Session 6: Qualitative Research Methods. Review for Quiz, Take Quiz Discussion Brief Lecture In-Class Activity Research Proposal work.

Topics in SPED Research

Session 6: Qualitative Research Methods

Review for Quiz, Take Quiz Discussion Brief Lecture In-Class Activity Research Proposal work

Agenda

Prepared by M. Hara ([email protected])

Statistics, statistics

Descriptive StatisticsWho is in your data?

sample population

Inferential StatisticsWhat your sample says about the population

sample

population

Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Variance Tests of significance

(t-, F-Tests)

Tests of Significance Statistical analyses to determine whether a

difference is statistically significant (probability for result to occur by chance).

Yes or No answer

Alpha level (p=)◦ An established probability level which serves as the

criterion to determine whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis

◦ Common levels in education .01 .05 .10

Objectives 4.1 & 6.1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zZYBALbZgg

Chi-square explained (short video) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

WXPBoFDqNVk

Linear Regression (short video) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

ocGEhiLwDVc

Videos on Testing Hypotheses Using Statistics



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXPBoFDqNVk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXPBoFDqNVk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ocGEhiLwDVc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ocGEhiLwDVc

Equality of variance Level of Spread in Distribution is equal Variance= average squared deviations between

a group of observations and their respective means.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BApSAESfxI Video Reference Above A common assumption of statistical analyses If not met, results are not valid Need to use a non-normally distributed statistic

like Levene’s Test

Homogeneity of Variance

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BApSAESfxI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BApSAESfxI

T tests- used when have two groups to compare. ◦ Independent samples t- if groups are independent

Different people in each group◦ Dependent samples t-: if two sets of scores are available for the same

people Matched groups

ANOVA (analysis of variance)- when you have more than 2 groups to compare OR more than one independent variable (reports an F-statistic, which is basically a t-value squared)

ANCOVA (analysis of covariance)- ANOVA that allows for control of the influence of an IV (e.g., characteristics of people) that may vary between your groups before treatment is introduced. ◦ Post-hoc method for matching groups on variables such as age, prior

education, SES, or a measure of performance

Inferential Statistics

To determine if the differences between groups or interventions are significant. ◦ Probability of the difference of groups of interventions being by

chance. p=.01 (1% probability the difference is due to chance) p=.10 (10% probability the difference is due to chance)

◦ p less than .05 commonly used to determine significance◦ Use t-tests, F-tests (ANOVA & ANCOVA) to determine significance

To determine the effect of our interventions◦ After you have determined that the difference was significant,

statistically…want to know the amount of the change◦ Based on number of participants, etc.◦ Example, weight loss program claims average weight loss of 30

pounds (effect size)◦ Don’t know if every participant lost exactly 30 pounds or if half

lost 60 pounds and the other half lost no weight at all!

Why do we use statistics?

Review for Quiz

Steps in the Research/Scientific Process

1. Identify socially important issue

2. Review current literature

3. Define conceptual model

4. Define specific hypothesis(es) and research question(s)

5. Define dependent variable(s)/measure

6. Identify independent variable(s)/measures

7. Select appropriate research design

8. Obtain consents 9. Collect data 10. Analyze data 11. Communicate

results Written presentation Oral presentation


Variable Types and Analysis

13

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable

Is therean association?

(a.k.a., Outcome) (a.k.a., Predictor, Intervention)

Where differences culminate

ContributingFactors


Categorical

Numerical/Continuous

Categorical


Contingency Tables(a.k.a. Cross-tabs)


14

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable

Chi-square testOr χ²-test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)


Categorical


Categorical


Analysis of Variance

(a.k.a. ANOVA)


15

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable



16

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable

CategoricalNumerical/Continuous

Analysis of Variance(a.k.a. ANOVA)

SAT9 Math Score

Males Females

t-test or F-test


Categorical


Categorical


Regression


17

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable



18

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable



Regression

SAT9 Math Score

Household Income


Categorical


Categorical


Logistic Regression


19

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable



20

DependentVariable

IndependentVariable

Numerical/ContinuousCategorical

Logistic Regression

High school Exit Exam

SAT 9 Math

Fail

Pass

Probability of passing h.s. exam based on SAT-9 score

Investigators attempt to determine the cause of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals.

