THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion
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The.Psychology.of.Entertainment.Media.Blurring.the.Lines.Between.Entertainment.and.Persuasion.eBook-EEnBlurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion
Advertising and Consumer Psychology A Series sponsored by the Society for Consumer Psychology
Aaker/Biel: Brand Equity & Advertising: Advertising’s Role in Building Strong Brands (1993)
Clark/Brock/Stewart: Attention, Attitude, and Affect in Response Advertising (1994)
Englis: Global and Multi-National Advertising (1994)
Goldberg/Fishbein/Middlestadt: Social Marketing: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives (1997)
Kahle/Chiagouris: Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics (1997)
Kahle/Riley: Sports Marketing and the Psychology of Marketing Communications (2003)
Mitchell: Advertising Exposure, Memory, and Choice (1993)
Schumann/Thorson: Advertising and the World Wide Web (1999)
Scott/Batra: Persuasive Imagery: A Consumer Response Perspective (2003)
Shrum: The Psychology of Entertainment Media: Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion (2004)
Thorson/Moore: Integrated Communication: Synergy of Persuasive Voices (1996)
Wells: Measuring Advertising Effectiveness (1997)
Williams/Lee/Haugtvedt: Diversity in Advertising: Broadening the Scope of Research Directions (2004)
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA
Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion
Edited by
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2004 Mahwah, New Jersey London
Copyright C© 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, NJ 07430
Cover design by Sean Sciarrone
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The psychology of entertainment media: blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion/L. J. Shrum, editor.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-4641-7 (h : alk paper) 1. Subliminal advertising. 2. Advertising—Psychological aspects.
3. Mass media—Psychological aspects. 4. Persuasion (Psychology) 5. Manipulative behavior. I. Shrum, L. J.
HF5827.9.P78 2003 659.1′01′9—dc21 2003040800
Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability.
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xv
1 What’s So Special About Entertainment Media and Why Do We Need a Psychology for It?: An Introduction to the Psychology of Entertainment Media 1 L. J. Shrum
PART I: EMBEDDING PROMOTIONS WITHIN PROGRAMS: SUBLIMINAL EMBEDS AND PRODUCT PLACEMENTS
2 Beyond Gizmo Subliminality 13 Matthew Hugh Erdelyi and Diane M. Zizak
3 Product Placement: The Nature of the Practice and Potential Avenues of Inquiry 45 John A. McCarty
4 Product Placements: How to Measure Their Impact 63 Sharmistha Law and Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour
5 Mental Models for Brand Placement 79 Moonhee Yang, Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen, and David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen
6 Embedding Brands Within Media Content: The Impact of Message, Media, and Consumer Characteristics on Placement Efficacy 99 Namita Bhatnagar, Lerzan Aksoy, and Selin A. Malkoc
7 The “Delicious Paradox”: Preconscious Processing of Product Placements by Children 117 Susan Auty and Charlie Lewis
v
vi CONTENTS
PART II: THE PROGRAMS BETWEEN THE ADS: THE PERSUASIVE POWER OF ENTERTAINMENT FICTION AND NARRATIVE
8 Pictures, Words, and Media Influence: The Interactive Effects of Verbal and Nonverbal Information on Memory and Judgments 137 Robert S. Wyer, Jr. and Rashmi Adaval
9 The Power of Fiction: Determinants and Boundaries 161 Melanie C. Green, Jennifer Garst, and Timothy C. Brock
10 A Process Model of Consumer Cultivation: The Role of Television Is a Function of the Type of Judgment 177 L. J. Shrum, James E. Burroughs, and Aric Rindfleisch
11 Paths From Television Violence to Aggression: Reinterpreting the Evidence 193 George Comstock
12 Between the Ads: Effects of Nonadvertising TV Messages on Consumption Behavior 213 Maria Kniazeva
13 Media Factors That Contribute to a Restriction of Exposure to Diversity 233 David W. Schumann
PART III: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MEDIA USAGE AND THEIR ROLE AS MEDIATORS AND MODERATORS OF MEDIA EFFECTS
14 The Need for Entertainment Scale 255 Timothy C. Brock and Stephen D. Livingston
15 People and “Their” Television Shows: An Overview of Television Connectedness 275 Cristel A. Russell, Andrew T. Norman, and Susan E. Heckler
16 The Interplay Among Attachment Orientation, Idealized Media Images of Women, and Body Dissatisfaction: A Social Psychological Analysis 291 Dara N. Greenwood and Paula R. Pietromonaco
CONTENTS vii
17 Marketing Through Sports Entertainment: A Functional Approach 309 Scott Jones, Colleen Bee, Rick Burton, and Lynn R. Kahle
18 Sensation Seeking and the Consumption of Televised Sports 323 Stephen R. McDaniel
Author Index 337
Subject Index 351
About the Authors
Rashmi Adaval is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Hong Kong Univer- sity of Science and Technology. She is the author of several book chapters and journal articles and is the recipient of the 2002 Robert Ferber Award for the best dissertation-related article published in the Journal of Consumer Research. Her research interests include the role of affect in information processing, the impact of narrative-related information on judgments and decisions, and automaticity.
