PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLUTANTS IN OCCUPATIONAL AND … · Air, water and deposited dust samples will be collected and analysed for brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluorooctane

PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLUTANTS IN OCCUPATIONAL AND PRIVATE ENVIRONMENTS

Measuring different pathways of human exposure to persistent organic pollutants in aerosol form

WEMKEN, NINA

Centre for Climate and Air Pollution Studies, School of Physics, National University of Ireland, Galway

2 Wemken, Nina; Centre for Climate and Air Pollution Studies, School of Physics, National University of Ireland, Galway

Abstract Air pollution is a complex issue with a variety of sources. Anthropogenic aerosols, such as persistent

organic pollutants (POPs), can be harmful to the environment and humans due to their chemical

properties: low water solubility, high lipid solubility and persistence. Brominated flame retardants

(BFRs) such as hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)

were used as flame retardants in a variety of soft furnishings, building insulation foams and electrical

goods; while PFOS has been used as a water and stain repellent in waterproof apparel, in textiles such

as carpets, and in firefighting foams. The exposure to POPs has been linked to several severe health

issues such as the formation of cancerous cells, impaired thyroid function, and fertility problems. The

routes of exposure play a vital part in exposure assessment, often via the inhalation of aerosols and

also through surface transfer via deposited dust. There is a lack of information on concentrations of

BFRs and PFOS in indoor air, dust, and water in different occupational and private environments,

information which is required to understand both the overall magnitude of exposure and the relative

contributions of the different exposure pathways. The objective of this study is to assess the overall

exposure and relative contributions of different routes of exposure of POPs to the Irish population.

Air, water and deposited dust samples will be collected and analysed for brominated flame retardants

(BFRs) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). In order to assess the effect of semi-volatile organic

compounds (SVOCs), like BFRs, it is essential to understand their levels and partitioning between

various indoor matrices and the indoor environment as a significant route for human exposure.


TABLE of CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 4 1.1 WHY ARE WE INTERESTED IN POPS? 4

2 ROUTES OF POP EXPOSURE 7

3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF POP EXPOSURE 9

4 POPS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST 10 4.1 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 11

5 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT 12

6 PROVISIONAL RESULTS 12

7 CONCLUSION 14

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 14

9 REFERENCES 15 List of Tables Table 1.1-1. The 12 Initial POPs. 5 Table 1.1-2. Additional added chemicals. 6

List of Figures Figure 2-1. Release and Dispersion of POPs. 7 Figure 2-2. Biomagnification of POPs. 7 Figure 2-3. The human respiratory system and aerosol deposition. 8 Figure 6-1. Boxplot of BFRs. 13


1 Introduction An air pollutant is defined as a gaseous substance distributed as independent molecules or tiny

condensed-phase liquid droplets or solid particles. Particulate matter (PM) or aerosol is the commonly

used term for the condensed airborne material (NRC, 2009). Hinds describes an aerosol as “a

collection of solid or liquid particles suspended in gas” (Hinds, 1982). Aerosols permit us to

understand the development of cloud formation in the atmosphere. Its particles impact the production,

transportation, and outcome of atmospheric particulate pollutants. Atmospheric aerosols can be

natural or anthropogenic. Anthropogenic aerosols, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), can

be harmful for the environment and humans due to their chemical properties.

Over the last 50 years it became increasingly apparent that emissions of air pollutants and related

secondary pollution may have hazardous consequences impacting, not only the local area, but

affecting air quality, public health, and ecosystem sustainability on areas hundreds to thousands of

kilometres downwind from sources. Atmospheric pollution has often far-reaching effects, affecting

the environment on regional and continental levels (particulate matter climate impact, persistent toxic

organic pollutant contamination etc.) and also on hemispheric and global levels (mercury

contamination, greenhouse gas warming etc.) (NRC, 1998). At the beginning of the 21st century it

became more apparent that climate change and global air quality are tightly connected, thus the risks

posed by intercontinental air pollution and its worrying consequences on the air quality of local and

regional residents is now more universally acknowledged. Air pollution is now treated as a complex

issue that can have regional, hemispheric, and even global impacts; therefore, transboundary

international pollution is a new area of concern.