Describes conditions that already exist (a.k.a. ex post facto).

The group difference variable is either a variable that cannot be manipulated or one that might have been manipulated but for one reason or another, has not been.

Studies in medicine and sociology are causal-comparative in nature, as are studies of differences between men and women.

What is Causal Comparative Research?

Similarities and Differences Between Causal-Comparative and Experimental Research Similarities

Require at least one categorical variable Both compare group performances to determine relationships Both compare separate groups of subjects

Differences In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated Causal studies are likely to provide much weaker evidence for

causation In experimental studies, researchers can assign subjects to

treatment groups The researcher has greater flexibility in formulating the structure of

the design in experimental research

Similarities Ex Post Facto research Attempt to explain

phenomena of interest Seek to identify variables

that are worthy of later exploration through experimental research

Neither permits the manipulation of variables

Attempt to explore causation

Differences Causal studies compare two

or more groups of subjects Causal studies involve at

least one categorical variable

Similarities and Differences Between Causal-Comparative and Correlational Research

Examples of the Basic Causal-Comparative Design

Step 1- Determine Purpose

Step 2- Identify a Sampling Plan & Mode

Step 3- Design survey instrument

Step 4- Test survey instrument

Step 5- Send out a letter of transmittal

Step 6- Deliver the survey

Step 7- Analyze data from survey

Steps to designing, delivering, and analyzing surveys

Quiz Questions

27

Correct Quiz

Discussion

Break

Qualitative Methods

"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding"- Donald Campbell

“Truth is relative..”◦ Albert Einstein

Lecture


My Data, My Evidence

What/how much do I need to know?

Depth of Information

Qualitative DataQualitative Data

Quantitative DataQuantitative Data



Addressing “WHY” questions?



Quantitative Data






Quantitative Data

• Focus Groups

• Interviews

• Case Studies

• Observation






Quantitative Data

• Focus Groups

• Interviews

• Case Studies

• Observation

Details, Depth, and Variability

Representative, Generalizability



Addressing “WHAT” questions?


Qualitative Data






Qualitative Data

Quantitative DataQuantitative Data• Survey • Large Scale Assessments





Qualitative Data



Details, Depth, and Variability

• Survey • Large Scale Assessments

Prepared by M. Hara ([email protected]) 38

ORQuantitative Data


Qualitative Data

Details, Depth, Variability

EvidenceBest

Prepared by M. Hara ([email protected]) 39

Quantitative Data


Qualitative Data

Details, Depth, Variability

EvidenceBest

AND

Qualitative Research

why and how of human behavior◦ Work with a range of models, theories, pertaining to

human phenomena◦ Involve small groups of participants; interpretation &

reflection◦ Speech and texts, and their interpretation are very

important◦ People's accounts of their actions significant◦ Not Positivist: no objective truth; different

interpretations; no final certainty in knowledge

Qualitative issues

Qual: Requires a different way of thinking to address issues like:◦ Reliability: repeatable with same/comparable

results◦ Validity: relationship between conditions and

results◦ Generalizability: historical and cultural limitations

When is Qualitative Research Useful? Qualitative research relies on imprecise

and everyday notions of what is valid, etc. But it does so reflexively; in a self-aware

and theoretically-mediated manner. Qualitative is useful in relationship to

quantitative if:◦ The topic has been researched for a long time

in the same way◦ The topic is new to research◦ You would like in-depth information that may be