Lerzan Aksoy is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Koc University in Istanbul, Turkey. She completed her undergraduate degree from Hacettepe University in Ankara, Turkey, received a Fulbright scholarship to pursue an MBA at George Mason University, and in 2001 received her PhD in Marketing from the Kenan- Flagler Business School, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her research interests include the impact of personalization in the online environment on con- sumer decision quality, cross-cultural research, efficacy of non-traditional media, and marketing public policy implications. Her teaching interests at the undergrad- uate and graduate levels include marketing management, consumer behavior, and customer relationship management.
Susan Auty is a lecturer in Marketing at Lancaster University Management School in Lancaster, England. Her recent research has been concerned with the role of brand imagery in consumer choice.
Colleen Bee is a PhD student in the Charles H. Lundquist College of Business at the University of Oregon.
Namita Bhatnagar is currently Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Canada. She is completing her PhD in Marketing from the Kenan-Flagler Business School, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her research interests lie in the areas of categorization, cross- channel management of services, and non-traditional forms of marketing through entertainment media.
Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour, PhD, is President of Marketing Memories™ in Auburn, Alabama.
ix
x ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Timothy C. Brock is Professor of Psychology at Ohio State University and past- president of the Society for Consumer Psychology. He has co-edited Psycholog- ical Foundations of Attitudes (1968), Cognitive Response in Persuasion (1981), Attention, Affect, and Attitude in Response to Advertising (1994), Persuasion: Psychological Insights and Perspectives (1994), and Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations (2002).
James E. Burroughs is Assistant Professor of Commerce, McIntire School of Commerce, University of Virginia. He received his PhD in Business (Marketing) from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research is in the area of consumer behavior and is specifically focused on issues such as materialism, symbolic consumption, and consumer culture.
Rick Burton is the Executive Director of the Warsaw Sports Marketing Center in the University of Oregon’s Lundquist College of Business (LCB). He is a senior instructor of sports marketing in the LCB’s marketing department and when not teaching, consults for national and international sports leagues and organizations. He is the host of the TV show “The Business of Sport” on ASCN.
George Comstock (PhD, Stanford University) is S.I. Newhouse Professor at the School of Public Communications, Syracuse University. He was science adviser to the Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior that issued the 1972 federal report, Television and Growing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence, and in 1991–93 was chairman of the Department of Journalism and Communication, Chinese University, Hong Kong. His interests include the art and science of research synthesis, the influence of media in the so- cialization of children, and the dynamics of public opinion. His recent publications include Television: What’s On, Who’s Watching, and What It Means (co-authored with Erica Scharrer) and Television and the American Child (with Haejung Paik).
Matthew Hugh Erdelyi (AB, College of Wooster; PhD, Yale University) is currently Professor of Psychology and Stern Professor of Humor at Brooklyn Col- lege, CUNY. He has numerous publications on subliminal processes and defense mechanisms, and has published two books, Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Cognitive Psychology and The Recovery of Unconscious Memories: Hypermnesia and Rem- iniscence.
Jennifer Garst is Assistant Professor of Communication at University of Mary- land, College Park. She received training in social psychology with a PhD from Michigan State University and a postdoctoral fellowship at Ohio State University. Her research delves into the processes by which media messages and rhetorical styles subtly influence recipients’ beliefs and attitudes.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi
Melanie C. Green is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Penn- sylvania. She received her PhD in social psychology from Ohio State University. Her research areas include the effects of narratives (including fictional stories) on individuals’ beliefs and attitudes, and individual influences on the formation of social capital. She recently co-edited Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations (2002; with Jeffrey Strange and Timothy Brock).