1.1 Why are we interested in POPs? Over the last century, the chemical industry experienced a great boom and the general public profited

greatly form this chemical revolution. However, not only good came from these newly produced

chemicals; shortly thereafter, problems storing, using and disposing of these chemicals arose,

resulting in environmental and health issues. Greater public awareness into the environmental impacts

and health effects of pollution now exists. Nevertheless, producing reliable scientific evidence about

these adverse effects was a lengthy process, requiring the development of novel analytical

technologies which were desperately needed to investigate how these adverse effects may impact on

our wellbeing and surroundings. In 1962 Rachel Carson linked the use of pesticides and its adverse

effects in the “Silent spring” (Carson, 1962) but it took a further 10 years until different governments

initiated national and international actions. Public awareness rose notably following catastrophes

such as the Seveso Incident in 1976, when an explosion at a chemical plant resulted in the


unintentional release of large quantities of tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) (Umberto Fortunati,

1985). This accident polluted 1800 hectares of land and injured 220,000 people, many of whom were

consequently scarred for life from the onset of chloracne (Baccarelli et al., 2005). Consequently, the

term persistent organic pollutant (POP) became increasingly prevalent among environmental

scientists as an area of interest and concern. POPs represent a group of toxic chemicals that are not

easily degraded or metabolised leading to their bioaccumulation and persistence in the environment

for long periods of time. Some POPs were produced for industrial use or were generated as by-

products of industrial activities. Their stable nature makes them particularly susceptible to long range

transportation via ocean and air currents and can therefore be found in even the remotest parts of the

world, such as the Arctic. Additionally, their lipophilic tendencies give them the predisposition to

accumulate in fat-rich tissue. Therefore POPs have the potential to reach toxic concentrations, with

continuous exposure even at a low doses (Ritter et al., 1996; US EPA, 2009; Harrad and Abdallah,

2014; IPEN, 2017).

Only in the late 90s was the POPs International Negotiating Committee (INC) was formed by the

United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP) to address global action on persistent organic

pollution, but it was not until May of 2001 that the international breakthrough regarding awareness

came about by the formation of the Stockholm Convention on POPs. The Stockholm Convention

came into force on the 17th of May 2004 and is a global treaty ratified by the international community

which calls for the elimination and/or phasing out of 12 chemicals, colloquially known as the “dirty

dozen”, scientifically recognised as POPs ( Table 1.1-1) (UNEP, 2008; Harrad and Abdallah, 2014).

The following characteristics are essential for a chemical to be listed under the convention:

• persistence; • bioaccumulation; • potential for long range transport; • and adverse effects.

Table 1.1-1. The 12 Initial POPs.

Pesticides Industrial chemicals By-products Aldrin X Chlordane X Dieldrin X Endrin X Heptachlor X Mirex X Toxaphene X Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) X X X Polychlorinated byphenyl (PCBs) X X Chlorinated dioxins X Chlorinated furans X Annex A Intentionally produced chemicals that need to be eliminated. Annex B Intentionally produced chemicals with restrictions. Annex C Unintentionally produced chemicals (UNEP, 2008).


To date, 152 signatures have signed the treaty, 181 parties are taking part in the global fight against

persistent organic pollutants, and another 14 chemicals have been listed for restriction and/or

elimination (Table 1.1-2). Participating parties are obliged to take actions “to protect human health

and the environment from persistent organic pollutants” requiring each to create suitable legislation

and restrictions regarding any production and use of the 26 currently-listed POPs and any additional

POPs recognised in the future (UNEP, 2008).

Table 1.1-2. Additional added chemicals. Pesticides Industrial chemicals By-products

⍺ -hexachlorocyclohexane X X β-hexachlorocyclohexane X X ɣ-hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) X Chlordecone X Hexabromodiphenyl X Commercial pentabromodiphenyl ether (Penta-BDE) X Commercial octabromodiphenyl ether (Octa-BDE) X Hexachlorobutadiene X Hexabromocyclododecane X Pentachlorophenol X Technical endosulfan X Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) X Pentachlorobenzene XX XX XX Polychlorinated naphthalenes XX XX Annex A Intentionally produced chemicals that need to be eliminated. Annex B Intentionally produced chemicals with restrictions. Annex C Unintentionally produced chemicals (UNEP, 2008).


2 Routes of POP exposure Due to the combination of several factors, humans are exposed to POPs via diet, air and deposited

airborne dust. They are released from

anthropogenic origins into the air and oceans;

from there, they are distributed globally

through atmospheric processes, air- exchange

and cycles including dry particles, rain, soil,

atmospheric aerosols and snow (Figure 2-1).

