Music I n t e r e s t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e

r e s p o n s e s . The s u b j e c t s u s u a l l y l i s t e d e x a m p l e s o f t h i s

f o r m i n t h e "Pop Rock" c a t e g o r y , b u t t h e y a l s o a p p e a r e d

u n d e r " h a r d r o c k " a nd " h e a v y m e t a l " c a t e g o r i e s . T h e se

s e l e c t i o n s ( s o n g s o r a r t i s t s ) wer e t h e o n l y o n e s t h a t t h e

Page 133: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

119

s u b j e c t s were n o t q u i t e s o k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t . The

s u b j e c t s ' g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m u s i c i n d u s t r y s t a n ­

d a r d s i n t e r m s o f s t y l e s o f m u s i c was e x c e l l e n t . Music

i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s e s u b j e c t s a s e v i d e n c e d by t h e i r com­

m e n t s a n d k n o w l e d g e .

F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d i s c u s s i o n a nd c l a r i t y a few

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t pop r o c k and h a r d r o c k n e e d t o be

made. Hard r o c k u s u a l l y f e a t u r e s a n e l e c t r i c g u i t a r b a s e d

i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r m a t , w i t h a p r o m i n e n t , t h r o b b i n g drum b e a t ,

a n d a m u s c u l a r t e n o r v o i c e . The t empo o f t h e m u s i c i s

r e l a t i v e l y f a s t , a n d t h e l y r i c s a r e o f t e n n o n - c o n f o r m i s t

i n c o n t e n t . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h a r d r o c k a nd hea vy

m e t a l i s s l i g h t , t h e d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r b e i n g t h e t o n e o f

t h e e l e c t r i c g u i t a r . In heavy m e t a l t h e g u i t a r i s o f t e n

v e r y " f a t " ( p r o m i n e n t and d o m i n a t i n g ) an d a l w a y s q u i t e

d i s t o r t e d . Pop r o c k r e l i e s more h e a v i l y on me l ody i n i t s

s t r u c t u r e , and i n s t r u m e n t s o t h e r t h a n g u i t a r s a r e f e a t u r e d

( p i a n o , o r g a n , s t r i n g s e c t i o n s , h o r n s ) . The tempo o f t h i s

m u s i c v a r i e s f ro m s l o w " r o c k b a l l a d s " t o f a s t e r s e l e c t i o n s .

The l y r i c a l c o n t e n t i s n o t s o n o n - c o n f o r m i s t , an d u s u a l l y

i n v o l v e s " r o m a n t i c " t h e m e s . The i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n

h a r d r o c k a r e r h y t h m and e n e r g y , u s u a l l y c o m p l e m e n t e d by

n o n - c o n f o r m i s t l y r i c s . In pop r o c k m u s i c t h e d o m i n a n t

e l e m e n t s a r e me l o d y , and harmony, u s u a l l y c o m p l e m e n t e d by

r o m a n t i c l y r i c s .

Page 134: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

120

The m a l e s i n t h i s s t u d y t h a t f a v o r e d h a r d r o c k had

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s on s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a n t h e

m a l e s - i n t h e pop r o c k g r o u p . The s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n s u b ­

s c a l e on t h e TSCS i s d e r i v e d f rom t h e i t e m s where t h e i n ­

d i v i d u a l d e s c r i b e s how he f e e l s a b o u t t h e s e l f he p e r ­

c e i v e s . In g e n e r a l t h i s s c o r e r e f l e c t s h i s l e v e l o f s e l f -

s a t i s f a c t i o n o r s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e . T h i s f i n d i n g , and t h e

o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s on t h e p r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s t u d y

a r e d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d c o m p l e t e l y . At t h i s p o i n t

o n l y t e n t a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s c a n be made i n l i e u o f more

d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n . Such s u b s c a l e s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d

on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s g i v e n t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e

t o t a l p r o f i l e . Group c o m p a r i s o n s mus t be made w i t h

c a u t i o n .

The e i g h t c a t e g o r i e s o f comments on t h e MIQ a r e no t

o f h e l p i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s f i n d i n g b e c a u s e no r e a l

d i f f e r e n c e s we r e e v i d e n c e d b e t w e e n t h e pop and h a r d g r o u p s .

The c o n t e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l comments d o e s p r e s e n t a c l u e .

One ma le i n t he , h a r d r o c k g r o u p w r o t e : " I l i k e i t l o u d ,

w i t h s n o t t y l y r i c s a nd a b u s i v e l a n g u a g e . " O t h e r comments

a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s w er e : " I t ' s p o w e r f u l , " " I t f i t s my

i m a g e , " " I t ' s b a d " ( m e a n i n g g o o d ) , "Makes me a l i t t l e

u n i q u e , " " G o t t a h a ve i t SDR&R" ( s e x , d r u g s , r o c k *n r o l l ) .

T h e s e comment s , c o m bi n ed w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f h a r d r o c k ,

s u g g e s t i t s u i t s t h e i r t o u g h e r , more p o w e r f u l m a s c u l i n e

i d e n t i t y . S e x u a l s t e r e o t y p e s s t i l l v e r y much e x i s t i n our

Page 135: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

121

c u l t u r e and a r e o f t e n e x a g g e r a t e d among t h e young b e c a u s e

o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y s t r u g g l e s . Hard r o c k i s d o m i n a t e d by

ma le p e r f o r m e r s t h a t p o r t r a y a g g r e s s i v e , p o w e r f u l , s e x u ­

a l l y d o m i n a n t i m a g e s . The d omi n an ce of h a r d r o c k o v e r

pop r o c k i n t e r m s o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m a s c u l i n e an d f e m i n i n e s t e r e o t y p e s .

The a d o l e s c e n t m a l e s i n t h i s s t u d y t h a t i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e

" h a r d r o c k " image may f e e l more s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n b e c a u s e

i t c o i n c i d e s w i t h c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s o f m a s c u l i n i t y .

The f e m a l e s i n t h i s s t u d y t h a t f a v o r e d pop r o c k had

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s on t o t a l p o s i t i v e ( s e l f -

c o n c e p t ) a nd s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n s u b s c a l e s t h a n t h e f e m a l e s

t h a t p r e f e r r e d h a r d r o c k . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s e g r o u p s

d i f f e r e d on t h e MIQ comments : " i m p r o v e s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d ­

i n g , " and " i m p r o v e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n . " A g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e

o f f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k g r o u p commented on t h e s e i t e m s .

The t o t a l p o s i t i v e s u b s c a l e on t h e TSCS i s t h e s i n g l e , mos t

i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e o f o v e r a l l s e l f - e s t e e m . Pop r o c k i s l e s s

r e b e l l i o u s i n i t s l y r i c a l a nd m u s i c a l c o n t e n t , and may

c a t e r more t o f e m a l e s ’ i n t e r e s t i n r o m a n t i c t h e m e s . The

m a j o r i t y o f " r o c k s t a r s " a r e m a l e s , b u t more f e m a l e a r t i s t s

a r e e v i d e n t i n pop r o c k . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f e m a l e s i n t h i s

s t u d y m e n t i o n t h e i r " r o m a n t i c " i n t e r e s t i n t h e ma l e p e r ­

f o r m e r s . The f e m a l e s i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e ma l e p e r f o r m e r s i n

t e r m s o f i d e a l i z e d s e x u a l i m a g es an d r o m a n t i c t h e m e s . T h i s

i n t e r e s t i n pop m u s i c and male s i n g e r s i s n o t new and d a t e s

Page 136: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

122

b a c k t o F r a n k S i n a t r a a t l e a s t . The m a l e s , a s wer e

m e n t i o n e d , a l s o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e same mal e p e r f o r m e r s .

T h e i r r e a s o n s c o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d i n s e x u a l t e r m s

r e l a t e d t o t h e m u s i c i a n ' s d o m i n a n c e , power a nd c o n t r o l .

The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k g r o u p m e n t i o n e d t h a t

t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s m u s i c i m p r o v e s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g

a n d s o c i a l i z a t i o n . Gi ven t h e n a t u r e o f pop r o c k l y r i c s ,

s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g would be i n p a r t r e l a t e d t o s e x u a l

f e e l i n g s and b o y / g i r l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I m p r ov es s o c i a l i ­

z a t i o n woul d be r e l a t e d t o r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h same s e x

f r i e n d s an d m a l e s . The d e s i g n of t h i s s t u d y d o e s n o t

p e r m i t t h e e v a l u a t i o n of c a u s e and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

b e t w e e n t h e p r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s and comment v a r i a b l e s .

The f e m a l e s t h a t p r e f e r pop r o c k m u s i c have a h i g h e r

s e n s e o f s e l f - e s t e e m and s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h i s i s

l i k e l y t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e i r i m p ro v e d s e n s e o f s e l f -

u n d e r s t a n d i n g and c o m p e t e n c i e s i n p e e r r e l a t i o n s , w h i c h

a r e h i g h l y v a l u e d by g i r l s . Whet he r o r n o t t h e i r i n t e r e s t

i n m u s i c h a s i n c r e a s e d t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s , o r t h e i r

h i g h s c o r e s i n t h e s e a r e a s a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r c h o i c e o f

m u s i c a l s t y l e c a n n o t be e v a l u a t e d . T h e se i n f l u e n c e s c o u l d

l i k e l y be i n t e r a c t i v e . The TSCS i s a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t was

d e v e l o p e d w i t h c e r t a i n n o r m a t i v e b e h a v i o r s i n mind .

D e v i a t i o n s f rom s o c i a l norms w i l l r e s u l t i n l o w e r e d s c o r e s .

Pop r o c k m u s i c w ou ld a p p e a r t o be more c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

" n o r m a l " a d o l e s c e n t f e m a l e s ' i n t e r e s t s a nd f e m i n i n e

Page 137: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

123

s t e r e o t y p e s , when c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e s a l i e n t e l e m e n t s o f

h a r d r o c k . T hu s , t h e f i n d i n g t h a t t h e f e m a l e s p r e f e r r i n g

pop r o c k s c o r e d h i g h e r on t h e s e s e l f - c o n c e p t v a r i a b l e s i s

n o t s u r p r i s i n g .

