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The terms and symbols in the list below may appear in the directions or questions on the AP Music Theory Exam, as well as in course instructional materials . As such, the list will be an invaluable guide in the development of an AP Music Theory course, but it is not intended to limit course content — some teachers may choose to include topics not shown here .
It is important to note that the list does not include extremely basic musical vocabulary, even though such widely used terms may be used on the exam — for example, “quarter note” is not listed . Nor is every term of equal importance — for example, “strophic” and “rubato” may not appear on every exam, but “melody,” “phrase” and “texture” certainly will .
Definitions and illustrations of the terms and concepts listed here can be found in music theory textbooks and standard reference works, such as The New Harvard Dictionary of Music.
FormSymbolsLowercase letters indicate musical phrases or subsections: for example, a b indicates a contrasting period; a b a indicates a phrase, contrasting phrase and return to the original phrase . A prime (as in a a' ) denotes a phrase and a varied restatement . Capital letters are used to indicate larger sections of compositions .
TermsCadenceCadential extensionCodaCodettaContourCountermelodyElision (phrase elision)Fragment (fragmented motive)Introduction Jazz and pop terms bridge chorus song form (AABA) turnaround twelve-bar blues
Roman and Arabic numerals Capital Roman numerals denote major triads . Lowercase Roman numerals denote minor triads . A capital Roman numeral with a “ + ” indicates an augmented triad . A lowercase Roman numeral with a “ ø ” indicates a diminished triad .
Arabic numerals or figured-bass symbols denote intervals above the bass and hence indirectly indicate chord inversion . Arabic numerals may indicate voice leading and/or nonharmonic tones .
Triads 6 indicates a first inversion triad 6
4 indicates a second inversion triad
Seventh Chords 7 indicates a root-position seventh chord ø7 indicates a diminished (fully-diminished) seventh chord Ø7 indicates a half-diminished seventh chord 6
5 indicates first inversion 4
3 indicates second inversion 4
2 indicates third inversion
Other figures 8–7 indicates melodic movement from an octave to a seventh above the bass . 9–8, 7–6, 4–3 indicate a suspension and melodic resolution .
An accidental before an Arabic numeral indicates alteration of the interval involved .A figure with a slash (e .g ., ) or a plus (e .g ., 4+) indicates that the note creating the interval in question is raised a half step .
Functions and ProgressionsScale degrees/diatonic chord names tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant subtonic leading toneFunctions tonic function dominant function predominant functionCircle of fifthsDeceptive progression
Harmonic rhythmModulation common tone modulation phrase modulation pivot chord modulationNeighboring chordRate of harmonic changeRealize, realization of a figured bass,
realization of a four-part Roman numeral progression
RetrogressionSecondary dominantSecondary leading tone chordTonicization
4 created by arpeggiation of the triad in the bass (e .g ., 1a) .
Cadential 64—a I6
4 preceding the dominant, often at a cadence . Although it contains the notes of the tonic triad, it does not exercise a tonic function but rather serves as an embellishment of the dominant . It occurs in a metrically stronger position than the dominant, and the upper voices most often move by step to the tones of the dominant . May also be written as V6
4 • 53 , including the resolution of the cadential 6
4 to the dominant (e .g ., 1b) .
Neighboring or pedal 64 (embellishing 6
4, auxiliary 64 )—occurs when the third
and fifth of a root position triad are embellished by their respective upper neighboring tones, while the bass is stationary, usually occurring on a weak beat (e .g ., 1c) .
Passing 64—harmonizes the second note of a three-note ascending or
descending scale fragment in the bass; that is, it harmonizes a bass passing tone . The usual metric placement is on an unaccented beat and the motion of the upper voices is ordinarily by step (e .g ., 1d) .