POPs can underdo long range atmospheric

transport if their gas-phase reaction half-lives

are greater than two days and are absorbed

onto fine particulate matter. POPs found in

water, soil and sediment have a longer

reaction half-live and are sustained for longer

in the atmosphere. POPs can be found in both atmospheric removal mechanism phases – the aerosol-

phase and gas-phase – depending on their volatility. These involve gas exchange, wet and dry

deposition, as well as direct and indirect photolysis. The ability to undergo long range transport of

POPs adsorbed onto fine particles is increased if the photochemical degradation rate declines and

atmospheric half-life inclines (NRC, 2009). These

progressions lead to the contact of POPs in distant

regions to humans and wildlife that are contingent

upon aquatic foods, resulting in an increase in

concentration in the food chain (biomagnification)

(AMAP, 1998). With every step in the food chain,

the concentration of POPs increases as more are

ingested and stored. The bioaccumulation is higher

in food chains with more stages to the top predator

(Figure 2-2).

Another important route of exposure is inhalation of aerosolized POPs, which occurs when the POPS

are bound to other smaller particles, such as dust. Several POPs are particularly prevalent in indoor

air concentrations making inhalation a major exposure pathway; for example, PBDEs have a high

molecular weight and a lower vapour pressure, and can therefore bind to indoor dust on floors and

other areas (Harrad and Abdallah, 2014).

3

and understanding some of the mechanistic aspects of toxicity associated with differentcompounds (see Figure 1).

Adverse health effects associated with exposure to POPs have been observed in both hightrophic level wildlife and humans. The concept of a “wildlife-human connection” draws on thisevidence of adverse effects in highly-exposed wildlife to predict the risk of adverse health effectsin humans. While it is difficult to unequivocally establish whether these compounds areadversely affecting humans or wildlife in the environment, the accumulating “weight ofevidence” strongly implicates POPs, as well as the “dioxin-like” POPs, in incidents of endocrineand immune dysfunction, reproductive impairment, developmental abnormalities, andneurological function in a host of vertebrate species.

air masses

dissolved phase

particle bound

sediment burial

snow meltand runoff

direct deposition

air/water/snowgas exchange

dry particledeposition

indirectdeposition

gas

particulatematter local or long-distance transport

wet (rain, snow) deposition

sourcesof air-bornepollutants

anthropogenic natural

food chain

Figure 1: In addition to direct effluent discharges, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and their “dioxin-like”components are distributed globally through atmospheric processes, ensuring that even remote human and wildlifepopulations are exposed. While populations inhabiting industrialized regions are often considered more vulnerableto higher level exposures, subsistence-oriented aboriginal peoples in the Arctic are at risk because of their heavyreliance on aquatic food resources.

Effects observed in high-trophic level wildlife include the eggshell-thinning effects ofDDT on fish-eating birds and their subsequent extirpation from large parts of the industrializedworld (Hickey and Anderson, 1968; Wiemeyer and Porter, 1970); the relationship between PCBs

Figure 2-1. Release and Dispersion of POPs. Pops are dispersed globally through atmospheric processes, reaching humans and wildlife in the most isolated areas (Ross and Birnbaum, no date).

Figure 2-2. Biomagnification of POPs. Transport of POPS through the food chain (National Park Service, 2013).


In order to assess the effect of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), like BFRs, it is essential

to understand their levels and partitioning between various indoor matrices and the indoor

environment as a significant route for human exposure (Venier et al., 2016).

Dust is commonly present in private and occupational environments, it’s a complex heterogeneous

combination of SVOCs and particle-bound matter, which originates from biological matter such as

human and animal hair, fungal spores, skin cells, textile fibres, plant pollens and others. Thus dust

represents a perfect matrix to analyse pollutants due to its existence in the environment, basic traits,

and especially its impact to human exposure via dermal absorption, ingestion and inhalation (Cunha

et al., 2010).

POPs can be absorbed by fine particulate matter (PM) (NRC, 2009). Liquid droplets and small

particles are formed by a large range of elements such as dust, soil particles, organic chemicals, or

acids, and are the make-up of PM. They are typically measured in micrometres (µm) (1.0x10-6 metres)

and the range of their diameter lies between 100-0.001µm (EPA, 2016).

The size of the particles is directly related to their health effects. Particles greater that 100 µm are too

large to be taken up via

inhalation. At sizes

between 10-100 µm,

particles can be inhaled

but are generally blocked

by the mucus membranes

in the respiratory system

(Figure 2-3). Particles

between 2.5-10 µm

(PM10-Coarse particles)

can be taken up into the

superior airways and can

travel to the nose, pharynx

and larynx. Fine particles smaller than 2.5µm (PM2.5) can enter deep into the inferior airways and are

often found in the trachea, bronchioles and alveoli. The lattermost is the most vulnerable area, as

gaseous exchange occurs and the small particles are inhaled through the mechanisms of settling and

diffusion (CAICE, 2014). From this area they can even reach the blood stream and circulate around

the body (EPA, 2016).