Dara N. Greenwood is a doctoral student in Social Psychology at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Her research interests include gender, sexist humor, media perceptions and influence, close relationships, and body image issues.
Susan E. Heckler is Professor of Marketing in the College of Business at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, MN. Dr. Heckler holds a PhD degree in Business Administration from the University of Minnesota. Her research inter- ests center on issues concerning marketing communication with specific focus on the role of aesthetic elements in advertisements and individual differences re- lated to elaboration and persuasion. Dr. Heckler’s work appears in a number of marketing and advertising scientific journals as well as other editions of ACP publications.
Scott Jones is a PhD student in the Charles H. Lundquist College of Business at the University of Oregon.
Lynn R. Kahle is the James Warsaw Professor of Marketing at the University of Oregon. Topics of his research include social adaptation, values, and sports marketing. His articles have appeared in such outlets as the Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Sport Mar- keting Quarterly, Public Opinion Quarterly, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Child Development. His books include Social Values and Social Change, Marketing Management, and Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics. He previously edited the journal Sport Marketing Quarterly. He has served as president of the Society for Consumer Psychology, president of the City of Eugene Human Rights program, and chair of the Department of Marketing at the University of Oregon.
Maria Kniazeva is a PhD student and visiting instructor at the McDonough School of Business at Georgetown University. Ethnic Russian, Maria Kniazeva was born in Estonia. She has a Masters in Journalism from Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) State University in Russia and has worked as a professional jour- nalist in Estonia. Before starting her doctoral program, she spent two years at the Graduate School of Management, University of California at Irvine, as an MBA student, Edmund Muskie fellow, and as a recipient of the American Associ- ation of University Women international fellowship. Her research interests include
xii ABOUT THE AUTHORS
consumer perception of biotechnology and the impact of mass media on attitude formation. She is also the author of the book America Through The Eyes of a Russian Woman published in English with a grant received from the United States Information Agency and administered by the International Research & Exchanges Board. Maria Kniazeva can be contacted at: [email protected]
Sharmistha Law, PhD, is Assistant Professor in the Division of Management at the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Charlie Lewis is Professor of Family and Developmental Psychology at Lan- caster University in Lancaster, England. His two main research interests involve the study of parent-child relationships, particularly the role of the father in the con- temporary family, and young children’s social-cognitive development, especially the development of mental state understanding.
Stephen D. Livingston is a Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) doctoral fellow at Ohio State University, currently pursuing graduate studies in social psychology. His research interests include attitude for- mation and change, stereotyping, and motivated cognition.
Selin A. Malkoc is currently a doctoral student at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has undertaken masters-level work at the University of Texas at Dallas and holds an undergraduate degree in business administration from Bilkent University, Turkey.
John A. McCarty currently teaches in the School of Business at The College of New Jersey in Ewing, New Jersey. Prior to taking this position, he taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; American University in Washington, D. C.; and George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. He holds a PhD in social psychology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Stephen R. McDaniel is an associate professor in kinesiology at the University of Maryland. He received a PhD in communication from Florida State University. His research is focused on consumer psychology in the realm of sport marketing and media. His work has appeared in Advances in Consumer Research, Imag- ination, Cognition and Personality, Journal of Services Marketing, Psychology & Marketing, Personality and Individual Differences, and Social Behavior and Personality.
Andrew T. Norman is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Drake University. His research interests center on incongruency and categorization effects, attitude formation, and cognitive processing in various types of marketing communications.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xiii
He has also investigated the consumption of television programming as it relates to marketing promotions. Dr. Norman is an active member of the Association for Consumer Research, the American Marketing Association, and the Society for Consumer Psychology.
Paula R. Pietromonaco, PhD, is Associate Professor of Psychology at the Univer- sity of Massachusetts at Amherst. Her research interests include close relationships, emotion, and social cognition.
Aric Rindfleisch is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he earned his doctorate in 1998. Prior to rejoining UW-Madison, he spent five years as a faculty member at the University of Ari- zona. He is currently teaching a course on product management. Aric’s research, which focuses on understanding interfirm cooperation and consumption values, has been published in the Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing Research, the Journal of Consumer Research, the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Marketing Letters, and Business Horizons.
Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen (PhD, Indiana University) is Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Alabama. Dr. Roskos-Ewoldsen’s research inter- ests include mental models and the media, spatial cognition, mental imagery, and the cognitive foundations of creativity. She has published her research in jour- nals such as the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Journal of Mental Imagery, and Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology.