difficult to convey quantitatively

Compare and contrast qualitative research & quantitative research

Qualitative v.'s Quantitative

QualitativeResearch

QuantitativeResearch

Type of questions Probing Limited probing

Sample Size small large

Info. Perrespondent

much varies

Admin Requires skilledresearcher

Fewer specialistskills required

Type of Analysis Subjective,interpretative

Statistical

Type of research Exploratory Descriptive orcausal

Popularity of Qualitative Research1 Usually much cheaper than quantitative

research2 No better way than qualitative research to

understand in-depth the motivations and feelings of participants

3 Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of quantitative research

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Takes place in the natural setting Uses multiple methods that are interpretive Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured Fundamentally interpretive (role of researcher as

interpreter) Researcher views social phenomena holistically Researcher systematically reflects on who he or

she is in the inquiry and is sensitive to hiw or her personal biography and how it shapes the study

Researcher uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted, iterative, and simultaneous

Researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of inquiry

Main types of qualitative research

1. Ethnographic2. Case Study3. Phenomenological 4. Grounded theory5. Participatory research6. Clinical research7. Focus groups

Concerned with the collection & analysis of empirical data drawn from “real world” contexts rather than being produced under experimental conditions created by the researcher.

Research involves sustained engagement in a particular site.

Key aim is for the researcher to attempt to make sense of events from the perspectives of participants.

Data are gathered from a range of sources, but observation and/or relatively informal conversations are often key tools.

Focus is a single setting or group of relatively small scale or a small number of these…or one individual

Analysis of the data involves interpretation of the meanings & functions of human actions & mainly takes the form of verbal descriptions & explanations, with quantification & statistical analysis playing a subordinate role at most.

Ethnographic research

An approach that involves an in-depth exploration of a single case, or example, of the phenomenon under study.

Could be an individual, group of individuals, a classroom, a school, or event.

Data collection includes:◦ Nature of the case◦ Its historical background◦ The physical setting◦ Other contexts, such as economic, political, legal, and aesthetic ◦ Other cases through which this case is recognized◦ Those informants through whom the case can be known

Case Study

Emphasizes the individual’s subjective experience. Research questions framed as: “What is the meaning,

structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person or group of people?”

Ethnomethodology- ◦ Focus on how individuals recognize, describe, explain and

account for their everyday lives Conversational analysis

◦ Analyzes the sequential organization of topics, management of turn taking, and practices related to opening, sustaining, and closing a conversation.

E.g., Experience of being a student with a disability in a general education classroom.

Phenomenological research

A general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed.

Theoretical propositions are not stated at the outset of the study.

“Theory” emerge out of the data themselves and not prior to data collection.

Grounded theory

Cooperative participatory research◦ Involves participation of all people in the research process but

does not explicitly address power relations and the potential transformative effects of the research .

◦ Identify research problem & procedures collaboratively; implement procedures; review & interpret data to improve practice or guide additional research

Transformative participatory action research◦ Involves members of the community in the process in varying

roles, but does so with explicit recognition of power issues and a goal of transforming society.

◦ Researcher’s role= change agent ◦ Emphasizes the use of methods that allow the voices of the

oppressed to be heard.

Participatory research

Use of in-depth interviews & participant observation, the researcher can come to understand the multiple forces that influence the effectiveness of different types of therapy.

Clinical research

Data collection method or strategy for research.

Group interviews that rely, not on a question-and-answer format of interview, but on the interaction within the group.

Focus groups

Personal interviews, observations- guidelines for completing in text

Researcher as the instrument- ◦ Need to be clear who researcher is, assumptions,

and monitor throughout project Speaking for others

◦ Extreme caution should be used in speaking for others, especially those experiencing oppression

Research questions viewed as flexible…evolving

Data collection/methodology

Please get together with your research group

Complete the in-class activity sheet.

In-Class Activity

Session 6: Qualitative Research Methods. Review for Quiz, Take Quiz Discussion Brief Lecture In-Class Activity Research Proposal work.

Documents

dvc slide

difference of groups

t tests

qnvk http

dvc http

zgg http

levenes test slide

measure of performance