The effect methods of control common hazards (assignment 2)

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

CONSTRUCTION

Construction industry plays an important role in improvement of countries’

economic growth. Despite the contributions to economical growth, construction

industry has always been blamed for the high rates of accidents and fatalities; this

issue has placed the construction industry among the industries with unreasonable

rates of accidents, permanent and non permanent disabilities and even fatalities.

There are many evidences in representing construction industry as a hazardous and

inconsistent industry. High rates of accidents and fatalities in this industry have placed

it among hazardous industries. The costs of injuries, which are direct and indirect,

Workers’ compensation insurance, legal liability as well as legal prosecutions have

pushed parties involved to seek ways of mitigating these hazards.

Over the years scenario of construction industry becomes more challenging.

Accidents happen at construction site are always at every where especially in high

rise construction. To date, people especially safety players in construction will find the

best method in combating such accidents from happen. On top of that, hazards issues

are also cannot be neglected by construction players. Hazards will also much

contributed to the accidents. Hazard should be properly understood by safety players

as well as construction players and workers. Many people were not much pay attention

on hazard at construction site. As such, workers are not much aware on hazard

especially hazard related with the working at height, hoisting machineries, scaffolding

works and mobile machineries. Hazard on these categories were classified critical as

its involved people factor and also life. The life can not be compromised to the

accidents as it would impart the bad image of construction fraternity as a whole. Again,

the stigma of the people was thought that the construction industry can not be run

away from the three 3-D syndrome namely dirty, dangerous and difficult. This mindset

should be turning over to more realistic and harmonisation in construction towards

sustainable construction and make the construction is rather creating wealth.

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Accidents in construction sites are unplanned occurrences involving movement

of persons, objects or materials which may result in injuries, damages and losses to

properties or people. The majority of accidents happen as result of unsafe acts and

unsafe conditions. Since all hazards in construction workplaces are not always

possible to be identified and eliminated therefore effective accident investigation

programs are essential for collecting critical data. Construction accidents can be

prevented just by identifying the root causes of accidents, which is possible by

accident investigation techniques such as theories of accident causation theories and

human errors; these theories provide explanations of why accidents happen. This

paper is aimed at reviewing the most common accident which mainly focus on people

variable, effective methods of control common hazards. The intention of this paper is

to provide suggestion on how to reduce the hazard in order to increase productivity for

the nation. They do not offer extensive strategic guidelines for managers and

supervisors for reducing risks at construction workplaces. Moreover, the inappropriate

perception that accidents in workplaces can be prevented if human errors are

eliminated. Strategies need to be revised to manage the risk and workers need to be

watchful of it. A great number of accidents can be prevented if the safety management

system reflects both natural degradation and these intrinsic threats. The initial step in

developing such system is preparing a model which shows the interaction between

the accident likelihood and organizational tasks and activities in the presence of these

hazards.

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2.0 COMMON HAZARD IN CONSTRUCTION

There are two major categories of hazard in construction sites namely: -

a. The risk of physical injury or physical injury hazard. The agents to the

above mention hazard are normally associated with process of works or

equipment used and climatic conditions such as scaffolds, power access

equipment and manual handling, ladder, roof work, plant and machinery,

excavation, etc.

b. The risk of ill health or health hazard. Health hazards in construction

work may be grouped under chemical, physical and biological hazards.

2.1 Workplace Hazard

Although work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of

workplace hazards also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. These

include but are not limited to, "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse

ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks," and a broad range

of psychosocial risk factors.

Physical hazards are a common source of injuries in many industries. They are

perhaps unavoidable in many industries such as construction and mining, but over

time people have developed safety methods and procedures to manage the risks of

physical danger in the workplace. Employment of children may pose special

problems. Falls are a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially

in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and

maintenance.

An engineering workshop specialising in the fabrication and welding of

components has to follow the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at work

regulations 1992. It is an employers duty to provide ‘all equipment (including clothing

affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a

person at work which him against one or more risks to his health and safety’. In a

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fabrication and welding workshop an employer would be required to provide face and

eye protection, safety footwear, overalls and other necessary PPE.

Machines are common place in many industries ,including manufacturing,

mining, construction and agriculture, which can be dangerous to workers. Many

machines involve moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the

potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used

unsafely. Various safety measures exist to minimize these hazards, including lockout-

tag out procedures for machine maintenance and roll over protection systems for

vehicles. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, machine-related

injuries were responsible for 64,170 cases that required days away from work in 2008.

More than a quarter of these cases required more than 31 days spent away from work.

That same year, machines were the primary or secondary source of over 600 work-

related fatalities. Machines are also often involved indirectly in worker deaths and

injuries, such as in cases in which a worker slips and falls, possibly upon a sharp or

pointed object. The transportation sector bears many risks for the health of commercial

drivers, too, for example from vibration, long periods of sitting, work stress and

exhaustion. These problems occur in Europe but in other parts of the world the

situation is even worse. More drivers die in accidents due to security defects in

vehicles. Long waiting times at borders cause that drivers are away from home and

family much longer and even increase the risk of HIV infections.