David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen (PhD, Indiana University) is the Reese Phifer Profes- sor of Communication Studies and Professor of Psychology at the University of Alabama. He is founding co-editor of the journal Media Psychology. Dr. Roskos- Ewoldsen’s research focuses on mental models and the media, and attitudes and persuasion. He has published his research in journals such as Human Commu- nication Research, Communication Yearbook, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, and Journal of Experi- mental Psychology: Applied.
Cristel A. Russell is Assistant Professor of Marketing at San Diego State University. Her research focuses on the increasingly blurred lines between en- tertainment and marketing. Her work investigating the effectiveness of product placements in audiovisual media appears in the Journal of Consumer Research and she is currently working on several follow-up projects related to the prod- uct placement industry and consumers’ responses to product placements. She also introduced the concept of television connectedness as an important factor
xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS
in explaining how television programs affect viewers’ perceptions of consumption images in the media.
David W. Schumann holds the William J. Taylor Professorship in Business at the University of Tennessee. His research interests focus on issues related to attitude formation, persuasion, and belief structures in response to marketing communi- cation. He is an APA Fellow in the divisions of consumer psychology and media psychology (Divisions 23 and 46), and is a past president of the Society for Con- sumer Psychology.
L. J. Shrum (PhD, University of Illinois) is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Texas-San Antonio. His research investigates the psychological processes underlying media effects, and particularly the role of media information in the construction of values, attitudes, and beliefs. His work has appeared in such journals as Journal of Consumer Research, Human Communication Research, Journal of Advertising, and Public Opinion Quarterly.
Robert S. Wyer, Jr., a professor emeritus of Psychology at the University of Illi- nois at Urbana-Champaign, is currently Visiting Professor of Marketing at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. He is the author of four books on so- cial information processing (the most recent being Comprehension and Judgment in Daily Life: The Impact of Situation Models, Narratives and Implicit Theories). He has been the coeditor of the Handbook of Social Cognition, and editor of the Advances in Social Cognition series. He was a past editor of the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, and is currently editor of the Journal of Con- sumer Psychology. He is a recipient of the Alexandr von Humboldt Research Prize for Distinguished Scientists and the Thomas M. Ostrom Award for distinguished contributions to social cognition.
Moonhee Yang (MA, Korea University) is a doctoral student in the College of Communication and Information Science at the University of Alabama. Her re- search interests include mental models of persuasive messages, contextual effect in advertising, and entertainment theory.
Diane M. Zizak (BA Hunter College) has recently completed her PhD in Exper- imental Psychology at the Brooklyn College campus of The Graduate School at CUNY. Her areas of research include implicit processes and the mere exposure effect.
Preface
One of the bedrock principles of a free-market system of commerce is the notion of a free flow of information to afford a level playing field for all decision makers. Within this framework operates what I will call, for lack of a more creative term, a variation of informed consent: Audience members consent to be persuaded as long as they are informed of the persuasion attempt. At least that’s the way it’s supposed to work for advertising: a paid, nonpersonal persuasive communication from an identified source (Sandage, Fryburger, & Rotzoll, 1983). In fact, that’s often one of the reasons given for why advertising may not be all that effective (after all, people know they are being persuaded by a biased source and can appropriately source-discount). And it is likely the flip side of that reason as to why the notion of subliminal advertising is so feared and reviled by consumers—the notion that they could be persuaded without their knowledge and thus without their defense.