The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k , h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p

s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on t h e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m s u b s c a l e

an d s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k ,

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . The s e l f - c r i t i c i s m s u b s c a l e on t h e

TSCS i s composed o f t e n m i l d l y d e r o g a t o r y s t a t e m e n t s t h a t

mos t p e o p l e a d m i t a s b e i n g t r u e f o r them. High s c o r e s i n ­

d i c a t e a n o r m a l , h e a l t h y o p e n n e s s a nd c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f -

c r i t i c i s m . The s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e r e f e r s t o t h e s e l f a s

p e r c e i v e d i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s t h a t a r e n o t f a m i l y mem­

b e r s .

The f e m a l e s i n t h e pop r o c k h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p

a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e of comments a b o u t

" i m p r o v e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n " on t h e MIQ t h a n t h e f e m a l e s i n

t h e pop r o c k low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . T h i s r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y

t o t h e i r h i g h e r s c o r e s on t h e s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e . T h e i r

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t i n m u s i c i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h e r s c o r e s

on t h e Number o f D e v i a n t S i g n s s u b s c a l e , w h i c h r e f e r s t o

more " p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e " ( d i s c u s s e d i n n e x t

s e c t i o n ) . The pop r o c k m e m b e r s h i p i s d e s i r a b l e , b u t t h e

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t i s n o t . The members o f t h i s g r o u p have

s i g n s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e , b u t t h e i r s e n s e o f

s o c i a l s e l f and s e l f - c r i t i c i s m a r e h i g h . S e l f - c r i t i c i s m i n

Page 138: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

t h i s c o n t e x t i s p o s i t i v e a n d i s s i m i l a r t o n o n - d e f e n s i v e ­

n e s s . T h e s e f e m a l e s a r e l e s s d e f e n s i v e wh ich may be

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r p e r c e i v e d c o m p e t e n c i e s i n p e e r r e ­

l a t i o n s . A l e s s d e f e n s i v e , open a t t i t u d e i s i m p o r t a n t

i n d e v e l o p i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s .

T h e i r h i g h i n t e r e s t / i n v o l v e m e n t i n p o p u l a r m u s i c c o u l d be

r e l a t e d t o p u r p o s e s o f i m p r o v i n g and d e v e l o p i n g p e e r r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p s . T h i s g r o u p may be a t t e m p t i n g t o d i m i n i s h

t h e i r p r o b l e m s t h r o u g h s o c i a l c o n t e x t s t h a t i n v o l v e p o p u ­

l a r m u s i c . T h i s s u g g e s t i o n must be c o n s i d e r e d q u i t e

t e n t a t i v e , a s d a t a i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y u n d e r ­

s t a n d t h i s f i n d i n g . R i d g e w a y ' s ( 19 76) s t u d y i s r e l a t e d

t o t h i s i s s u e . Her f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t " h i g h i n v o l v e ­

ment l i s t e n e r s " r e s p o n d t o a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m u s i c and

s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s , a nd h i g h l y i n v o l v e d m u s i c l i s t e n e r s a r e

a m b i v a l e n t a b o u t p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e a f f e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s

o f g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n . The f i n d i n g s f ro m t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y

c o n f i r m t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m u s i c a nd s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s ,

b u t wou l d a p p e a r t o r u n c o n t r a r y t o t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n

h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t l i s t e n e r s and c o n f l i c t a b o u t s o c i a l i n t e r ­

a c t i o n . Ridgeway s u g g e s t s t h a t h e r s u b j e c t s u s e m u s i c a s

a means o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i r a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s a b o u t

s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . The s u b j e c t s i n t h i s g r o u p wou l d n o t

a p p e a r t o be a m b i v a l e n t a b o u t s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . The i n ­

s t r u m e n t s u s e d i n R i d g e w a y ' s s t u d y an d t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y

a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y synonymous a nd c o n c l u s i o n s c a n n o t be

Page 139: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

125

dr awn . The c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m u s i c a nd s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s

i n t e r m s o f h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t l i s t e n e r s n e e d s f u r t h e r i n ­

v e s t i g a t i o n .

The f e m a l e s i n t h e h a r d r o c k low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p

s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on t h e s o c i a l s e l f s u b s c a l e

c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e h a r d r o c k h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p .

The f e m a l e s i n t h i s h a r d r o c k g r o u p may have e l e v a t e d

s c o r e s on s o c i a l s e l f b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

m a l e s . T h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r h a r d r o c k m us ic may s e r v e a s

a v e h i c l e i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h b o y s . The f e m a l e s

t h a t p r e f e r h a r d r o c k m u s i c a l s o i d o l i z e ma le p e r f o r m e r s ,

a l b e i t o n e s t h a t h a ve l e s s s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e i m a g es . A

p e r f o r m e r t h a t was m e n t i o n e d more t h a n once was O z z i e

O s b o r n e , who h a s b e e n known t o b i t e t h e h e a d s o f f o f l i v e

b a t s d u r i n g c o n c e r t s . T h e se g i r l s a r e mos t l i k e l y l e s s

c o n f o r m i s t t h a n t h e i r pop r o c k c o u n t e r p a r t s , an d may p r e ­

f e r b o y s t h a t a r e a l s o more r e b e l l i o u s . A g a i n , t h e s e

s u g g e s t i o n s a r e o n l y o f f e r e d a s s p e c u l a t i o n , a s d a t a i s

n o t a v a i l a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n t h i s f i n d i n g .

The a d o l e s c e n t s f a v o r i n g m u s i c t h a t was n o t c o n s i d ­

e r e d r o c k wer e few i n t h i s s t u d y . The l e t t e r e x p l a i n i n g

t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y r e f e r r e d t o m u s i c , n o t s p e c i f i c

s t y l e s o f m u s i c . N o t h i n g c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n

w o u l d h a ve f a v o r e d one f o rm o f m u s i c o v e r a n o t h e r . The

s u b j e c t s r e a d t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n and v o l u n t a r i l y c h o s e t o

p a r t i c i p a t e . I t i s n o t a s u r p r i s i n g f i n d i n g t h a t most

Page 140: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

126

s u b j e c t s p r e f e r r e d r o c k m u s i c , b u t one would t h i n k t h e

o t h e r f o r m s o f m u s i c wo ul d h ave b een more r e p r e s e n t e d .

F i v e o f t h e s e s e v e n s u b j e c t s f a v o r e d c l a s s i c a l m u s i c .

The o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s t h a t we r e r e p r e s e n t e d we r e " d i s c o "

and " c o u n t r y . " D i s c o m u s i c was v e r y p o p u l a r a b o u t f i v e

y e a r s a g o , b u t i t s a p p e a l h a s d r o p p e d o f f s h a r p l y . Count ry

m u s i c h a s a l w a y s b e e n p o p u l a r i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and

i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s h a s d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d i t s l i s t e n i n g

a u d i e n c e . T e e n a g e r s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y and

more r u r a l a r e a s wou l d l i k e l y be more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s

f orm o f p o p u l a r m u s i c . The s u b j e c t s t h a t f a v o r e d c l a s s i c a l

m u s i c wer e a l l a s p i r i n g m u s i c i a n s . T h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s

showed l e s s i n t e r e s t i n p o p u l a r m u s i c . As was m e n t i o n e d

i n c h a p t e r 4 , e v i d e n c e e x i s t s s u g g e s t i n g t h e s e a d o l e s ­

c e n t s may d i f f e r on s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s i n a p o s i t i v e

d i r e c t i o n .

The f i n d i n g s r e l a t e d t o m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e s a r e n o t

c l e a r c u t by any m ean s . The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t a s many

q u e s t i o n s a s a n s w e r s . T h i s s t u d y h a s u s e d comments f rom

t h e MIQ t o augment t h e f i n d i n g s f rom s e l f - c o n c e p t m e a s u r e s .

T h e s e comments make some a s s u m p t i o n s p o s s i b l e , b u t mus t be

v i e w e d a s s p e c u l a t o r y p e n d i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h .

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s t y l e s o f r o c k m u s i c by m u s i c

i n d u s t r y l a b e l s s u c h a s " h a r d r o c k " i s p o s s i b l y t h e wrong

t e c h n i q u e t o u t i l i z e i n s t u d i e s o f r o c k m u s i c . O t h e r

s a l i e n t e l e m e n t s c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d t h a t c o u l d be more

Page 141: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

127

r e v e a l i n g . The c o n t e n t o f f a v o r e d l y r i c s , t y p e o f i d e n t i ­

f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e a r t i s t s , a g g r e s s i v e n e s s o f t h e m u s i c a l

s t i m u l u s w ou l d be a few s u c h s u g g e s t i o n s . I f s a l i e n t

m u s i c a l o r e x t r a - m u s i c a l e l e m e n t s o f t h i s s o r t c o u l d be

i d e n t i f i e d , more c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d a b o u t an i n d i v i d u a l ' s

p r e f e r e n c e f o r one f o rm of r o c k mu s i c o v e r a n o t h e r .

L e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t

The l e v e l of i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n was d e v e l o p e d by

t h i s w r i t e r t o i d e n t i f y a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t were h i g h l y

i n t e r e s t e d / i n v o l v e d i n m u s i c . The i m p e t u s f o r t h i s p r o ­

j e c t o r i g i n a t e d f r o m c l i n i c a l work w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s who

w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a d j u s t m e n t d i s o r d e r s . I t a p p e a r e d t h a t

t h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s we r e u n i f o r m l y h i g h l y i n v o l v e d w i t h r oc k

m u s i c i n t e r e s t s .