1a . Arpeggiating 64 1b . Cadential 6
4 1c . Neighboring 1d . Passing 64
or pedal 64
Nonharmonic Tones (Nonchord Tones)AnticipationAppoggiaturaEmbellishmentEscape tone (échappeé) Neighboring tone (auxiliary tone, embellishing tone, neighbor note) double neighbor lower neighbor upper neighbor
neighbor group (cambiata, changing tones, changing notes)
OrnamentPassing tone (accented, unaccented)Pedal pointPreparationResolutionRetardationSuspension rearticulated suspension suspension chain
IntervalsCompound intervalHalf step (semitone)IntervalInversion, inversion of an intervalNumerical names (i .e ., third, fifth, octave)Quality or type (e .g ., perfect, major, minor, diminished, augmented)TritoneUnison (prime)Whole step (whole tone)
PerformancetermsAntiphonalArticulation arco legato marcato pizzicato slur staccato tenutoCall and responseDynamics crescendo diminuendo terrace dynamics pianissimo pp piano p mezzo piano mp mezzo forte mf forte f fortissimo f f sforzando sf; sfz
Improvisation, improvisatory PhrasingTempo adagio allegro andante andantino grave largo lento moderato presto vivace
Scales/Keys/ModesAccidentalChromatic, chromaticismDiatonicKey signatureMajorMinor harmonic minor
melodic minor, ascending/descending
natural minor (Aeolian)Mode Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
ModalityParallel key, parallel major or minorPentatonicRelative key, relative major or minorScale degrees tonic ^1 supertonic ^2 mediant ^3 subdominant ^4 dominant ^5 submediant ^6 leading tone ^7TetrachordTonalTonalityTonicWhole-tone scale
Use your memory of these songs to help identify intervals you hear by comparing those intervals to these songs.
Interval Ascending Descending
Minor 2nd Jaws (Theme) Für Elise (Beethoven)
Major 2nd Silent Night (Christmas) Mary Had a Little Lamb
Minor 3rd Georgia on my mind Star Spangled Banner
Major 3rd Oh, when the Saints Swing Low Sweet Chariot
Metro doors
Perfect
4th
Amazing Grace Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart)
Tritone Simpsons
Perfect
5th
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star It Don’t Mean a Thing (Duke Ellington)
Minor 6th We Are Young – “set the world on FI-RE” We Are Young – “Tonight” beginning to
end of the word
Major 6th NBC Chimes Man In the Mirror; chorus (Michael
Jackson)
Minor 7th “There’s a Place for Us” from West Side
Story
Watermelon Man
Major 7th Somewhere over the Rainbow (Wizard of
Oz) *1st and 3rd pitch
“Take On Me” by A-Ha
Octave Somewhere over the Rainbow (Wizard of
Oz)
Happy Birthday (third line)
AP® Music Theory Free-Response Scoring Guidelines
Definitions of Common Voice-Leading Errors (FR 5 & 6)
1. Parallel fifths and octaves (immediately consecutive)—unacceptable (award 0 points) 2. Beat-to-beat fifths and octaves (equal perfect intervals on successive beats)—unacceptable (award 0 points) 3. Fifths and octaves by contrary motion—unacceptable (award 0 points) 4. Unequal fifths (d5 → P5)
• In a three- or four-part texture, a rising d5 → P5 is acceptable ONLY in the progressions I–V$–I6 and I–vii°6–I6 (i.e., no deduction).
• A rising d5 → P5 in other progressions is unacceptable (1-point error). • The reverse, a rising P5→ d5, is acceptable voice leading (no deduction). • Unequal fifths in either order, when descending, are acceptable (no deduction).
5. Hidden (or covered) fifths and octaves in outer voices (similar motion to a perfect interval that involves one
voice moving by step) • When the step is in the upper voice, as shown in ex. 5a—acceptable (no deduction). • When the step is in the lower voice, as shown in ex. 5b—unacceptable (1-point error).
6. Direct fifths and octaves in outer voices—unacceptable (1-point error) Definition: Similar motion to a perfect interval that involves a skip in each voice. NB: Many sources equate
“hidden” and “direct.” For purposes of scoring, it seems useful to refine those definitions, particularly in light of past scoring practice.
7. Overlapping voices—unacceptable (1-point error) Definition: Two adjacent voices move to a position in which the lower voice is higher than the previous note in
the higher voice, or they move to a position where the higher voice is lower than the previous note in the lower voice.
8. Crossed voices—unacceptable (1-point error) Definition: Voicing in which the normal relative position of voices is violated, e.g., if the soprano is below the
alto, or the bass is above the tenor.
-51-
Chapter I
Rhythm
The rhythms in this chapter all come from well-known tunes. After reading them, you may want tolook at the titles, which are given in the table of contents. If you’re working with a teacher, you maywish to clap the rhythm twice, with the teacher counting beats the first time, and singing the tunethe second time.