Noise also presents a fairly common workplace hazard: occupational hearing

loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million

workers exposed to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242 million

spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. Noise is not the

only source of occupational hearing loss; exposure to chemicals such as aromatic

solvents and metals including lead, arsenic, and mercury can also cause hearing loss.

Temperature extremes can also pose a danger to workers. Heat stress can

cause heat stroke, exhaustion, cramps, and rashes. Heat can also fog up safety

glasses or cause sweaty palms ordizziness, all of which increase the risk of other

injuries. Workers near hot surfaces or steam also are at risk for burns.

Dehydration may also result from overexposure to heat. Cold stress also poses a

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danger to many workers. Overexposure to cold conditions or extreme cold can lead

to hypothermia, frostbite, trench foot, or chilblains.

Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical injuries can be divided

into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by contact

with electric energy.

Vibrating machinery, lighting, and air pressure can also cause work-related

illness and injury. Asphyxiation is another potential work hazard in certain

situations. Musculoskeletal disorders are avoided by the employment of

good ergonomic design and the reduction of repeated strenuous movements or lifts

3.0 EFFECT OF COMMON HAZARD IN CONSTRUCTION

the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and

social well-being of workers in all occupations;

the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their

working conditions;

the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors

adverse to health;

the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment

adapted to physical and mental needs;

the adaptation of work to humans.

3.1 Poor working conditions affect worker health and safety

Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's

health and safety.

Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to factories — they can

be found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors. For many

workers, such as agricultural workers or miners, the workplace is “outdoors”

and can pose many health and safety hazards.

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Poor working conditions can also affect the environment workers live in, since

the working and living environments are the same for many workers. This

means that occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their

families, and other people in the community, as well as on the physical

environment around the workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides

in agricultural work. Workers can be exposed to toxic chemicals in a number of

ways when spraying pesticides: they can inhale the chemicals during and after

spraying, the chemicals can be absorbed through the skin, and the workers can

ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke without first washing their

hands, or if drinking water has become contaminated with the chemicals. The

workers' families can also be exposed in a number of ways: they can inhale the

pesticides which may linger in the air, they can drink contaminated water, or

they can be exposed to residues which may be on the worker's clothes. Other

people in the community can all be exposed in the same ways as well. When

the chemicals get absorbed into the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, the

adverse effects on the natural environment can be permanent.

Work-related accidents or diseases are very costly and can have many serious direct

and indirect effects on the lives of workers and their families. For workers some of

the direct costs of an injury or illness are:

the pain and suffering of the injury or illness;

the loss of income;

the possible loss of a job;

health-care costs.

It has been estimated that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four

to ten times greater than the direct costs, or even more. An occupational illness or

accident can have so many indirect costs to workers that it is often difficult to measure

them. One of the most obvious indirect costs is the human suffering caused to workers'

families, which cannot be compensated with money.

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The costs to employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated

to be enormous. For a small business, the cost of even one accident can be a financial

disaster. For employers, some of the direct costs are:

payment for work not performed;

medical and compensation payments;

repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;

reduction or a temporary halt in production;

increased training expenses and administration costs;

possible reduction in the quality of work;

negative effect on morale in other workers.

Some of the indirect costs for employers are:

the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;

a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;

it takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the original

worker;

time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of reports and

filling out of forms;

accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour

relations in a negative way;

poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public

relations.

Overall, the costs of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their

families and to employers are very high.

3.2 The range of hazards

There is an unlimited number of hazards that can be found in almost any

workplace. There are obvious unsafe working conditions, such as unguarded

machinery, slippery floors or inadequate fire precautions, but there are also a number

of categories of insidious hazards (that is, those hazards that are dangerous but which

may not be obvious) including:

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chemical hazards, arising from liquids, solids, dusts, fumes, vapours and gases;

physical hazards, such as noise, vibration, unsatisfactory lighting, radiation and

extreme temperatures;

biological hazards, such as bacteria, viruses, infectious waste and infestations;

psychological hazards resulting from stress and strain;

hazards associated with the non-application of ergonomic principles, for

example badly designed machinery, mechanical devices and tools used by

workers, improper seating and workstation design, or poorly designed work

practices.

4.0 REDUCE AND RECOMMENDATION

The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) is a piece

of Malaysian legislation which was gazetted on 25 February 1994 by the Malaysian

Parliament.

The principle of the Act is "To make further provision for securing that safety,

health and welfare of persons at work, for protecting others against risks

to safety or health in connection with the activities of persons at work, to establish

the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health and for matters connected

therewith."

The Act applies throughout Malaysia to the industries specified in the First

Schedule. Nothing in this act shall apply to work aboard ships governed by the

Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1952, the Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1960

of Sabah or Sarawak or the armed forces.