The m a l e s i n t h i s s t u d y i n t h e h i g h i n v o vement g r o u p

s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r ( P ^ . 0 0 1 ) on t h e number of

d e v i a n t s i g n s s u b s c a l e on t h e TSCS t h a n t h e m a l e s i n t h e

low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . T h i s f i n d i n g was a l s o t r u e f o r t h e

f e m a l e s a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The number o f d e v i a n t s i g n s (NDS) s u b s c a l e o f t h e

TSCS i s a n e m p i r i c a l m e a s u r e t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a c o u n t o f

t h e number o f d e v i a n t f e a t u r e s on a l l o t h e r s c o r e s . T h i s

s c o r e i s b a s e d on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f B e r g

( 1 9 5 7 ) r e f e r r e d t o a s h i s " d e v i a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s . " T h i s

p o s i t i o n s t a t e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s who d e v i a t e s h a r p l y f ro m

Page 142: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

t h e norm on m i n o r b e h a v i o r s a r e l i k e l y t o be d e v i a n t on

m a j o r a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o r . The NDS s c o r e h a s p r o v e n t o

be t h e s c a l e ' s s i n g l e b e s t i n d e x o f " p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s ­

t u r b a n c e . " T h i s s c a l e a l o n e i d e n t i f i e s d e v i a n t i n d i v i ­

d u a l s w i t h a b o u t 80% a c c u r a c y ( F i t t s , 1 9 6 5 ) . As p a r t o f

t h e v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e TSCS t h e NDS s c o r e was u s e d t o d i s ­

c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n g r o u p s . F o u r g r o u p s we r e u s e d t o com­

p a r e t h e NDS s c o r e : One Ohi o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t

g r o u p ; an d t h r e e p a t i e n t g r o u p s ; a n Ohio S t a t e h o s p i t a l

g r o u p , communi ty m e n t a l h e a l t h c e n t e r g r o u p , a nd a VA

p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l g r o u p . A raw s c o r e of 10 i s u s e d a s

t h e maximum n o rm a l s c o r e f o r NDS. Twenty p e r c e n t o f t h e

o r i g i n a l norm g r o u p s c o r e a b o ve t h e c u t o f f p o i n t a s com­

p a r e d w i t h a mean o f 80% o f t h e t h r e e p a t i e n t g r o u p s

( F i t t s , 1 9 6 5 ) . F i t t s m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e NDS s c o r e i s t h e

s c a l e ' s b e s t o v e r a l l summary s c o r e a s f a r a s g e n e r a l l e v e l

of m e n t a l h e a l t h i s c o n c e r n e d . The TSCS a l s o h a s e m p i r i c a l

s c a l e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n p a t i e n t g r o u p s . T h e s e

g r o u p s i n c l u d e a p s y c h o t i c g r o u p , n e u r o t i c g r o u p , p e r s o n ­

a l i t y d i s o r d e r g r o u p , d e f e n s i v e g r o u p , a n d p e r s o n a l i t y

i n t e g r a t i o n g r o u p . T h e s e s u b s c a l e s wer e n o t u s e d i n t h i s

s t u d y b e c a u s e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s by V a c c i a n o a n d S t r a u s s

(1 96 8 ) a n d R e n t z a n d Wh i t e ( 1 9 6 7 ) d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e

v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e s u b s c a l e s .

The more p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e t h a t i s e v i d e n c e d

t h e h i g h e r t h e NDS s c o r e . Very d i s t u r b e d i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l

Page 143: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

s c o r e 80 o r more on t h i s s c a l e . The s u b j e c t s i n t h i s

r e s e a r c h i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p ( m a l e s ) had a mean

s c o r e on t h i s s u b s c a l e o f 1 1 . 0 0 . The m a l e s i n t h e h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p had a mean s c o r e o f 3 1 . 8 8 . The f e m a l e s

i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p had a mean of 1 3 , 5 5 , an d h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p mean was 2 3 . 1 3 . The low i n v o l v e m e n t

g r o u p s ' means we r e v e r y c l o s e t o t h e maximum n o r ma l s c o r e

f o r NDS ( 1 0 ) , an d t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s wer e s i g ­

n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r . Fo r a c a r e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e

f i n d i n g s t h e s c o r e s w ou l d n e e d t o be c o n s i d e r e d on an i n ­

d i v i d u a l b a s i s , b u t a s a g r o u p t h e mean h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t

s c o r e s c a n be d e f i n e d a s m i l d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e .

The s c o r e s a r e h i g h e r t h a n t h e maximum c u t o f f s c o r e , b u t

n o t e x t r e m e l y h i g h . P s y c h i a t r i c d i a g n o s i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e ,

o f c o u r s e , b u t t h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s a r e l i k e l y e x p e r i e n c i n g

a d j u s t m e n t d i s o r d e r s and n o t more s e v e r e f o r m s o f p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l o r p s y c h i a t r i c d i s t u r b a n c e . The s ample was c h o s e n

f ro m a r e g u l a r s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , and no c l i n i c a l s u b j e c t s

we r e i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e d .

The m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s i n t h e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s

a l s o made s u b s t a n t i a l l y more comments a b o u t m u s i c ' s a b i l i t y

t o h e l p t hem r e l a x and i m p ro v e t h e i r mood, t h a n t h e s u b ­

j e c t s i n t h e low i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e

f e m a l e h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p commented t h a t m u s i c h e l p s

them " e x p e r i e n c e e m o t i o n s " more s o t h a n t h e f e m a l e low

i n v o l v e m e n t g r o u p . T h e s e a d o l e s c e n t s a p p e a r t o be u s i n g

Page 144: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

130

m u s i c a s a f o r m o f t h e r a p y .

The h e a l i n g , s o o t h i n g an d p e r s u a s i v e e f f e c t s of

m u s i c have b e e n e x p o u n d e d on t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y of

o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . M i c h e l ( 197 6) n o t e s t h a t mus i c

t h e r a p i s t s h av e two p a r t i c u l a r u s e s o f m u s i c w i t h wh i c h

t o work: "The b a s i c power o f m u s i c t o s t i m u l a t e o r s o o t h e

a c t i v i t y , and m u s i c ' s t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a l v a l u e s a s a

s o c i a l i z i n g a g e n t and a s a symbol o r v e h i c l e f o r e x p r e s s ­

i n g p a t r i o t i s m , r e l i g i o n , o r f r a t e r n i t y . " T h e se s u b j e c t s

r e c o g n i z e t h e a b i l i t y of m u s i c t o s o o t h e ( a i d s r e l a x a t i o n )

an d t o s t i m u l a t e ( i m p r o v e mood) , a l s o t o i mprove s o c i a l i ­

z a t i o n .

T h e s e s u b j e c t s may be e x p e r i e n c i n g e m o t i o n a l d i f f i ­

c u l t i e s and u s e m u s i c a s a s o u r c e o f c o m f o r t , e s c a p e and

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Wh e t he r t h i s u s e o f mu s i c h e l p s them cope

more e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e i r p r o b l e m s i s n o t known. The

a r g u m e n t c o u l d a l s o be made t h a t t h i s h i g h e x p o s u r e t o

r o c k m u s i c i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h i s

w r i t e r i s n o t s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h t h a t p o s i t i o n , a s s c a n t

e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o s u g g e s t s u c n a r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t i t

wo ul d be r e a s o n a b l e t o a s sume t h a t m u s i c c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e

t o a s w e l l a s d i m i n i s h t h e i r e m o t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s . T h i s

q u e s t i o n c a n n o t be e v a l u a t e d g i v e n t h e n a t u r e of t h i s

s t u d y ' s d e s i g n .

T h e s e f i n d i n g s on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t d i m e n s i o n a r e

among t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s s t u d y . T h i s s o r t o f

Page 145: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

131

d o c u m e n t a t i o n i s wha t t h e s t u d y hoped t o a c c o m p l i s h , b u t

i t s m e a n i n g i s f a r f rom u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a t t h i s p o i n t .

V a r i o u s e s s e n t i a l q u e s t i o n s e x i s t . Would t h e s e f i n d i n g s

h o l d t r u e f o r a l a r g e r andom s a mp l e ? Do a d o l e s c e n t s w i t h

a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s c ope more e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e i r

t r o u b l e s by u s i n g r o c k m u s i c ? , or d oe s t h e i r e x p o s u r e t o

t h i s m a t e r i a l a g g r a v a t e t h e i r c o n d i t i o n ? More r e s e a r c h

i s n e e d e d .

L i s t e n i n g Al one o r Wi th F r i e n d s

A few comments n e e d t o be made a b o u t t h e f a i l u r e t o

f i n d s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s on t h i s d i m e n s i o n . I t i s a

s u r p r i s i n g r e s u l t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e

s t u d y r e p o r t t h a t t h e y l i s t e n t o m u s i c m o s t l y a l o n e . I t

w o u l d be r e a s o n a b l e t o as sume t h a t many a d o l e s c e n t s wou l d

l i s t e n t o m u s i c m o s t l y i n s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s , o r w i t h

f r i e n d s i n t h e c a r , o r a t home. S t i l l , i t i s known t h a t

a d o l e s c e n t s do u s e m u s i c a s a b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e i r d a i l y

a c t i v i t i e s . Music t h a t i s u s e d a s a b a c k g r o u n d i n v a r i o u s

c o n t e x t s o f t e n g o e s u n n o t i c e d , b e c a u s e i t i s n o t a t t e n d e d

t o . When t h e s u b j e c t s i n t e r p r e t e d " l i s t e n i n g t o " on t h i s

q u e s t i o n t h e y may h ave had more i n t e n s e l i s t e n i n g i n m i n d ,

a s l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c i s an i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t y t o t hem.

T h u s , t h e y c o u l d ha ve d i s c o u n t e d m u s i c p l a y e d i n s o c i a l

s e t t i n g s and r e c a l l e d t h e o c c a s i o n s on w h i c h t h e y d e l i b ­

e r a t e l y l i s t e n e d t o m u s i c . Music p l a y e d i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d

Page 146: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

132

o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s wo ul d o f t e n n o t be t h e most s a l i e n t

a s p e c t o f t h e a c t i v i t y . T h i s i s o f f e r e d a s a p o s s i b l e

e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s f i n d i n g , a s more d a t a i s n e e d e d .