That is precisely what this book is about: how the lines between entertainment and persuasion have become increasingly blurred and how these blurred lines might either facilitate or inhibit changes in attitudes, beliefs and perceptions. The chapters that comprise this volume grew out of the 21st Annual Advertising and Consumer Psychology Conference, held at the Omni Berkshire Place in New York City, May 16–18, 2002, which was organized around the blurred lines theme. The best papers from this conference were invited for this volume. In addition, several additional chapters were invited from some of the best-known scholars in psy- chology, marketing, and communications who are doing work in this area. Taken together, this contributed volume represents a multidisciplinary investigation of an age-old process (persuasion) in a relatively new guise (e.g., product placements, brand films and television programs, sponsorships). Its intent is to explore how persuasion works in these contexts (and, indeed, to expand the notion of what constitutes persuasion), hopefully resulting in a more knowledgeable field and a more knowledgeable consumer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Because this volume is closely associated with…
Advertising and Consumer Psychology A Series sponsored by the Society for Consumer Psychology
Aaker/Biel: Brand Equity & Advertising: Advertising’s Role in Building Strong Brands (1993)
Clark/Brock/Stewart: Attention, Attitude, and Affect in Response Advertising (1994)
Englis: Global and Multi-National Advertising (1994)
Goldberg/Fishbein/Middlestadt: Social Marketing: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives (1997)
Kahle/Chiagouris: Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics (1997)
Kahle/Riley: Sports Marketing and the Psychology of Marketing Communications (2003)
Mitchell: Advertising Exposure, Memory, and Choice (1993)
Schumann/Thorson: Advertising and the World Wide Web (1999)
Scott/Batra: Persuasive Imagery: A Consumer Response Perspective (2003)
Shrum: The Psychology of Entertainment Media: Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion (2004)
Thorson/Moore: Integrated Communication: Synergy of Persuasive Voices (1996)
Wells: Measuring Advertising Effectiveness (1997)
Williams/Lee/Haugtvedt: Diversity in Advertising: Broadening the Scope of Research Directions (2004)
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA
Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion
Edited by
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2004 Mahwah, New Jersey London
Copyright C© 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, NJ 07430
Cover design by Sean Sciarrone
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The psychology of entertainment media: blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion/L. J. Shrum, editor.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-4641-7 (h : alk paper) 1. Subliminal advertising. 2. Advertising—Psychological aspects.
3. Mass media—Psychological aspects. 4. Persuasion (Psychology) 5. Manipulative behavior. I. Shrum, L. J.
HF5827.9.P78 2003 659.1′01′9—dc21 2003040800
Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability.
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xv
1 What’s So Special About Entertainment Media and Why Do We Need a Psychology for It?: An Introduction to the Psychology of Entertainment Media 1 L. J. Shrum
PART I: EMBEDDING PROMOTIONS WITHIN PROGRAMS: SUBLIMINAL EMBEDS AND PRODUCT PLACEMENTS
2 Beyond Gizmo Subliminality 13 Matthew Hugh Erdelyi and Diane M. Zizak
3 Product Placement: The Nature of the Practice and Potential Avenues of Inquiry 45 John A. McCarty
4 Product Placements: How to Measure Their Impact 63 Sharmistha Law and Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour
5 Mental Models for Brand Placement 79 Moonhee Yang, Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen, and David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen
6 Embedding Brands Within Media Content: The Impact of Message, Media, and Consumer Characteristics on Placement Efficacy 99 Namita Bhatnagar, Lerzan Aksoy, and Selin A. Malkoc
7 The “Delicious Paradox”: Preconscious Processing of Product Placements by Children 117 Susan Auty and Charlie Lewis
v
vi CONTENTS
PART II: THE PROGRAMS BETWEEN THE ADS: THE PERSUASIVE POWER OF ENTERTAINMENT FICTION AND NARRATIVE
8 Pictures, Words, and Media Influence: The Interactive Effects of Verbal and Nonverbal Information on Memory and Judgments 137 Robert S. Wyer, Jr. and Rashmi Adaval
9 The Power of Fiction: Determinants and Boundaries 161 Melanie C. Green, Jennifer Garst, and Timothy C. Brock
10 A Process Model of Consumer Cultivation: The Role of Television Is a Function of the Type of Judgment 177 L. J. Shrum, James E. Burroughs, and Aric Rindfleisch
11 Paths From Television Violence to Aggression: Reinterpreting the Evidence 193 George Comstock
12 Between the Ads: Effects of Nonadvertising TV Messages on Consumption Behavior 213 Maria Kniazeva
13 Media Factors That Contribute to a Restriction of Exposure to Diversity 233 David W. Schumann
PART III: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MEDIA USAGE AND THEIR ROLE AS MEDIATORS AND MODERATORS OF MEDIA EFFECTS
14 The Need for Entertainment Scale 255 Timothy C. Brock and Stephen D. Livingston
15 People and “Their” Television Shows: An Overview of Television Connectedness 275 Cristel A. Russell, Andrew T. Norman, and Susan E. Heckler
16 The Interplay Among Attachment Orientation, Idealized Media Images of Women, and Body Dissatisfaction: A Social Psychological Analysis 291 Dara N. Greenwood and Paula R. Pietromonaco
CONTENTS vii
17 Marketing Through Sports Entertainment: A Functional Approach 309 Scott Jones, Colleen Bee, Rick Burton, and Lynn R. Kahle
18 Sensation Seeking and the Consumption of Televised Sports 323 Stephen R. McDaniel
Author Index 337
Subject Index 351
About the Authors
Rashmi Adaval is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Hong Kong Univer- sity of Science and Technology. She is the author of several book chapters and journal articles and is the recipient of the 2002 Robert Ferber Award for the best dissertation-related article published in the Journal of Consumer Research. Her research interests include the role of affect in information processing, the impact of narrative-related information on judgments and decisions, and automaticity.