Occupational Safety and Health (Employers' Safety and Health General Policy

Statements) (Exception) Regulations 1995

Occupational Safety and Health (Control of Industry Major Accident Hazards)

Regulations 1996

Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Committee) Regulations 1996

Occupational Safety and Health (Classification, Packaging and Labelling of

Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations 1997

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Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Officer) Regulations 1997

Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Officer) Order 1997

Occupational Safety and Health (Prohibition of Use of Substance) Order 1999

Occupational Safety and Health (Use and Standards of Exposure of Chemicals

Hazardous to Health) Regulations 2000

Occupational Safety and Health (Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence,

Occupational Poisoning and Occupational Disease) Regulation 2004

Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives of

workers by reducing hazards and their consequences. Health and safety programmes

also have positive effects on both worker morale and productivity, which are important

benefits. At the same time, effective programmes can save employers a great deal of

money.

4.1 Points to remember

1. Occupational health and safety encompasses the social, mental and physical

well-being of workers in all occupations.

2. Poor working conditions have the potential to affect a worker's health and

safety.

3. Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions can be found anywhere, whether the

workplace is indoors or outdoors.

4. Poor working conditions can affect the environment workers live in. This means

that workers, their families, other people in the community, and the physical

environment around the workplace, can all be at risk from exposure to

workplace hazards.

5. Employers have a moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers.

6. Work-related accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the world and

often have many direct and indirect negative consequences for workers and

their families. A single accident or illness can mean enormous financial loss to

both workers and employers.

7. Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives

of workers by reducing hazards and their consequences. Effective programmes

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can also have positive effects on both worker morale and productivity, and can

save employers a great deal of money.

4.2 Identifying the cause of occupational disease

The cause of work-related diseases is very often difficult to determine. One

factor is the latency period (the fact that it may take years before the disease produces

an obvious effect on the worker's health). By the time the disease is identified, it may

be too late to do anything about it or to find out what hazards the worker was exposed

to in the past. Other factors such as changing jobs, or personal behaviours (such as

smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol) further increase the difficulty of linking workplace

exposures to a disease outcome.

Although more is understood now about some occupational hazards than in the

past, every year new chemicals and new technologies are being introduced which

present new and often unknown hazards to both workers and the community. These

new and unknown hazards present great challenges to workers, employers,

educators, and scientists, that is to everyone concerned about workers' health and the

effects that hazardous agents have on the environment.

4.3 Points to remember about the extent of the problem worldwide

1. There are at least 250 million occupational accidents every year worldwide, at

least 335,000 of which result in death.

2. Developing countries have more fatal accidents than industrialized nations,

emphasizing the need for health and safety education programmes that focus

on prevention.

3. Some occupational diseases have been recognized for many years and affect

workers in different ways. Such diseases are still problems in all parts of the

world.

4. The numbers of work-related diseases in developing countries are much higher

in reality than the numbers that are reported.

5. The numbers of cases and types of occupational diseases are increasing in

both developing and industrialized countries.

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6. It is often difficult to identify the cause of both occupational accidents and

diseases.

4.4 Development Strategy

A survey of industrialists and researchers from leading regions identified the

following three areas that were seen as key to moving from the current situation to the

ideal OSH state. They were:

(1) More responsible client behaviour – to adopt procurement approaches

that support the integration of health and safety into project decision making

and drive this so that it happens. The green building analogy comes to mind. If

clients want environmentally sustainable buildings they get them. Why not

healthier and safer building techniques and processes too?

(2) Health and safety becomes a professional responsibility of everyone in

the industry. At the moment it is perceived to be the health and safety

professional’s job. Health and safety professionals are generally not architects,

engineers etc. They don’t make decisions. They act as advisors. The decision

makers need to step up and take professional responsibility.

(3) Closer and more effective links between industry and academia. There

is a need for a more evidence-based approach to construction health and

safety. Companies need to know with certainty what works and what doesn’t.

Managers are easily persuaded when there is evidence but sceptical when

there is none.

5.0 SUMMARY

Human Management Job Site

Conditions

Equipment & Material

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

-Lack of certain abilities

-Lack of certain attitudes Such as

stubbornness or recklessness

-Physical and emotional stress

-Excessive

overtime work for labor

-Reluctance to input tools for

safety -Misplacing objects

-Overexertion or

strenuous movement

-Struck by falling objects, materials

and tools -Loss of balance

-Stepping on or

striking against objects

-Inappropriate use of ladders and

hoists -Improper cleaning

and unusable materials

-Lack of certain knowledge

-Lack of awareness of safety

regulations

-Inadequate safety performance

-Supervisory fault

-Lack of experienced project managers

-Poor inspection

program -Poor safety

awareness of project managers

-Lack of innovative technology

-Substandard

structure / parts of structure

-Excessive Noise

-Slippery and muddy work surface

-Poor ventilation

-Poor illumination

-Lack of edge protection

-Hole and edge

-Limitation of working area

-Collapse of temporary structure

-Operating equipment without authority

-Using defective tools or equipment

-Mechanical failure of

machinery -Unsafe facilities and

equipment

-Low tool maintenance -Lack of protection in

material transportation

-Lack of protection in material storage

-Failure to secure materials during hauling/

lifting -Lack of warning system

(a) (b) (c) (d)