T h i s d i m e n s i o n may p r o v e t o be n o n e s s e n t i a l i n e v a l u a t i o n s

o f a d o l e s c e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s i n m u s i c .

S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e R e s e a r c h

The s a m p l e i n t h i s s t u d y was n o t r andom, b u t r a t h e r

a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t v o l u n t a r i l y c h o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e f rom

l a r g e r p o o l s o f s t u d e n t s . The i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g s o f t h i s

s t u d y , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e a r e a o f l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t ,

s h o u l d be r e p l i c a t e d u s i n g a random s a m p l e o f a d o l e s c e n t s

i n t h e same a g e r a n g e . The f a c t t h a t t h e a d o l e s c e n t s i n

t h i s s t u d y wer e s e l f - s e l e c t e d may h av e i n t r o d u c e d b i a s o f

a n unknown o r i g i n o r d e g r e e , and t h e r e s u l t s c a n n o t be

g e n e r a l i z e d t o a l a r g e r c o n t e x t . A l s o , a v e r y l a r g e s ampl e

w o u l d a p p e a r t o be i n d i c a t e d i f t h e n o n - r o c k c a t e g o r i e s o f

m u s i c a r e t o be a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d . A d d i t i o n a l r e ­

s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o compar e t h e n o n - r o c k s t y l e s a s e v i ­

d e n c e e x i s t s t o s u g g e s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s

may be e v i d e n c e d i n a d o l e s c e n t s t h a t p r e f e r c l a s s i c a l mus i c .

F u t u r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f r o c k m u s i c a r e n e e d e d t o

c l a r i f y t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y . I t would be d e s i r a b l e

t o a b a n d o n m u s i c i n d u s t r y l a b e l s f o r s t y l e s o f r o c k m u s i c ,

an d d e v e l o p c l a s s i f i c a t o r y v a r i a b l e s t h a t have d i r e c t r e l e ­

v a n c e t o a d o l e s c e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h s p e c i f i c f o r m s o f

Page 147: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

133

m u s i c . The d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n h a r d r o c k a nd pop r o c k

a c c o r d i n g t o m u s i c i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d s a p p e a r s t o have

l i t t l e r e l e v a n c y t o t e e n a g e r s ' i n t e r e s t i n t h e m a t e r i a l .

The mos t i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g o f t h i s r e s e a r c h ( h i g h

i n v o l v e m e n t i n r o c k m u s i c i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i l d " p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e " a s i d e n t i f i e d by T e n n e s s e e S e l f Con­

c e p t S c a l e s c o r e s ) demands a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h . O t h e r

p s y c h o m e t r i c o r d e m o g r a p h i c v a r i a b l e s t h a t a r e c o r r e l a t e d

w i t h h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t need t o be i d e n t i f i e d . T h e se v a r i ­

a b l e s c o u l d t h e n be r e l a t e d t o o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t a r e

known t o p l a y a c a u s a t i v e r o l e i n a d j u s t m e n t p r o b l e m s ,

s u c h a s d i v o r c e , o r l o s s o f a l o v e d o n e . H a v i ng i d e n t i ­

f i e d t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h r e l a t e t o h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t i n r o c k

m u s i c l i s t e n i n g , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d to

a s s e s s t h e c a u s e an d e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e s e

v a r i a b l e s , and move t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h i n g p r e d i c t i v e f u n c ­

t i o n s . T h i s c o u l d b e s t be done by l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s

t h a t f o l l o w e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f r o c k m u s i c l i s t e n e r s f o r a

p e r i o d o f t i m e . S t u d i e s o f t h i s s o r t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o add

more s p e c i f i c i t y t o t h e f i n d i n g s . At t h i s p o i n t h i g h i n ­

v o l v e m e n t i n r o c k m u s i c a l o n e may i d e n t i f y g r o u p s o f a d o ­

l e s c e n t s w i t h more p r o b l e m s , b u t n o t a n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e

w i t h any d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o

a d o l e s c e n t s ' u s e o f r o c k m u s i c a s a f o rm o f s e l f a d m i n i s ­

t e r e d t h e r a p y t o a l l e v i a t e a d v e r s i v e a f f e c t i v e s t a t e s would

a p p e a r t o be a p r o m i s i n g f o c u s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

Page 148: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

134

P r a c t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s

The p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a t p r e s e n t a r e q u i t e

l i m i t e d . The f i n d i n g s and d e s i g n of t h i s s t u d y mus t be

k e p t i n mind i f e r r o r s i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a r e t o be a v o i d e d .

The l a c k of c a u s e and e f f e c t a s s e s s m e n t and r a n d o m i z a t i o n

i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e c r i t i c a l . I t would be a m i s t a k e

a t p r e s e n t t o a s s um e t h a t an a d o l e s c e n t i s e x p e r i e n c i n g

e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s s i m p l y b e c a u s e of h i s o r h e r h i g h i n ­

v o l v e m e n t i n r o c k m u s i c , and a more s e r i o u s m i s t a k e t(

a s sume t h a t i n v o l v e m e n t i n r o c k m us ic i s c a u s a t i v e . T h i s

a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l n e e d t o a w a i t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p r e ­

d i c t i v e f u n c t i o n s , o r a t l e a s t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of

a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s t h a t a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h h i g h i n ­

v o l v e m e n t . At t h a t p o i n t s u c h a " m u s i c a l a s s e s s m e n t "

c o u l d h ave g r e a t u t i l i t y i n c h i l d g u i d a n c e and s c h o o l

s e t t i n g s i n t e r m s o f i d e n t i f y i n g h i g h r i s k i n d i v i d u a l s .

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p o p u l a r m u s i c , e s p e c i a l l y r o c k ,

may be o f a s s i s t a n c e t o s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l and p s y c h o l o g i s t s

w o r k i n g w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s . Music i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o

t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s , and p o s s i b l y most i m p o r t a n t t o t h e o n e s

who may n e e d h e l p . To be a b l e t o co mmu n ic a t e a t some

l e v e l a b o u t t h e i r m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t s may f a c i l i t a t e t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t r e a t m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . The d e v e l o p m e n t

o f s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n be d i f f i c u l t w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s ,

b u t i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e o u t c o m e . T h i s

w r i t e r h a s u s e d t h e s u b t l e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m u s i c i n t e r e s t s

Page 149: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

135

w i t h s u c c e s s i n t e r m s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a s e n s e o f r a p p o r t

a n d t r u s t . To show a g e n u i n e i n t e r e s t a n d l i s t e n i s mos t

i m p o r t a n t . When an a d o l e s c e n t s p e a k s a b o u t h i s o r h e r

m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t s , i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l i s b e i n g c o n v e y e d .

T h e i r i n t e r e s t i n m u s i c i s o f t e n n o t s u p e r f i c i a l , and

t h e i r s e n s e o f s e l f i s i n v o l v e d .

Page 150: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

APPENDIX A

G r a n d v i e w H e i g h t 1.H igh School

Grandview Heights City School District

November 29, 1982

Ms. J e n n ife r Malone Northwest Mental Health 1560 Flshlnger Road Columbus, Ohio 43221

Dear Jenn ife r :

The in te n t of th i s l e t t e r i s to confirm th a t William Blackburn completed a survey with 23 of our students on November 24, 1982.

Sincerely ,

Jiihn P. Caronis A ss is tan t Principal

JPC:mjh

1587 West Third Avenue Grandview Heights Columbus, O hio 43212 (614) 488-9755

136

Page 151: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

APPENDIX B

TOE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY Protocol No. 82B0090

CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH

I consent to p art ic ipat ing in (or my c h i ld ' s part ic ipat ion in) research e n t i t le d :

A d o le s c e n t 's M usical P re fe re n ce s and Level o f Involvem ent w ith Music L is te n in g

in f ts la t io n s h ip to S c lf-C oncep t and L ocus-o f-C on trn l___________________________Henry R. Angelino,

________ William B la ck b u rn______________ or h is /h er authorized represen tat ive has(Principal Investigator)

explained the purpose of the study, the procedures to be followed, and the expect­ed duration of my (my c h i ld ' s ) p a r t ic ip a t io n . Poss ib le b e n e f i t s of the study have been described as have a lter n a t iv e procedures, i f such procedures arc applicable and a v a i la b le .

1 acknowledge that I have had the opportunity to obtain ad d it ion a l information regarding the study and that any questions I have raised have been answered to my f u l l s a t i s f a c t io n . Further, I understand that I am (my c h ild i s ) free to with­draw consent at any time and to d iscontinue p art ic ip a t ion in the study without prejudice to me (my c h i ld ) . The information obtained from me (my ch i ld ) w i l l remain co n f id e n t ia l unless I s p e c i f i c a l l y agree otherwise by p lacing my i n i t i a l s here _____________ .

F in a lly , I acknowledge that I have read and f u l l y understand the consent form.I sign i t f r e e ly and v o lu n ta r i ly . A copy has been given to me.

Date: Signed:(Partic ipant)(Student)

Signed:(Principal In vestigator or h i s / her Authorized Representative)

Signed:(Person Authorized to Consent for P artic ipant - I f Required)(Parent)

Witness:

HS-027 l'J -8 l) — To be ueed only in connection with so c ia l and behavioralresearch.

137

Page 152: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

APPENDIX C

Purpose of the Study Parent's and Student's Consent Form

I am a psychology graduate student at Chio State University working an a research project for my dissertation. Also, X am the Administrator of Family Counseling Northwest, a counseling center for northwest area residents. This study concerns teenagers and their interest in music.

It is known that many young people listen to their favorite style of music (rock, country, etc.) for many hours during the day. Music is often their most popular form of entertainment, but very little academic attention has been directed to the study of young people's interest in music.