Lerzan Aksoy is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Koc University in Istanbul, Turkey. She completed her undergraduate degree from Hacettepe University in Ankara, Turkey, received a Fulbright scholarship to pursue an MBA at George Mason University, and in 2001 received her PhD in Marketing from the Kenan- Flagler Business School, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her research interests include the impact of personalization in the online environment on con- sumer decision quality, cross-cultural research, efficacy of non-traditional media, and marketing public policy implications. Her teaching interests at the undergrad- uate and graduate levels include marketing management, consumer behavior, and customer relationship management.
Susan Auty is a lecturer in Marketing at Lancaster University Management School in Lancaster, England. Her recent research has been concerned with the role of brand imagery in consumer choice.
Colleen Bee is a PhD student in the Charles H. Lundquist College of Business at the University of Oregon.
Namita Bhatnagar is currently Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Canada. She is completing her PhD in Marketing from the Kenan-Flagler Business School, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her research interests lie in the areas of categorization, cross- channel management of services, and non-traditional forms of marketing through entertainment media.
Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour, PhD, is President of Marketing Memories™ in Auburn, Alabama.
ix
x ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Timothy C. Brock is Professor of Psychology at Ohio State University and past- president of the Society for Consumer Psychology. He has co-edited Psycholog- ical Foundations of Attitudes (1968), Cognitive Response in Persuasion (1981), Attention, Affect, and Attitude in Response to Advertising (1994), Persuasion: Psychological Insights and Perspectives (1994), and Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations (2002).
James E. Burroughs is Assistant Professor of Commerce, McIntire School of Commerce, University of Virginia. He received his PhD in Business (Marketing) from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research is in the area of consumer behavior and is specifically focused on issues such as materialism, symbolic consumption, and consumer culture.
Rick Burton is the Executive Director of the Warsaw Sports Marketing Center in the University of Oregon’s Lundquist College of Business (LCB). He is a senior instructor of sports marketing in the LCB’s marketing department and when not teaching, consults for national and international sports leagues and organizations. He is the host of the TV show “The Business of Sport” on ASCN.
George Comstock (PhD, Stanford University) is S.I. Newhouse Professor at the School of Public Communications, Syracuse University. He was science adviser to the Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior that issued the 1972 federal report, Television and Growing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence, and in 1991–93 was chairman of the Department of Journalism and Communication, Chinese University, Hong Kong. His interests include the art and science of research synthesis, the influence of media in the so- cialization of children, and the dynamics of public opinion. His recent publications include Television: What’s On, Who’s Watching, and What It Means (co-authored with Erica Scharrer) and Television and the American Child (with Haejung Paik).
Matthew Hugh Erdelyi (AB, College of Wooster; PhD, Yale University) is currently Professor of Psychology and Stern Professor of Humor at Brooklyn Col- lege, CUNY. He has numerous publications on subliminal processes and defense mechanisms, and has published two books, Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Cognitive Psychology and The Recovery of Unconscious Memories: Hypermnesia and Rem- iniscence.
Jennifer Garst is Assistant Professor of Communication at University of Mary- land, College Park. She received training in social psychology with a PhD from Michigan State University and a postdoctoral fellowship at Ohio State University. Her research delves into the processes by which media messages and rhetorical styles subtly influence recipients’ beliefs and attitudes.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi
Melanie C. Green is Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Penn- sylvania. She received her PhD in social psychology from Ohio State University. Her research areas include the effects of narratives (including fictional stories) on individuals’ beliefs and attitudes, and individual influences on the formation of social capital. She recently co-edited Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations (2002; with Jeffrey Strange and Timothy Brock).