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-Lack of teamwork spirits

-Transient workforce

-Dangerous demolition work

5.0 AGRICULCURE

Malaysia, a middle-income country, has transformed itself since the 1970s from

a producer of raw materials into an emerging multi-sector economy. After achieving

independence, Malaysia faced a need to develop and diversify its economy given its

rapidly growing population. The country abandoned reliance on the export of primary

natural resources and agricultural products and established itself as a rapidly

industrialising country with a diversified export base. By the beginning of the 21st

century, Malaysia had become one of the fastest-growing economies in Southeast

Asia and the third-richest state (after Brunei and Singapore) in the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Agriculture has been identified as the economy's third engine of growth.

"During the Ninth Plan period, the agriculture sector will be revitalised to become the

third engine of growth. The emphasis will be on new agriculture which will involve

large scale commercial farming, the wider application of modern technology,

production of high quality and value-added products, unlocking the potential in

biotechnology, increased convergence with information and communications

technology (ICT), and the participation of entrepreneurial farmers and skilled

workforce. The function of agricultural services will also be streamlined to enhance

service delivery and efficiency" (Economic Planning Unit, 2006: 81).

Agriculture contributes approximately 10% of Malaysia's Gross Domestic

Product (GDP), and at least one-third of the country's population depends on the

sector for its livelihood, with some 14% employed on farms and plantations. Climate

change will affect the sector in terms of production, it will also have a socioeconomic

impact on the people who are employed in the sector and the nation as a whole

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(Mustafa, 2007). From the perspective of land use, approximately 39.2% of the total

arable land, (approximately 5.18 million ha) is planted with tree crops, such as rubber,

oil palm, cocoa, coconut and fruits and vegetables. Agriculture is greatly affected by

extreme climate change, which is known to have a particularly important effect on crop

development. Change in climatic factors, such as the amount of rainfall, sunshine

hours and temperature, results in a year-to-year variability of crop production, physical

damage, loss of harvest, drop in productivity and vigour as well as other problems. In

addition, high temperatures and reduced rainfall dry the soil, lessening the amount

of water available for irrigation and decreasing crop growth in non-irrigated regions

(Siwar et al., 2009). Climate change is a major potential threat to food security and

agriculture for the country. Because climate change is a continuous and long-term

process, its impact will be felt for many years.

Agriculture, which predominantly employs the poor, is a fragile and risk-prone

sector. Risk means susceptibility to an unforeseen major or minor hazardous event

(Sinha and Lipton, 1999; Anderson, 1999). Agriculture is subject to risks that are often

unpredictable and outside human control. Examples of such risks include weather,

commodity-price fluctuations, changes in consumer demand and outbreaks of

pests and diseases. Such disasters could have harmful effects on the economy and

the social organisation and psychology of the people affected. Floods in Johor (2006–

2007) displaced 110,000 people, damaging an estimated Ringgit Malaysia (RM) 0.35

billion worth of infrastructure and causing RM2.4 billion in economic losses. An

estimated RM84 million worth of agricultural produce was damaged or lost, affecting

7,000 farmers. Approximately 9% of the Malaysian land area (2.97 million ha) is in

flood plains, and 3.5 million people have become victims of flooding. Estimating the

cost of flood damage is difficult; however, a conservative figure of RM100 million has

been estimated as the average loss by flood damage per year (Mustafa, 2007; Siwar

et al., 2009).

In general, Malaysia has not experienced frequent climate-related disasters

(i.e., floods and droughts that had a significant socio-economic impact on the nation),

although lately some minor climate-related disasters have been recorded. Landslides

due to excessive rainfall and strong winds occur in hilly regions and at the coast, the

latter causing minimal damage (Mustafa, 2007).

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Table 1. Industrial Accidents Reported by Sectors, Malaysia, 1994 – 2008

Table 2. Types of Accidents Reported by Sectors, Malaysia, 1998 & 2008

6.0 COMMON HAZARDS IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR, MALAYSIA

Improving occupational health, safety and environmental (OHSE) standards for

agricultural workers and small farmers, including regulation and enforcement (see

“labour inspection”, in the next section), must be included as one of the key

components of sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, there must be recognition that

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improving health, safety and environmental standards for workers can help protect and

improve standards of public and environmental health, consumer food safety, and

environmental protection, especially with regard to exposure to pesticides and other

agrochemicals.