I am interested in why music is or is not an inportant part of a person's life, and what listening to music does for you. I air. also interested in different types of music listeners in relationship to rental health and personal adjustment.

I am asking for your participation in this project that will be conducted at your school, and for your parents consent to allow your participation. If you choose to be a part of this study you will fill out three questionnaires during regular school hours. The first involves the selection of your favorite style of music, and bow inportant listening to music is bo you. The second and third forms are to gather information regarding how you feel about yourself and how much control you feel you have over what happens in your life. The results will be strictly confidential. No names will be required on any of the questionnaires.

The possible benefits of this project are to eventually understand more fully the reasons for a person's interest in music, and to gather needed information frcm this ignored area of investigation.

If you wish to participate in this study, and parents, if you agree to allow your son or daughter to participate, please sign the attached form (both parent and student) and return it to the school. Please note that you will not be rewarded or penalized in any way for participating or not participating.Also note that this permission can be withdrawn frcm the project at any time by parent or student.

Thank you for your cooperation. If you have any questions or would like further information regarding this study, please feel free to contact Bill Blackburn at 457-8237w

138

Page 153: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

APPENDIX D

Music In te re s t Questionnaire

Age ______Sex F___

GradeIhe purpose of this questionnaire is to determine what type of music you

enjoy most, and how important musical listening is to you.My favorite type of music is:(Check Rock or Won-rock, not both)/~7 Rock (Any style you favor; hard, pop, Heavy-Metal, New-Wave, etc.,

would be included in this general category.)fl Non-Rock (Country, Disoo, Jazz, Classical, etc.Who is your favorite musical group, performer, or composer at this time?

List three other favorites

What is your all-time favorite song or composition, and who performed it, if you know?

Below is a list of different styles or categories of music. Of the different types of music you actually listen to m a weekly basis rate your preference by circling the appropriate number, and list an example of that style you enjoy (Group, composer, etc.).

Hard-Rock (exarrple: _______________________ )Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / PreferredCountry (example:

Least MostPreferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred.

New-Wave Rock (example: ________Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred Jazz: (example: _______________

Least MostPreferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred

Disco: (example: ______________Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred

139

Page 154: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Heavy-Metal (example:Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / PreferredClassical (exanple: ____________

least MostPreferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred

Country-Rock (exanple: _________Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / PreferredSoft Rock/Pop (exanple: ________

Least MostPreferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred

Other (exanple: _______________Least Most

Preferred / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 / Preferred1. How many hours a day would you say you listen to music on the radio?2. How many hours a day would you say you watch Music Television (MIV)?3. How many record albu.e do you own?____ _____4. How many concerts have you attended in the last two years? ________5. How many hours a day would you say you listen to records/tapes at home or at

a friend'3 house? ________6- How many single records do you own? ________7. How many tapes do you have (8-track, Reel to Reel, cassette, Total)?8. Do you read any "fan" or music related magazines? ____ Which ones?

Of tne total time you spend listening to music, what percent of that time would you say you're listening alone or with friends? Circle the closest percent for each.

Alone 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%With Friends 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

140

Page 155: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

Below are listed the Columbus area radio stations. Of the stations you actually listen to on a weekly basis, rate your preference with your favorite being 1, next favorite 2, etc.

AMWTVW (610) WOSU (89.7)WOSU (820) WCBE (90.5)WRFD (880) WXCT (92.3)WMNI (920) WSNY (94.7)WCOL (1230) WHCK (95.5)WbOH (1320) WLVQ (96.3)WBNS (1460) WBNS (97.1)WDLR (1550) WN2I (97.9)WVKO (1580) WEMZ (99.7)

WWWJ (103.1)WBBY (103.9)W2VO (105.0)WSXY (106.3)

Circle the answers tnat most accurately reflect how important music is to you.1. How "in-to" your favorite music would you say you are?

Not much veryat all a little a lot "in-to" it

2. How inport ant to you is listening to music every day?Not irrportant not very very

at all important important important3. How important to your life in general (well-being, mood, relaxation, self-

understanding, etc.) is your favorite music?Not important not very very

at fill important important importantWiy is or is not music an important part of your life? _________________

What does listening to your favorite style of music do for you?

Any additional ccrrments you may have about your interest or lack of interest in music.

(Use back if additional space is needed)

141

i

Page 156: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

PLEASE NOTE:

Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author’s university library.

T hese consist of pages:

142-144, TENNESSEE SELF CONCEPT SCALE

UniversityMicrofilms

International300 N Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 (313) 761-4700

Page 157: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

REFERENCE NOTES

1. I n g l e f i e l d , H.G. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e l e c t e dp e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r r e f l e c t e d i n t h e m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f a d o l e s c e n t s when e x p o s e d t o p e e r g r o u p i n f l u e n c e s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1968.

2. M i s k i m i n s , R.W. The c o n c e p t o f s e l f a n d p s y c h o ­p a t h o l o g y . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , 1967,

3. P i e t y , K.R. The r o l e o f d e f e n s e i n r e p o r t i n g on t h es e l f - c o n c e p t . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a ­t i o n , V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , 1958.

4 . Wayne, S .R. The r e l a t i o n o f s e l f - e s t e e m t o i n d i c e sof p e r c e i v e d an d b e h a v i o r a l h o s t i l i t y . Un­p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , 1963.

5 . D i e t c h e , J . H . The p e r f o r m a n c e o f d e l i n q u e n t andn o n - d e l i n q u e n t b o ys on t h e T e n n e s s e e D e p a r t m e n t o f M e n t a l H e a l t h S e l f C o n c e p t S c a l e . Unpub­l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , 1959.

6. L e f e b e r , J . A . The d e l i n q u e n t ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t . Un­p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 1965.

7 . Watson , R.G. A s t u d y o f p e r s o n a l i t y i n t e g r a t i o n i ni n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d d e l i n q u e n t s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Geo rg e P ea bo dy C o l l e g e , 1972.

8 . Kalman, B. D i f f e r e n c e s i n e m o t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t ands e l f - c o n c e p t among i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d d e l i n q u e n t g i r l s a s r e l a t e d t o t h e K i n s h o p s y s t e m and h o m o s e x u a l i t y . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a ­t i o n , B a l l S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 197 0.

145

Page 158: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

146

9 . T a y l o r , D. C o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t .U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , 1953.

10. E n g e l , M. The s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t i na d o l e s c e n c e . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Ge or g e P eab ody C o l l e g e , 1956.

11. B a l e s t e r , R . J . S e l f - c o n c e p t and j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y .U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , 1956.

Page 159: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

LIST OF REFERENCES

A b e l e s , H.F. Va l ue j u d g m e n t s and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s t o m e a s u r e a f f e c t i v e b e h a v i o r . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on Measurement i n E d u c a t i o n C o n v e n t i o n , C h i c a g o , A p r i l , 1974.

A dor no , T.W. P h i l o s o p h y o f modern m u s i c . A.G. M i t c h e l l a nd W.V. B l a m s t e r ( T r a n s . ) New York: The S e a b u r yP r e s s , 1973.

A l p e r t , J . I . The e f f e c t o f d i s c j o c k e y , p e e r , and m us ic t e a c h e r a p p r o v a l of m u s i c s e l e c t i o n and p r e f e r e n c e . U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r . U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s , A u s t i n ,1980.

A l t s h u l e r , I .M. A p s y c h i a t r i s t ' s e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h m u s i c a s a t h e r a p e u t i c a g e n t . In D. S c h u l l i a n and M. S ch oen ( E d s . ) , Music and m e d i c i n e . New York: Henry Schuman, I n c . , 1948.

A p p l e t o n , C.R. The c o m p a r a t i v e p r e f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e o f b l a c k a n d w h i t e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s t o b l a c k a nd w h i t e f o l k and p o p u l a r m u s i c a l s t y l e s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , New York U n i v e r s i t y , 1970.

As ch , S . E . S t u d i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e and c o n f o r m i t y : I .A m i n o r i t y o f one a g a i n s t a u nan i mo u s m a j o r i t y . P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h s , 1956 , 70 . 1 - 7 0 .

B a n d u r a , A . , R o s s , D. , a nd R o s s , S. I m i t a t i o n o f f i l m - m e d i a t e d a g g r e s s i v e m o d e l s . J o u r n a l of Abnormal and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1963, 66 , 3 - 1 1 .

B a n d u r a , A . , R o s s , D . , and R o s s , S. T r a n s m i s s i o n ofa g g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h i m i t a t i o n o f a g g r e s s i v e m o d e l s . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal an d S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1961,6 3 , 3 7 5 - 3 8 2 .

B a r g e r , D.A. The e f f e c t s o f m u s i c a n d v e r b a l s u g g e s t i o n on h e a r t r a t e an d s e l f - r e p o r t s . J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y . 1979 , J16, 1 5 3 - 1 7 1 .

147

Page 160: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

148

B a s h e , P. I r o n m a i d e n : n o t e v i l , j u s t d e v i l - m a y - c a r e . C i r c u s . New York: C i r c u s E n t e r p r i s e s C o r p . ,J u l y , 1983.

B e n t l e r , R. Revi ew o f t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co n c e p t S c a l e .In B u r o s , O.K. ( E d . ) , The s e v e n t h m e n t a l m e a s u r e ­m e n t s y e a r b o o k . H i g h l a n d P a r k , 1 1 1 . : Gryphon P r e s s ,1972.

B e r g , I . A . D e v i a n t r e s p o n s e s and d e v i a n t p e o p l e : t h ef o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e d e v i a t i o n h y p o t h e s e s . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g y . 1957 , 4 , 1 5 4 - 1 6 1 .

B e r g e r , E.M. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e x p r e s s e d a c c e p ­t a n c e o f s e l f a n d e x p r e s s e d a c c e p t a n c e o f o t h e r s . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal an d S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1952,47 , 7 7 8 - 7 8 2 .