22 , rhythm of The Itsy-Bitsy Spider 23 , rhythm of Pop Goes the Weasel 24 , rhythm of Row, Row, Row Your Boat25 Scott Joplin, rhythm of The Entertainer 26 P.I. Tchaikovsky, rhythm of march from The Nutcracker
16 Chapter I. Rhythm
II-2 Melodies Containing Only Steps
In each example, start by identifying which line or space on the staff represents ‘do,’ the tonic. Ifyou have an instrument at hand, play the tonic, and then sing enough notes from the tonic chordto bracket the range of the melody, e.g., ‘do mi so do’ for the octave spanned by the first example.If an instrument is not available, pick a note for ‘do’ that will put the melody in the most comfort-able part of your vocal range. Locate the notes of the tonic chord on the staff to use as reference points.
27 �� >� > ( <>� > ( > :>� > > > :> :
28 <�� > = > > = : >> > = : > > ==
2943� > > ( > > => > ( > > (> > ( > > >( > > (>
famous tune (identified in the table of contents)
30 �� > > > > : >�=> > > > >>�= > > > >> > > > > > :> > > > > >>The following example is in a new key: its ‘do’ is the former ‘so.’ If you have trouble convincing yourbrain to switch keys, try singing ‘do re mi fa so’ in the old key, then repeating the last note as ‘do,’and finally singing ‘do ti do’ — with authority!
Note that the following two examples both have the tonic on the line at the center of the staff, so theone with five sharps actually isn’t any more difficult to read.
38 �33� = : (> > > = >> > > >> > > > >> > = > ( >> ( > > >> > > > > >> >We now begin moving around the circle of fifths in the opposite direction. ‘Ti’ in the previous keyis flattened, and becomes ‘fa’ of the new key. If you’re singing the new, flattened version of the notecorrectly, you should be able to hear its strong tendency to resolve down to ‘mi.’
33 anonymous, carol (Bohemia) 34 J.S. Bach, Chorale, ‘Herr, wie du willst, so schick’s mit mir’ 35 Pierre Latour,
The Beautiful Angel 36 L.R. Lewis 38 L.R. Lewis
20 Chapter II. Major Keys
3943333� > => > > > >> > > = :> > > = :
40 �3333� > > : >� <= > > >3
>( > > >> > > : >� <= > > >3
> > >
41 >� =�33333� > : >� >� >> >� = > >> > : >� >�>
The following two melodies both have the tonic at the same place on the staff.
84 anonymous, Dans la Foret Lointaine (France) 85 anonymous, The Beggar Girl (England) 86 Alice Hawthorne,
Home, By and By 87 Froebel, Beckoning the Pigeons
II-6. The Leap of a Fifth Within the Tonic Triad 33
Chapter III
Minor Keys
III-1 Solfeggio in the Minor Mode
Some people sing in the minor mode using these solfeggio syllables:
<re
<do
�333� <te
3 <le
3 <so
<fa
<me
<so
<la
2 <ti
2 <do
<do
<do
<re
<me
<fa
This system has the advantage that most of the notes have the same functions as in the major mode.‘Do’ is still the tonic, ‘so’ the dominant, ‘ti’ the leading tone, and so on. In this system, the names ofthe notes stay the same when switching between the parallel major and minor.
Others prefer this:
<do
<ti
<la
�333� <so
3 <fa
3 <mi
<re
<re
<me
<fi
2 <si
2 <la
<la
<la
<ti
<do
This system highlights the relationship between the minor and its relative major.
If you don’t have a teacher who wants you to use one system or another, I suggest you use the firstone, because it lets you recycle many of the patterns you’ve learned in minor. For instance, ‘so-ti-do’is still a formula for a cadence.
In both systems, the vowel ‘i’ is used for a sharpened note, and ‘e’ for a flattened one. The chromaticscale looks like this:
�� <la
<li
/ <ti
<dore
<ri
/ <mi
<fa
<fi
/ <so
<si
/<do
<di
/ <
<ra
3 <do
2� <se
3 <fa
2 <mi
<me
3 <re
2<ti
<te
3 <la
2 <le
3 <so
2<do
The important thing is to pick a system and learn it thoroughly. (I use my own enharmonic systemin which the chromatic scale is ‘do gu ri bu mi fa ka so ja la pa ti do.’)
�This melody introduces the use of the ascending and descending forms of the melodic minor scale.The rhythmic figure is the same as in the preceding tune.