Agriculture is one of the three most dangerous occupations to work in, along

with mining and construction. Waged agricultural workers face a wide range of hazards

at work including, for example, dangerous machinery, unsafe electrical wiring and

appliances, livestock-transmitted diseases, falls from heights, and exposure to

toxic pesticides.

6.2 Pesticides

Agricultural work - and this is one of its most distinguishing characteristics -

is carried out in a rural environment where there is no clear distinction between working

and living conditions, unlike the case of the factory or office worker. As a result,

agricultural workers and their families face extra dangers such as exposure to

pesticides. Furthermore, the poverty experienced by waged agricultural workers and

small farmers can contribute to increased risks of work-related ill-health due to bad

diet and malnutrition.

In 2004, CAP conducted a study of 11 oil palm plantations located in the

northern states of Malaysia. The study focused on women herbicide sprayers, their

working conditions and the consequent health impacts.

Work on an oil palm plantation is back-breaking and hazardous. Women

herbicide sprayers are expected to carry an 18-litre (4-gallon) drum containing

herbicide and complete 14 to 16 rounds of spraying per day. Tractor spraying is also

conducted on some plantations, where big drums of herbicide are placed on both sides

of the tractor. Two women carry the pumps and spray as the tractor moves.

In either case, the sprayers themselves are engulfed in a fine mist of herbicide.

Recommended safety measures are rarely employed. The use of protective masks,

gloves and boots is often impractical owing to the hot and humid tropical climate. Due

to the widespread lack of awareness of the hazards of herbicides, inhalation and skin

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absorption are the major causes of occupational poisoning cases among women

sprayers.

On the plantations, management decides which pesticides or herbicides to

use as well as their frequency of application. The majority of workers interviewed did

not even know what herbicides they were using while others identified them only by

colour or odour. The women obligingly carried out their supervisors’ instructions on

proportions and mixing of the herbicides. Most of the women were not even aware of

the toxicity of the chemicals and the dangers that they were being exposed to.

The only protection women wear are safety boots and maybe a handkerchief

or towel to cover their mouth and nose. The women complain that management is

reluctant to replace worn personal protective equipment and demand that workers

show them the damaged equipment. Even so, they only replace equipment

periodically. Most women must purchase their own safety boots since they cannot get

replacement for torn boots from their employers. Others do not replace their boots

since they cannot afford to do so.

6.3 Risk of Hazardous Materials Transportation by Rail

In the transportation industry, quantitative risk assessments (QRA) have been

used as a tool to help determine the safest route for the transportation of hazardous

materials. Among the studies carried out on hazardous materials transportation, most

have been centred on materials such as chlorine, LPG and gasoline. The use of QRAs

in the transportation industry, mainly for the transportation of hazardous materials by

rail has been applied vigorously in recent years due to the concerns that most of the

rail transportation routes are located close to heavily populated areas and the risks

posed by the transported hazardous materials to the surrounding populations along

the transportation route. Besides, case histories have also shown that the risks of

hazardous materials during transport may present additional risks in addition to those

associated with the inherent chemical and physical properties of the hazardous

substances, mainly due to the circumstances and location of the incidents may be

unpredictable.

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In the present study, the rail transportation route of anhydrous liquefied

ammonia in Malaysia, from the Petronas Fertilizers Kedah (PFK) plant in Gurun to the

CCM fertilizer facilities in Port Klang, was studied due to the large amount of

transported hazardous material (35,000 tons/year, 70 trips per year) and potential

affected populations along the specified route (some of the residential areas and

dwellings are located as close as 3 – 6m from the track).

6.4 Behavior of Ammonia Upon Release

Ammonia is an important chemical for use primarily in the manufacturing of

fertilizers and also as the starting material for the manufacture of a great variety of

chemicals. It is a colorless gas, lighter than air and has a very pungent odor. It can be

liquefied at atmospheric pressure by reducing the temperature to -330C and usually

stored and transported as a pressurized and/or refrigerated liquid. Typically, ammonia

releases into the environment can be classified into three types of behaviours under

operating conditions such as: Pressurized Liquid above its Boiling Point (known as

superheated liquid), Pressurized Liquid below or at its Boiling Point, and Pressurized

Gas above its Boiling Point. In this study, the behaviour of ammonia following a rail

transport accident is expected to be the superheat liquid, based on the case study rail

car storage temperature and pressure.

6.5 Snake-bite

Snake-bite is an environmental, occupational and climatic hazard in rural and

urban areas of many countries. Attention to the following recommendations for

community education might reduce the risk of bites. Snakes have adapted to a wide

range of habitats and prey species. All snakes are predatory carnivores, none is

vegetarian although some eat eggs. Since snakes are preyed upon by other animals,

they tend to be secretive and have evolved many survival strategies. By understanding

something about the habits of snakes, simple precautions can be adopted to reduce

the chance of encounters and consequently bites. One must know the local snakes,

the sort of places where they prefer to live and hide, the time of year and time of day

or night and the kind of weather when they are most likely to be actively out and about.