Dara N. Greenwood is a doctoral student in Social Psychology at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Her research interests include gender, sexist humor, media perceptions and influence, close relationships, and body image issues.
Susan E. Heckler is Professor of Marketing in the College of Business at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, MN. Dr. Heckler holds a PhD degree in Business Administration from the University of Minnesota. Her research inter- ests center on issues concerning marketing communication with specific focus on the role of aesthetic elements in advertisements and individual differences re- lated to elaboration and persuasion. Dr. Heckler’s work appears in a number of marketing and advertising scientific journals as well as other editions of ACP publications.
Scott Jones is a PhD student in the Charles H. Lundquist College of Business at the University of Oregon.
Lynn R. Kahle is the James Warsaw Professor of Marketing at the University of Oregon. Topics of his research include social adaptation, values, and sports marketing. His articles have appeared in such outlets as the Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Sport Mar- keting Quarterly, Public Opinion Quarterly, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Child Development. His books include Social Values and Social Change, Marketing Management, and Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics. He previously edited the journal Sport Marketing Quarterly. He has served as president of the Society for Consumer Psychology, president of the City of Eugene Human Rights program, and chair of the Department of Marketing at the University of Oregon.
Maria Kniazeva is a PhD student and visiting instructor at the McDonough School of Business at Georgetown University. Ethnic Russian, Maria Kniazeva was born in Estonia. She has a Masters in Journalism from Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) State University in Russia and has worked as a professional jour- nalist in Estonia. Before starting her doctoral program, she spent two years at the Graduate School of Management, University of California at Irvine, as an MBA student, Edmund Muskie fellow, and as a recipient of the American Associ- ation of University Women international fellowship. Her research interests include
xii ABOUT THE AUTHORS
consumer perception of biotechnology and the impact of mass media on attitude formation. She is also the author of the book America Through The Eyes of a Russian Woman published in English with a grant received from the United States Information Agency and administered by the International Research & Exchanges Board. Maria Kniazeva can be contacted at: [email protected]
Sharmistha Law, PhD, is Assistant Professor in the Division of Management at the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Charlie Lewis is Professor of Family and Developmental Psychology at Lan- caster University in Lancaster, England. His two main research interests involve the study of parent-child relationships, particularly the role of the father in the con- temporary family, and young children’s social-cognitive development, especially the development of mental state understanding.
Stephen D. Livingston is a Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) doctoral fellow at Ohio State University, currently pursuing graduate studies in social psychology. His research interests include attitude for- mation and change, stereotyping, and motivated cognition.
Selin A. Malkoc is currently a doctoral student at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has undertaken masters-level work at the University of Texas at Dallas and holds an undergraduate degree in business administration from Bilkent University, Turkey.
John A. McCarty currently teaches in the School of Business at The College of New Jersey in Ewing, New Jersey. Prior to taking this position, he taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; American University in Washington, D. C.; and George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. He holds a PhD in social psychology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Stephen R. McDaniel is an associate professor in kinesiology at the University of Maryland. He received a PhD in communication from Florida State University. His research is focused on consumer psychology in the realm of sport marketing and media. His work has appeared in Advances in Consumer Research, Imag- ination, Cognition and Personality, Journal of Services Marketing, Psychology & Marketing, Personality and Individual Differences, and Social Behavior and Personality.
Andrew T. Norman is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Drake University. His research interests center on incongruency and categorization effects, attitude formation, and cognitive processing in various types of marketing communications.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xiii
He has also investigated the consumption of television programming as it relates to marketing promotions. Dr. Norman is an active member of the Association for Consumer Research, the American Marketing Association, and the Society for Consumer Psychology.
Paula R. Pietromonaco, PhD, is Associate Professor of Psychology at the Univer- sity of Massachusetts at Amherst. Her research interests include close relationships, emotion, and social cognition.
Aric Rindfleisch is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he earned his doctorate in 1998. Prior to rejoining UW-Madison, he spent five years as a faculty member at the University of Ari- zona. He is currently teaching a course on product management. Aric’s research, which focuses on understanding interfirm cooperation and consumption values, has been published in the Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing Research, the Journal of Consumer Research, the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Marketing Letters, and Business Horizons.
Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen (PhD, Indiana University) is Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Alabama. Dr. Roskos-Ewoldsen’s research inter- ests include mental models and the media, spatial cognition, mental imagery, and the cognitive foundations of creativity. She has published her research in jour- nals such as the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Journal of Mental Imagery, and Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology.