B e r g e r , K.W. R e s p i r a t o r y an d a r t i c u l a t o r y f a c t o r s i n wind i n s t r u m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d P h y s i o l ­o gy , 1965 , 20 , 1 , 2 1 7 - 1 , 2 2 1 .

B e r l y n e , D.E. ( E d . ) . S t u d i e s i n t h e new e x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s : s t e p s t o w a r d an o b j e c t i v e p s y c h o l o g yo f a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n . New York: H a l s t e d P r e s s ,1974.

B i e r b a u m , M.A. V a r i a t i o n s i n h e a r t a c t i o n u n d e r t h e i n ­f l u e n c e o f m u s i c a l s t i m u l i . U n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1958.

B i n e t , A. a nd C o u r t i e r , J . R e s e a r c h e r s g r a p h i q u e s s u r l e m u s i q u e . Annee P s y c h o l o g i q u e , 1895 , 2, 2 0 1 - 2 2 2 . In E a g l e , C . T . , J r . A r e v i e w of human p h y s i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s an d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c a l s t i m u l i . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t S o u t h e a s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e of N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Music T h e r a p y , T a l l a h a s s e e , F l o r i d a , 1972.

B i r c h , T . E . M u s i c a l t a s t e a s i n d i c a t e d by r e c o r d s owned by c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w i t h v a r y i n g h i g h s c h o o l mu s i c e x p e r i e n c e s . D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1963, 23, 2 , 5 4 5 .

B o n t i n c k , I . ( E d . ) . New p a t t e r n s o f m u s i c a l b e h a v i o r o ft h e young g e n e r a t i o n i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . Vi en na : I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r M u s i c , Dance , a nd T h e a t r e i n t h e A u d i o - v i s u a l m e d i a , 1972.

Page 161: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

149

B o o k e r , G.A. The d i s c j o c k e y and h i s i m p a c t on t e e n a g e m u s i c a l t a s t e a s r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h a s t u d y i n t h r e e n o r t h F l o r i d a c i t i e s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r ­t a t i o n , F l o r i d a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1968.

B u t l e r , J . H . P e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s a s c o r r e l a t e s o f r e ­c e p t i v i t y t o e l e c t r o n i c m u s i c . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a , 1968.

C a r e y , J . T . C h a n g i n g c o u r t s h i p p a t t e r n s i n p o p u l a r s o n g s . Ame r ic an J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , 1969, 7_A, 7 2 0 - 7 3 1 .

C a t t e l l , R . B . , an d A n d e r s o n , J . D . The m e a s u r e m e n t o fp e r s o n a l i t y an d b e h a v i o r d i s o r d e r s by t h e I . P . A . T . m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e t e s t . J o u r n a l of A p p l i e d P s y c h o l - o g i , 1953, 37 , 4 4 5 - 4 5 4 .

C l y n e s , M. S e n t i c s : The t o u c h o f e m o t i o n s . New York:Anchor Books , 1978.

C o l e , R.R. Top s o n g s i n t h e s i x t i e s . A m er i c a n B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n t i s t . 1971 , 14, 3 8 9 - 3 9 9 .

Coleman, W.M. 9n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e r a t e o f h e a r tb e a t , b r e a t h i n g , b o d i l y movement and s e n s o r y s t i m u l i . J o u r n a l o f P h y s i o l o g y . 1920, J54, 2 1 3 - 2 1 7 .

C o n s i d i n e , J . D . Hard p o p , s u b u r b a n r o c k . M u s i c i a n P l a y e r and L i s t e n e r . New York: Amord ian P r e s s , O c t o b e r ,1981.

C o u t t s , C.A. E f f e c t s of m u s i c on p u l s e r a t e s and worko u t p u t o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n . R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , 1965, 36 , 1 7 - 2 1 .

C r i c k m o r e , L. An a p p r o a c h t o t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f m u s i ca p p r e c i a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f Res e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n , 1968, 16, 2 3 9 - 2 5 3 . "

C r o z i e r , J . B . V e r b a l and e x p l o r a t o r y r e s p o n s e s t o s o u n ds e q u e n c e s v a r y i n g i n u n c e r t a i n t y l e v e l . D.E. B e r l y n e ( E d . ) , S t u d i e s i n t h e new e x p e r i m e n t a l a e s t h e t i c s : s t e p s t o w a r d a n o b j e c t i v e p s y c h o l o g y p f a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n . New York: H a l s t e a d P r e s s , 1974.

Daniow, E. P h y s i c a l e f f e c t s and m o t o r r e s p o n s e s t o m u s i c . J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n , 1977, 25, 211 - 2 2 1 .

Page 162: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

150

D a v i s , G. H . , a n d M e t e e , D.R. I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c o n ­t r o l o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f a g g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s e l f an d o t h e r s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 1971, 29, 4 0 3 - 4 1 1 .

D e n i s o f f , R. S . M a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d p o p u l a r m u s i c : ar e v i e w . J o u r n a l o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e . 1976, _9, 8 86 - 894 .

D e n i s o f f , R . S . and L e v i n e , M.H. The one d i m e n s i o n a la p p r o a c h t o p o p u l a r m u s i c : a r e s e a r c h n o t e . J o u r n a 1 o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , 1971 , 9 1 1 - 1 1 1 9 .

D e n i s o f f , S . B . an d L e v i n e , M.H. B r a i n w a s h i n g o r b a c k ­gr oun d n o i s e : t h e p o p u l a r p r o t e s t s o n g . In D e n i s o f f and P e t e r s o n ( E d s . ) , The s o u n d s o f s o c i a l c h a n g e , C h i c a g o : Rand McNal l y , 1972.

DeJ ong , M.A. , v a n M o u r i k , K . R . , an d S c h e l l e k e n s , H.M.A p h y s i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e - - m u s i c . P s y c h o t h e r a p y a nd P s y c h o s o m a t i c s , 1973, 2 2 , 46 - 51 .

Diamond, J . Your body d o e s n ' t l i e . New York: War ne r ,1979.

D o g i e l , J. Uver den e i n f l u s s d e r mus i k a u f den b l u t k r e i s - l a u f . A r c h i v F u r P h y s i o l o g i e , 1880 , 4 1 6 - 4 2 8 . In E a g l e , C . T . , J r . A r e v i e w o f human p h y s i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s and t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c a l s t i m u l i . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t S o u t h e a s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e o f N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Music T h e r a p y , T a l l a h a s s e e , F l o r i d a , 1972.

E a g l e , C . T . , J r . E f f e c t s o f e x i s t i n g mood an d o r d e r o fp r e s e n t a t i o n o f v o c a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c on r a t e d mood r e s p o n s e s t o t h a t m u s i c . ( D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1 9 7 1 ) . D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1971 , 3J2, 2118-A. ( U n i v e r ­s i t y M i c r o f i l m s No. 7 1 - 2 7 , 1 3 9 ) .

E l l i s , D.S. and B r i g h o u s e , G. E f f e c t s o f m u s i c on r e s p i ­r a t i o n a nd h e a r t r a t e . Amer i c an J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1952, 65 , 3 9 - 4 7 .

E p s t e i n , S. "The S e l f - C o n c e p t i n t h e D e l i n q u e n t F e m a l e . " Smi th C o l l e g e S t u d i e s i n S o c i a l Work. 1962 , 3 2 , 2 2 0 - 2 2 4 .

Esman, A. II. Jazz, - - a s t u d y i n c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t . Amer i can I m a g o , 3 - 1 0 , 1954.

Page 163: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

151

F a r n s w o r t h , P .R. The s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y of mu s i c (2nd e d . ) . Ames: The Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969.

F i s h e r , S. a nd F i s h e r , R.L. The e f f e c t s o f p e r s o n a l i n ­s e c u r i t y on r e a c t i o n s t o u n f a m i l i a r m u s i c . The J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1951 , 3_4, 2 6 5 - 2 7 3 ,

F i s h e r , S. an d G r e e n b e r g , I t .P . S e l e c t i v e e f f e c t s upon women o f e x c i t i n g and c a l m m u s i c . P e r c e p t u a l a n d Motor S k i l l s . 1972, 34, 9 8 7 - 9 9 0 .

F i t t s , W. H. The T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co nee p t S c a l e . Nashvi. l i e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l i n g R e c o r d i n g s and T e x t s , 1965.

F o s t e r , J . C . and Gamble , E.A. The e f f e c t o f m u s i c ont h o r a c i c b r e a t h i n g . Am er i ca n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1906 , 12, 4 0 6 - 4 1 4 .

Fox , W.S. and W i l l i a m s , J . D . P o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n an d m us ic p r e f e r e n c e s among c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . P u b l i c O p i n i o n Q u a r t e r l y , 1974 , 2§.> 3 5 2 - 3 7 1 .

F r i t h , S. Sound e f f e c t s : y o u t h , l e i s u r e , and t h ep o l i t i c s of r o c k ' n r o l l . New York; P a n t h e o n Books ,1981.

F u l l e r , J . G . Are t h e k i d s a l l r i g h t ? New York: T imesBooks , 1981.

G a s t o n , E . T . Man a nd m u s i c . In E . T . G a s t o n ( E d . ) .Music i n t h e i » a p y . New York: M a c Mi l l a n , 1968.

G i l b e r t , C. The s o u n d s o f t h e c i t y . New York: O u t e r -b r i d g e and D i e n s t f r e y , 1970.

Gr a y , R.M. The p i l o m o t o r r e f l e x i n r e s p o n s e t o m u s i c .U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1955.

G r e e n b e r g , R . P . a nd F i s h e r , S. Some d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f m u s i c on p r o j e c t i v e and s t r u c t u r e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 1966, 28.) 8 1 7 - 8 2 0 .