Many species are mainly nocturnal (night hunters) e.g. kraits, but other species are

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mainly diurnal (day-time hunters). Be specially vigilant about snake-bites after rains,

during flooding, at harvest time and at night. Snakes prefer not to confront large

animals such as humans so give them the chance to slither away.

In the house: Snakes may enter the house in search of food or to find a hiding

place for a while. Do not keep livestock, especially chickens, in the house, as snakes

may come to hunt them. Store food in rat-proof containers. Regularly check houses

for snakes and, if possible, avoid those types of house construction that will provide

snakes with hiding places (e.g. thatched rooves with open eaves, mud and straw walls

with large cracks and cavities and large unsealed spaces beneath floorboards). If

possible, try to avoid sleeping on the ground. If you have to sleep on the ground use

an insecticide-impregnated mosquito net that is well tucked in under the mattress or

sleeping mat. This will protect against mosquitoes and other biting insects, centipedes,

scorpions and snakes (Chappuis et al., 2007). No chemical has yet been discovered

that is effectively repellent to snakes without being so toxic as to threaten the life of

children and domestic animals.

In the farm yard, compound or garden: Try not to provide hiding places for

snakes. Clear termite mounds, heaps of rubbish, building materials etc. from near the

house. Do not have tree branches touching the house. Keep grass short or clear the

ground around your house and clear low bushes in the vicinity so that snakes cannot

hide close to the house. Keep your granary away from the house, it may attract rodents

that snakes will hunt. Water sources, reservoirs and ponds may also attract prey

animals such as frogs and toads. Listen to wild and domestic animals, especially birds,

as they warn of a snake nearby. Use a light when you walk outside the house or visit

the latrine at night.

In the countryside: Firewood collection at night is a real danger. Watch where

you walk. Rather than walking bare-footed or wearing sandals, use proper shoes or

boots and long trousers, especially when walking in the dark or in undergrowth. Step

on to rocks or logs rather than straight over them – snakes may be sunning themselves

on the sides. Do not put hands into holes or nests or any hidden places where snakes

might rest. Use a light (torch, flashlight or lamp) when walking at night, especially after

heavy rains. Be careful when handling dead or apparently dead snakes – even an

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

20

accidental scratch from the fang of a snake’s severed head may inject venom. Snake

restaurants pose a threat of bites to staff and customers. Many snake-bites occur

during ploughing, planting and harvesting and in the rainy season. Rain may wash

snakes and debris into gutters at the edges of roads, and flush burrowing species out

of their burrows. Hence, be careful when walking on roads after heavy rain, especially

after dark.

On the road: Drivers or cyclists should never intentionally run over snakes on

the road. The snake may not be instantly killed and may lie injured and pose a risk to

pedestrians. The snake may also be injured and trapped under the vehicle, from where

it will crawl out once the vehicle has stopped or has been parked in the house

compound or garage.

In rivers, estuaries and the sea: To prevent sea snake-bites, fishermen

should avoid touching sea snakes caught in nets and on lines. The head and tail are

not easily distinguishable. There is a risk of bites to bathers and those washing clothes

in the muddy water of estuaries, river mouths and some coastlines.

General: Avoid snakes as far as possible, including those displayed by snake

charmers who are frequently bitten. Never handle, threaten or attack a snake and

never intentionally trap or corner a snake in an enclosed space. Keep young children

away from areas known to be snake-infested. In occupations that carry a risk of snake-

bite, such as rice farming and fish farming, employers might be held responsible for

providing protective clothing (boots). In Myanmar, farmers can take out special low-

cost insurance to cover them specifically against snake-bite.

7.0 EFFECT OF COMMON HAZARD IN AGRICULTURE

7.1 Effect on soil fertility (beneficial soil microorganisms)

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21

Heavy treatment of soil with pesticides can cause populations of beneficial soil

microorganisms to decline. According to the soil scientist Dr. Elaine Ingham, “If we

lose both bacteria and fungi, then the soil degrades. Overuse of chemical fertilizers

and pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to human overuse

of antibiotics. Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but after

awhile, there aren't enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients”

(Savonen, 1997). For example, plants depend on a variety of soil microorganisms to

transform atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates, which plants can use. Common

landscape herbicides disrupt this process: triclopyr inhibits soil bacteria that transform

ammonia into nitrite (Pell et al., 1998); glyphosate reduces the growth and activity of

free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil (Santos and Flores, 1995) and 2,4-D reduces

nitrogen fixation by the bacteria that live on the roots of bean plants (Arias and