David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen (PhD, Indiana University) is the Reese Phifer Profes- sor of Communication Studies and Professor of Psychology at the University of Alabama. He is founding co-editor of the journal Media Psychology. Dr. Roskos- Ewoldsen’s research focuses on mental models and the media, and attitudes and persuasion. He has published his research in journals such as Human Commu- nication Research, Communication Yearbook, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, and Journal of Experi- mental Psychology: Applied.
Cristel A. Russell is Assistant Professor of Marketing at San Diego State University. Her research focuses on the increasingly blurred lines between en- tertainment and marketing. Her work investigating the effectiveness of product placements in audiovisual media appears in the Journal of Consumer Research and she is currently working on several follow-up projects related to the prod- uct placement industry and consumers’ responses to product placements. She also introduced the concept of television connectedness as an important factor
xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS
in explaining how television programs affect viewers’ perceptions of consumption images in the media.
David W. Schumann holds the William J. Taylor Professorship in Business at the University of Tennessee. His research interests focus on issues related to attitude formation, persuasion, and belief structures in response to marketing communi- cation. He is an APA Fellow in the divisions of consumer psychology and media psychology (Divisions 23 and 46), and is a past president of the Society for Con- sumer Psychology.
L. J. Shrum (PhD, University of Illinois) is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Texas-San Antonio. His research investigates the psychological processes underlying media effects, and particularly the role of media information in the construction of values, attitudes, and beliefs. His work has appeared in such journals as Journal of Consumer Research, Human Communication Research, Journal of Advertising, and Public Opinion Quarterly.
Robert S. Wyer, Jr., a professor emeritus of Psychology at the University of Illi- nois at Urbana-Champaign, is currently Visiting Professor of Marketing at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. He is the author of four books on so- cial information processing (the most recent being Comprehension and Judgment in Daily Life: The Impact of Situation Models, Narratives and Implicit Theories). He has been the coeditor of the Handbook of Social Cognition, and editor of the Advances in Social Cognition series. He was a past editor of the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, and is currently editor of the Journal of Con- sumer Psychology. He is a recipient of the Alexandr von Humboldt Research Prize for Distinguished Scientists and the Thomas M. Ostrom Award for distinguished contributions to social cognition.
Moonhee Yang (MA, Korea University) is a doctoral student in the College of Communication and Information Science at the University of Alabama. Her re- search interests include mental models of persuasive messages, contextual effect in advertising, and entertainment theory.
Diane M. Zizak (BA Hunter College) has recently completed her PhD in Exper- imental Psychology at the Brooklyn College campus of The Graduate School at CUNY. Her areas of research include implicit processes and the mere exposure effect.
Preface
One of the bedrock principles of a free-market system of commerce is the notion of a free flow of information to afford a level playing field for all decision makers. Within this framework operates what I will call, for lack of a more creative term, a variation of informed consent: Audience members consent to be persuaded as long as they are informed of the persuasion attempt. At least that’s the way it’s supposed to work for advertising: a paid, nonpersonal persuasive communication from an identified source (Sandage, Fryburger, & Rotzoll, 1983). In fact, that’s often one of the reasons given for why advertising may not be all that effective (after all, people know they are being persuaded by a biased source and can appropriately source-discount). And it is likely the flip side of that reason as to why the notion of subliminal advertising is so feared and reviled by consumers—the notion that they could be persuaded without their knowledge and thus without their defense.
That is precisely what this book is about: how the lines between entertainment and persuasion have become increasingly blurred and how these blurred lines might either facilitate or inhibit changes in attitudes, beliefs and perceptions. The chapters that comprise this volume grew out of the 21st Annual Advertising and Consumer Psychology Conference, held at the Omni Berkshire Place in New York City, May 16–18, 2002, which was organized around the blurred lines theme. The best papers from this conference were invited for this volume. In addition, several additional chapters were invited from some of the best-known scholars in psy- chology, marketing, and communications who are doing work in this area. Taken together, this contributed volume represents a multidisciplinary investigation of an age-old process (persuasion) in a relatively new guise (e.g., product placements, brand films and television programs, sponsorships). Its intent is to explore how persuasion works in these contexts (and, indeed, to expand the notion of what constitutes persuasion), hopefully resulting in a more knowledgeable field and a more knowledgeable consumer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Because this volume is closely associated with…
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