G r e e r , R . D . , Dor row, L . , and H a n s e r , S. Music d i s c r i m i ­n a t i o n t r a i n i n g a nd t h e m u s i c s e l e c t i o n b e h a v i o r o f n u r s e r y and p r i m a r y l e v e l c h i l d r e n . C o u n c i l f o r R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n . 1973, 3j3> 3 0 - 4 3 .

Page 164: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

152

G r e e r , R . D . , Bo r r ow, L . G . , and R a n d a l l , A. Musicl i s t e n i n g p r e f e r e n c e s o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n . 1974 , 22, 2 8 4 - 2 9 1 .

G r e e r , R . D . , Dor row, L . G . , Wackhaus , G. , a nd W h i t e , E.R. A d u l t a p p r o v a l a n d s t u d e n t s ' m u s i c s e l e c t i o n b e ­h a v i o r . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n ,197.3, 21, 2 45 - 3 5 4~.

Haack , P .A. The i n f l u e n c e o f i n s t r u c t i o n on s t u d e n t s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a nd v a l u i n g o f v a r y i n g m us ic and a r t s t y l e s . U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , L a w r e n c e , 1980.

H a l l , G.S . A d o l e s c e n c e . (2 v o l s . ) . New York:D. A p p l e t o n , 1911.

Hamm, C . E . , N e t t l , B . , and B y r n s i d e , R. C o n t e m p o r a r y m u s i c a n d m u s i c c u l t u r e s . Eng lewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a 11, 1975.

H a v e n e r , P .H. an d I z a r d , C.E. U n r e a l i s t i c s e l f - e n h a n c e ­ment i n p a r a n o i d s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . J o u r na l o f C o n s u l t ­i n g P s y c h o l o g y , 1962, 26, 6 5 - 6 8 .

Hey, K. I ' l l g i v e i t a 95: an a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y ofe a r l y r o c k ' n r o l l . P o p u l a r Music and S o c i e t y , 1974, 3 , 3 1 5 - 3 2 8 .

H i n c k e , M.D. The e f f e c t o f r h y t h m i c s o u n d on h e a r t r a t e . U n p u b l i s h e d h o n o u r s t h e s i s , A c a d i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1970.

Ho dge s , D.A. ( E d . ) Handbook o f m u s i c p s y c h o l o g y .L a u r e n c e , K e n t u c k y : N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r MusicT h e r a p y , 1980.

H o r r o c k s , J . E . The p s y c h o l o g y o f a d o l e s c e n c e . B o s t o n : Hought on M i f f l i n C o . , 1976.

H o r t o n , D. The d i a l o g u e o f c o u r t s h i p i n p o p u l a r s o n g s . A me r ic an J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , 1956 , 62 , 5 6 9 - 5 7 8 .

I s s a c s o n , R. L. The l i m b i c s y s t e m . New York: PlenumP r e s s , 197 4.

J a c o b s e n , H.L. A s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s of s e d a t i v e m us ic on t h e t e n s i o n , a n x i e t y , an d p a i n e x p e r i e n c e d by m e n t a l p a t i e n t s d u r i n g d e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s . Unpub­l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1956.

Page 165: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

153

J e l l i s o n , J . A . The e f f e c t o f m u s i c on a u t o n o m i c s t r e s s r e s p o n s e s and v e r b a l r e p o r t s . In C.K. Madsen, R. G r e e r , a n d C.H. Madsen ( E d s . ) , R e s e a r c h i n mu s i c b e h a v i or : M o d i f y i n g m u s i c b e h a v i o r i n t h e c l a s s ­room . New York: T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e P r e s s , 1975.

J o h n s o n , J .M. Chang es i n h e a r t r a t e and r e s p i r a t i o n o f y oun g a nd o l d s u b j e c t s p r o d u c e d by s e d a t i v e and s t i m u l a t i v e m u s i c a l s e l e c t i o n s . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of K a n s a s , 1964.

J o h n s o n , N. L i s t e n , Mr. Agnew. The P r o g r e s s i v e , 1971, 2 9 - 3 2 .

J o h n s t o n e , J . , and K a t z , E. Youth and p o p u l a r m u s i c : a s t u d y of t h e s o c i o l o g y of t a s t e . A mer i can J o u r n a l of. Soc i o l o g y , 1957, 62 ,̂ 5 6 3 - 5 6 8 .

Kamin, J . P a r a l l e l s i n t h e s o c i a l r e s p o n s e s t o j a z z and r o c k . J o u r n a l o f J a z z S t u d i e s , 1974, 2, 9 5 - 1 2 5 .

K e s t o n , M.J . an d P i n t o , I .M. P o s s i b l e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e . J o u r n a l of G e n e t i c P s y c h o l o g y , 1955, 86 , 1 0 1 - 1 1 3 .

L a n c a s t e r , W.H. The e f f e c t o f m u s i c on p a i n p e r c e p t i o n t h r e s h o l d . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1956.

L a n d r e t h , J . E . a nd L a n d r e t h , H.F. E f f e c t s o f m u s i c on p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h in Musi c E d u c a t i o n , 1974, _22, 4 - 1 2 .

L a r s o n , B . Rock: p r a c t i c a l h e l p f o r t h o s e who l i s t e nt o t h e wo r ds a nd d o n ' t l i k e what t h e y h e a r . Wheaton , I l l i n o i s : T y n d a l e House P u b l i s h i n g , I n c . , 1980.

L e a r y , T. The i n t e r p e r s o n a l d i a g n o s i s o f p e r s o n a l i t y .New York, R o n a l d P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1957,

L e o n a r d , N. J a z z a n d t h e w h i t e A m e r i c a n s . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1962.

L e v i n e , M.H. and H a r i g , T . J . The r o l e o f r o c k : a r e v i e w o f a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e i m p a c t o f r o c k m u s i c . P o p u l a r m u s i c and s o c i e t y , 1975, _4, 1 9 5 - 2 0 7 .

L i p k i n , S. C l i e n t ' s f e e l i n g s a nd a t t i t u d e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e ou tcome o f c l i e n t c e n t e r e d t h e r a p y . P s y c h o - l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h s , 1954, C3B, 1 - 3 0 .

Page 166: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

154

Lomax, A. F o l k s o n g s t y l e and c u l t u r e . W a s h i n g t o n , D. C. : A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement o f S c i e n c e , p u b l i c a t i o n number 88 , 1968.

L o r d , W. The e f f e c t o f m u s i c on m u s c l e a c t i v i t y d u r i n g e x e r c i s e a s m e a s u r e d by h e a r t r a t e . U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1968.

M a s h k i v , K. an d Volgy , T. S o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s andm u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s . S o c i a l S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , 1975, 56 , 4 5 0 - 4 5 6 .

McMul len, P . T . , an d A r n o l d , M.J . P r e f e r e n c e and i n t e r e s t a s f u n c t i o n s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n a l r e d u n d a n c y i n r h y t h m i c s e q u e n c e s . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n , 1976 , 24 , 2 2 - 3 1 .

M e l z a c k , R . , Wei sz , A.Z. and S p r a g u e , L . T . S t r a t a g e m s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g p a i n : C o n t r i b u t i o n s of a u d i t o r ys t i m u l a t i o n a n d s u g g e s t i o n . E x p e r i m e n t a 1 N e u r o l o g y . 196 3 , 8 , 2 3 9 - 2 4 7 .

Meyer , L . B. E m o t i o n and m e a n i n g i n m u s i c . C h i ca go :U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1956: P h o e n i x Books , 1961.

Meyer , L . B. M us ic , t h e a r t s , and i d e a s . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o p r e s s , 1967.

M i c h e l , D.E. E f f e c t s of s t i m u l a t i v e and s e d a t i v e m us icon r e s p i r a t i o n a nd p s y c h o g a l v a n i c r e f l e x a s o b s e r v e d i n s e v e n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s . U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1952.

M i c h e l , D.E. Music t h e r a p y , an i n t r o d u e Lion t o t h e r a p y an d s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h m u s i c . S p r i n g f i e 1d : Thomas , 1976.

M u r r a y , R . L . , C o l e , R . R . , and F e d l e r , F. T e e n a g e r s a n d TV v i o l e n c e : how t h e y r a t e an d how t h e y v iew i t .J o u r n a l i s m Q u a r t e r l y , 1970 , 41_, 2 4 7 - 2 5 5 .

N e h e r , A. A p h y s i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f u n u s u a l b e h a v i o r i n c e r e m o n i e s i n v o l v i n g drums . Human B i o l o g y , 1962, 34 , 1 5 1 - 1 6 0 .

N oy , P. The p s y c h o d y n a m i c m e a n i n g o f m u s i c - - p a r t I . J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y . 1966, 3̂ , 1 2 6 - 1 3 4 .

Noy, P. The p s y c h o d y n a m i c m e a n i n g of m u s i c - - p a r t I I . J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y , 19 67 a , 4, 7 - 2 3 .

Page 167: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

155

Noy, P. The p s y c h o d y n a m i c m e a n i n g o f m u s i c - - p a r t I I I . J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y . 1967b , 4 , 4 5 - 5 1 .

Noy, P. The p s y c h o d y n a m i c m e a n i n g o f m u s i c - - p a r t IV.J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y . 19 67 c , 4, 8 1 - 9 4 .

Noy, P. The p s y c h o d y n a m i c m e a n i n g o f m u s i c - - p a r t V.J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y , 1967d , 4, 1 1 7 - 1 2 5 .

P a n t l e , J . E . The e f f e c t o f t e a c h e r a p p r o v a l of m u s i c on m u s i c s e l e c t i o n and m u s i c v e r b a l p r e f e r e n c e . Un­p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a r y l a n d , 1977.

P a y n e , E. M u s i c a l t a s t e a nd p e r s o n a l i t y . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1967, 58, 1 3 3 - 1 3 8 .

P e r a , R .P . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p e e r g r o u p on t h e m u s i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s of s t u d e n t s i n t h e s e v e n t h , n i n t h , and e l e v e n t h g r a d e s . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1965.