Fabra, 1993; Fabra et al., 1997), reduces the growth and activity of nitrogen-fixing

blue-green algae (Singh and Singh, 1989; Tözüm-Çalgan and Sivaci-Güner, 1993),

and inhibits the transformation of ammonia into nitrates by soil bacteria

(Frankenberger et al., 1991, Martens and Bremner, 1993). Mycorrhizal fungi grow with

the roots of many plants and aid in nutrient uptake. These fungi can also be damaged

by herbicides in the soil. One study found that oryzalin and trifluralin both inhibited the

growth of certain species of mycorrhizal fungi (Kelley and South, 1978). Roundup has

been shown to be toxic to mycorrhizal fungi in laboratory studies, and some damaging

effects were seen at concentrations lower than those found in soil following typical

applications (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987; Estok et al., 1989). Triclopyr was also

found to be toxic to several species of mycorrhizal fungi (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987)

and oxadiazon reduced the number of mycorrhizal fungal spores (Moorman, 1989).

7.2 Production risk

Agriculture is often characterised by a high variability of production outcomes

or production risk. Unlike most other entrepreneurs, farmers are not able to predict

with certainty the amount of output that the production process will yield due to

external factors such as weather, pests, and diseases. Farmers can also be hindered

by adverse events during harvesting or threshing that may result in production losses

(Jaffer, Siegel and Andrews, 2008).

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22

7.3 Price or market risk

Input- and output-price volatility is an important source of market risk in

agriculture. Prices of agricultural commodities are extremely volatile. Outputprice

variability originates from endogenous and exogenous market shocks. Segmented

agricultural markets will be influenced mainly by local supply-anddemand conditions,

while more globally integrated markets will be significantly affected by international

production dynamics. In local markets, price risk is sometimes mitigated by the natural-

hedge effect, in which an increase (decrease) in annual production tends to decrease

(increase) output price, although not necessarily farmers' revenues. In integrated

markets, a reduction in prices is generally not correlated with local supply conditions,

and, therefore, price shocks may affect producers in a more significant way (Agwe

and Fissha, 2009).Another type of market risk arises in the process of delivering

production to the marketplace. The inability to deliver perishable products to the right

market at the right time can impair the efforts of producers. The lack of infrastructure

and welldeveloped markets makes this issue of timely delivery a significant source of

risk.

7.4 Personal risk

Finally, agricultural households, like the households of any other economic

entrepreneurs, are exposed to personal risks affecting the life and well-being of the

people who are employed on the farm. Agricultural households are also exposed to

asset risks from floods, cyclones and droughts and possible damage or theft of

production equipment and other farming assets (Satya, 2010).

8.0 REDUCE AND RECOMENDATION IN AGRICULTURE

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23

8.1 Policy Directions And Recommendations

The policy gaps identified can be addressed by refocusing strategy, especially now

that government has shown the political will to prioritise risk management. Some

recommendations have been proposed, particularly those that will be relevant to the

agricultural sector. Enhance research and development (R&D) efforts and activities

are critical in providing the technological support for reducing the effects of El Nino-

induced climate change, especially in the agricultural sector. Special attention must

be paid to the following research areas:

1. To enhance national predictive capabilities, an interaction between

climate change, agricultural production and the relevant preventive and

mitigating mechanisms must be established, such as through an expert system

and computer modelling.

2. Research should continue on plant breeding and biotechnology for the

development of varieties resistant to water stress and related technologies, in

view of the possible limitation on water available for agricultural purposes in the

future.

3. Research on the development of precision farming technology should be

enhanced to ensure an efficient utilisation of resources, especially water in crop

production.

4. Future variability in climate will most likely result in different sets of

problems with regard to pests and diseases. An effective control method and

preventive measures under an entirely different farm environment must be

developed. Similarly, the change of farm environments necessitates the

development of related technologies for land and water management, crop

management and post-harvest management.

5. Emphasis should continue on the development of water-saving

technology, including the possibility for greater utilisation of recycled water, in

view of the impending shortages in irrigation water.

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

24

6. A concerted effort must be made to critically isolate the effect of climate

variability on agriculture through a standardised methodology. Such information

is an essential part of the predictive and early warning system to be developed.

8.2 Upgrade water-management capability

The existing water-supply infrastructure and water storage and distribution

system, particularly for agricultural purposes, has been fairly efficient. The adoption of

various water-conservation strategies is commendable, especially the efforts taken to

ensure high irrigation efficiency through the application of various water-saving

technologies, including that of water recycling. Nevertheless, the amount of water

wasted is still fairly high. Since irrigation water is heavily subsidised, it is inexpensive,

as such, people tend to waste it. In this regard, and to ensure that the water supply

can be maintained on a long-termbasis, the following strategies are proposed:

1. Introduce a new water-pricing policy according to which water's price

reflects its scarcity value. This policy would ensure efficient water use,

especially that of irrigation water.

2. To increase water availability at a time when no new sources of irrigation

water are anticipated, the government must increase the money allocated

annually for maintaining and improving the existing infrastructure and

minimising water waste during distribution and use. In the past, this type of

investment has not received sufficient support.