P e r e t t i , P.O. and Swenson, K. E f f e c t s o f m u s i c on a n x i e t y a s d e t e r m i n e d by p h y s i o l o g i c a l s k i n r e s p o n s e s .J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n , 1974 , 22, 2 7 8 - 2 8 3 .

P e t e r s o n , R . A . , and D a v i s , R.B. The c o n t e m p o r a r y Amer ican r a d i o a u d i e n c e . P o p u l a r Music a nd S o c i e t y , 1974 , 3_, 2 9 9 - 3 1 4 .

P o o l e , R . , G o e t y i n g e r , C . P . and Ro u se y , C.L. A s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t s o f a u d i t o r y s t i m u l a t i o n on r e s p i r a t i o n . A c t a - o t o l a n y n g o l o g i c a , 1966 , 61, 1 4 1 - 1 5 2 .

Radocy , R . E . , and B o y l e , J . D . P s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f m u s i c a l b e h a v i o r . S p r i n g f i e l d , 1 1 1 . : C h a r l e s C.Thomas P u b l i s h e r , 1979.

R a i m y, V.C. S e l f - r e f e r e n c e i n c o u n s e l i n g i n t e r v i e w s .J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g y , 19 48 , 1_2, 1 5 3 - 1 6 3 .

R e i m e r , B . , A p h i l o s o p h y of m u s i c e d u c a t i o n . Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1970.

R e n t z , R.R. and W h i t e , W.F. C o n g r u e n c e of t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s e l f - a s - o b j e c t and s e l f - a s - p r o c e s s . J o u r n a l o fP s y c h o l o g y , 1967 , 67 , 2 7 7 - 2 8 5 .

Page 168: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

156

Ri dg ewa y , C.L. A f f e c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n a s a d e t e r m i n a n to f m u s i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t . The S o c i o l o g i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . 1976 , 17* 4 1 4 - 4 2 8 .

R i e s , H.A. GSR and b r e a t h i n g a m p l i t u d e r e l a t e d t oe m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s t o m u s i c . Psyc hono mi c S c i e n c e 1969 , 14, 6 2 - 6 4 .

R i e s m a n , D. L i s t e n i n g t o p o p u l a r m u s i c . In B e r n a r d R o s e n b e r g and D av i d Manning Whi te ( E d s . ) , Mass c u l t u r e , G l e n c o e , I.LI: F r e e P r e s s , 1957.

R o b e r t s , J . and R id ge wa y , C, M u s i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t and t a l k i n g . A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , 1969,2, 2 2 3 - 2 4 6 .

R o b i n s o n , J . P . and H i r s c h , P.M. T e e n a g e r e s p o n s e t o r o c k and r o l l p r o t e s t s o n g s . In D e n i s o f f an d P e t e r s o n ( E d s . ) , The s o u n ds of s o c i a l c h a n g e . C h i c a g o : Rand Mc Na l l y , 1972.

R o e c k l e , C.A. N o t e s on m u s i c a l t a s t e . M i s s o u r i J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h i n Music E d u c a t i o n , 1968, 2, 5 - 1 3 .

R o e d e r e r , J . G . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o p h y s i c s and p s y c h o p h y s i c sof m u s i c (2nd e d . ) . New York: S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , 1975.

Sc ho en , M. an d Ga t ewo od , E . L . The mood e f f e c t s of m us ic ( C h a p t e r 7) a nd P r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o t h e mood e f f e c t s o f m u s i c ( C h a p t e r 8 ) . In M. Schoen ( E d . ) , The e f f e c t s o f m u s i c . New York: H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1927.

S c h u e s s l e r , K.F . S o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d and m u s i c a l t a s t e . A m er i c a n S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v i e w , 1948, _13, 3 3 0 - 3 3 5 .

S c h u l i i a n , D.M. , and S c h o e n , M. Music an d m e d i c i n e . New York: Henry Schuman, I n c . , 1948.

S c h u t z , C. a nd Lang , G. The r e l i a b i l i t y o f m u s i cp r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r v a r y i n g mood c o n d i t i o n s . J o u r n a 1 of C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1963 , L9 , 506.

S ch wa dr on , A.A. A e s t h e t i c s : d i m e n s i o n s f o r mus i c e d u c a -t i o n . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C. : Music E d u c a t o r s N a t i o n a lC o n f e r e n c e , 1967.

S e a r s , M.A. S t u d y o f t h e v a s c u l a r c h a n g e s i n t h ec a p i l l a r i e s a s e f f e c t e d by m u s i c . U n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1954.

Page 169: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

157

S e a r s , W.W. A s t u d y o f some e f f e c t s o f m u s i c upon m u s c l e t e n s i o n a s e v i d e n c e d by e l e c t r o m y o g r a p h i c r e c o r d i n g s . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n s a s , 1960.

S e a r s , W.W. P o s t u r a l r e s p o n s e s t o r e c o r d e d m u s i c . InE.G. G i l l i l a n d ( E d . ) , Music T h e r a p y , 1951, C h i c a g o : A l l e n P r e s s , 1952, 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 .

S h a t i n , L. A l t e r a t i o n o f mood v i a m u s i c : A s t u d y o f t h ev e c t o r i n g e f f e c t . J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 1970, 7 5 , 8 1 - 8 6 .

S h a t i n , L. The i n f l u e n c e o f r h y t h m i c d r u m b e a t s t i m u l i upon t h e p u l s e r a t e and g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y o f l o n g ­t e r m s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . J o u r n a l of M e n t a l S c i e n c e ,1957 , 103, 1 7 2 - 1 8 8 .

Shaw, A. The r o c k r e v o l u t i o n . New York: P a p e r b a c kL i b r a r y , 1971.

S h r i f t , D.C. G a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e t o two t y p e s o fm u s i c . B u l l e t i n o f N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Music T h e r a p y , 1955, 10, 5 - 6 .

S k i p p e r , J . K . M u s i c a l t a s t e s o f C a n a d i a n and A mer i canc o l l e g e s t u d e n t s : An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e m a s s i f i c a -t i o n and A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n t h e s e s . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , 1975, 1_, 4 9 - 5 9 .

S m i t h , C.A. and M o r r i s , D. E f f e c t s o f s t i m u l a t i v e ands e d a t i v e m u s i c on c o g n i t i v e and e m o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f a n x i e t y . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 1976, ^38, 1187.

So pc ha k , A.L. I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e t od i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m u s i c i n r e l a t i o n t o s e x , mood, and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l Monographs , 1955, 69 , 1 - 2 0 . .........

S t e e n b e r g , N . J . IPAT m u s i c p r e f e r e n c e t e s t o f p e r s o n a l i t y . 0 . B u r o s ( E d . ) , The f i f t h m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s y e a r ­book . H i g h l a n d , N . J . : Gr yphon , 1959 .

S t e p h e n s o n , W. The s t u d y o f b e h a v i o r . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r ­s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1953.

S u i n n , S. Review o f t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f Co n c e p t S c a l e . In B u r o s , O.K. ( E d . ) , The s e v e n t h m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s y e a r b o o k . H i g h l a n d P a r k , 1 1 1 . : Gryphon P r e s s , 1972.

Page 170: University Microfilms International - OhioLINK ETD Center

158

T a n n e r , F . D . The e f f e c t o f d i s c j o c k e y a p p r o v a l ofm u s i c a n d p e e r a p p r o v a l o f m u s i c on m u s i c s e l e c t i o n . , U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia U n i v e r ­s i t y , 1976.

T o o h e y , J . V . P o p u l a r m u s i c an d s o c i a l v a l u e s . The J o u r n a l o f S c h o o l H e a l t h . 1982, 5 8 2 - 5 8 5 .

T r e n e s , N.E. S t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s of mus i c on c a n c e rp a t i e n t s . H o s p i t a l S o c i a l S e r v i c e . 1937, 1_6, 131.

V a c c i a n o , R. and S t r a u s s , P. The c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o ft h e TSCS. J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1968, 24, 3 2 3 - 3 2 6 .

V a r g a s , M.J . " Ch a n g e s i n s e l f - a w a r e n e s s d u r i n g c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d t h e r a p y " i n R o g e r s , C.R. and Dymond, R. F. ( E d s . ) , P s y c h o t h e r a p y and P e r s o n a l C h a n g e . C h i c a g o , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1954, 1 4 5 - 1 66 .

V u l l i a m y , G. A r e - a s s e s s m e n t of t h e "mass c u l t u r e " c o n ­t r o v e r s y : t h e c a s e o f r o c k m u s i c . P o p u l a r Musican d S o c i e t y , 1975 , _4, 1 3 0 - 1 5 5 .

W a l l a c h , M.A. and G r e e n b e r g , C. P e r s o n a l i t y f u n c t i o n s o f s y m b o l i c s e x u a l a r o u s a l t o m u s i c . P s y c h o l o g i c a 1 M o n o g r a p h s , 1960 , 74 , 1 - 1 8 .

Washco, A. The e f f e c t s of m u s i c upon p u l s e r a t e , b l o o dp r e s s u r e , and m e n t a l i m a g e r y . In D. S o i b e l m a n ( E d . ) , T h e r a p e u t i c a nd i n d u s t r i a l u s e s o f m u s i c . New York: Co l umbi a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1948.

W i l s o n , C.V. an d A i k e n , L . S . The e f f e c t o f i n t e n s i t yl e v e l s upon p h y s i o l o g i c a l an d s u b j e c t i v e a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o r o c k m u s i c . J o u r n a l o f Music T h e r a p y , 1977 , 13, 6 0 - 7 6 .

W y l i e , R.C. The s e l f - c o n c e p t . L i n c o l n , N e b r a s k a , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a P r e s s , 1961.

Zimny, G.H. a n d W e i d e n f e l l e r , E.W. E f f e c t o f m u s i c upon GSR and h e a r t r a t e . A me r ic an J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y . 1963 , 7 6 , 3 1 1 - 3 1 4 .