3. The current activities encouraging farm-level use of recycled water must

continue because these activities have been found to be effective in increasing

water-use efficiency.

8.3 Introduce drought action plan

While drought is not among the largest problems facing the agricultural sector,

the development of drought action plans would be helpful in times of severe drought.

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

25

The development of similar plans, such as the National Haze Action Plan, should be

considered. The proposed plan should at least include the following elements:

1. Identification of drought-prone areas.

2. Establishment of drought-monitoring procedures to improve prediction

and the degree of preparedness.

3. Establishment of a drought-prevention programme and response

strategy.

4. Inclusion of insurance and government-support strategies.

5. Identification of the key players needed to realise the action plan.

8.4 Introduce contingency-aid schemes for affected farmers

The following interventions are proposed:

1. A government-sponsored scheme should be introduced to provide aid to

affected farmers to protect their livelihood and welfare. This aid could take the

form of monetary assistance or farm inputs.

2. Crop insurance should be introduced to farmers, especially in regions

vulnerable to El Nino-related damage. Crop insurance would help farmers to

withstand the effect on farm production and income of climate abnormality.

3. Based on the prediction that climate change is impending, the

government must be able to suggest and implement mitigating measures to be

undertaken at the farm level, even to the extent of changing crop types. The

alternative crops introduced must be supported in terms of the availability of

planting materials, technology, credit facilities and marketing outlets

Fatal accident statistics reported to Malaysia’s Department of Occupational

Safety and Health (DOSH) show that many accidents in the agriculture sector

have occurred in oil palm plantations and were related to transportation. In

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

26

2005, there were 12 fatalities in oil palm plantations, 11 in 2006 and 16 in 2007.

The accidents were a result of the following conditions:

i) Workers were transported in the plantations using improper

means.

ii) The access roads in the plantations were poorly maintained and

are in poor condition.

iii) There was a lack of proper chemical handling procedures, thus

exposing workers to chemical risks.

An initiative to encourage oil palm plantations to redesign and modify the

tractors and trailer used to transport workers and chemicals around the premises was

undertaken to improve their safety. An initiative to encourage oil palm plantations to

redesign and modify the tractors and trailers used to transport workers and chemicals

around the premises was undertaken to improve their safety. Work on the plantation

also has become more organized because of the improvements. The result of these

effort has increased both productivity and cost savings for the plantations.

8.5 Moving forward

To encourage more plantations to adopt the innovative solutions, an OSH

“carnival” in the agriculture sector was organized to increase awareness of good OSH

practices among workers but in a light-hearted manner. In addition, “employers and

employees involvement seminars” were conducted to inform both management and

workers within the oil palm plantations of the latest OSH developments, including the

sharing of good practices.

9.0 SUMMARY

Occupational Health Hazards of Agricultural Work in Developing Countries

EXPOSURE HEALTH EFFECT SPECIFICITY TO AGRICULTURE

(a) (b) (c)

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

27

Weather,

climate

Dehydration, heat cramps, heat

exhaustion, heat stroke, skin

cancer

Most agricultural operations are performed

outdoors

Snakes,

insects

Fatal or injurious bites and

stings

Close proximity results in high incidence

Sharp tools,

farm

equipment

Injuries ranging from cuts to

fatalities; hearing impairment

from loud machinery

Most farm situations require a wide variety of

skill levels for which workers have little formal

training, and there are few hazard controls on

tools and equipment

Physical labor,

carrying loads

Numerous types of (largely

unreported) musculoskeletal

disorders, particularly soft-

tissue disorders, e.g., back pain

Agricultural work involves awkward and

uncomfortable conditions and sustained

carrying of excessive loads

Pesticides Acute poisonings, chronic

effects such as neurotoxicity,

reproductive effects, and cancer

More hazardous products are used in

developing countries with minimal personal

protective equipment (PPE)

Dusts, fumes,

gases,

particulates

Irritation of the eyes and

respiratory tract, allergic

reactions, respiratory diseases

such asasthma, chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease,

and hypersensitivi ty

pneumonitis

Agricultural workers are exposed to a wide

range of dusts and gases from

decomposition

of organic materials in environments with few

exposure controls and limited use of PPE use

in hot climates.

(a) (b) (c)

• Skin diseases such as fungal

infections, allergic reactions,

and dermatoses

• Workers are in direct contact with

environmental pathogens, fungi, infected

animals, and allergenic plants

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS

28

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agents and

vectors of

disease

• Parasitic diseases such as

schistosomiasis, malaria,

sleeping sickness,

leishmaniasis, ascariasis, and

hookworm

• Workers have intimate contact with

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bovine tuberculosis, and rabies

(at least 40 of the 250 zoonoses

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agriculture

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slaughtering

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cancer caused by urinary

bilharzia contracted through

working in flooded areas in

North and Sub-Saharan Africa

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29

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