Figure 2-3. The human respiratory system and aerosol deposition. Diffusion of particles and sizes at the different regions of the system (Clean Air Egypt n.d.).


3 Health effects of POP exposure

The WHO links 7 million premature deaths every year to air pollution (WHO, 2014). Inhalation of

aerosols is causing serious harm to the human body and contribute to a number of health issues such

as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, along with many other adverse effects (Cohen et al., 2004;

EPA, 2004, 2006; WHO, 2006; NRC, 2008). The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that

41,200 US citizens die prematurely each year as a result of elevated PM10 concentrations (less than

10 µm) (WHO, 2002). Due to their low water solubility, high lipid solubility and persistence in the

environment, aerosolized POPs are highly likely to accumulate in adipose tissue. The different POPs

have varying toxicological characteristics which result in numerous health issues on humans, fish and

wildlife, and extensive adverse effects have been linked with POP exposure (Harrad and Abdallah,

2014). Possible human health consequences of exposure include damage of the nervous, hormonal

and immune systems, as well as reproductive functionality. The route(s), concentration and duration

of exposure are important factors when assessing the ramifications of POP exposure in humans (NRC,

2009).


4 POPs of particular interest Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) are flame retardants

developed to delay or prevent the burning of a variety of soft furnishings, building insulation foams,

electronic and electrical goods. In the middle of 1970s, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) were

initiated as flame retardants (Daso et al., 2010). An estimated 25% of all flame retardants include

bromine (Andersson, Öberg and Örn, 2006). In 2001, Europe was responsible for 2%, 16%, 14% and

57% of the yearly worldwide demand of penta-BDE, octa-BDE, deca-BDE, and HBCDD respectively

(BSEF, 2003). PBDEs in the manufacturing process but are also included in the polymer casing for

electronics (e.g. acrylonitrile butadiene styrene- ABS or high impact polystyrene-HIPS). The

restrictions have created a market demand for replacement flame retardants, such as

decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), which has been marketed since the early 1990’s as a

replacement for BDE-209. HBCDD has primarily been used as a flame retardant in expanded and

extruded polystyrene (EPS/XPS), which is used mainly in building insulation foam, in addition to

some applications in textiles.

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) belong to the perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). PFOS and related

chemicals have been used to impart stain and dirt repellence in carpets, paper and packaging, to

provide water repellence in clothing and apparel, as well as being used in firefighting foams.

Historically, companies such as 3M and Dupont were the leading manufacturers of these chemicals

for industrial and commercial products (Lindstrom, Strynar and Libelo, 2011).

PBDE exposure in animal studies showed neurodevelopmental and behavioural outcomes such as

hepatic abnormality, endocrine disruption and possibly cancer (Birnbaum and Staskal, 2004;

Darnerud, 2008; Hakk, 2010; Wikoff and Birnbaum, 2011). Exposure of HBCDDs in animals

induced hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes and altered the normal uptake of neurotransmitters; in

humans it has been found to trigger cancer through a non-mutagenic mechanisms and disruption of

the thyroid hormone system (Law et al., 2005; Covaci et al., 2006; Darnerud, 2008). PFOS exposure

in rodents showed an increase in liver weight, a decrease in overall body weight, and a steep dose-

response curve for mortality (Seacat et al., 2003). The results of these toxicology studies caused the

ban or restriction under the UNEP Stockholm Convention on POPs (UNEP, 2008). Octa- and penta-

BDE were banned in 2009, the use of deca-BDE was restricted in 2009 and later banned in 2017.

HBCDD was banned in 2013 with a restricted use in Europe in EPS and XPS for building insulation.

In 2009 the convention added PFOS and its salts due to strong evidence of these chemicals being able

to undergo long –range environmental transport and bioaccumulation (Chaemfa et al., 2010).


4.1 Exposure Pathways To be used as BFRs or PFCs, the compound must not interfere with the polymers appearance and

physical properties and be constant during the lifespan of the product (Wilkie and Morgan, 2010).

Polymers are hydrophobic and most of them originate from petroleum material, hence hydrophobic

compounds are predisposed to bioaccumulation in the food chain (Alaee and Wenning, 2002;

Darnerud, 2003). PBDE are easily integrated into polymers during the manufacturing process.

However, as a result of the deficiency of binding sites on polymers surface are not chemically bonded

to the material. All of them can be easily released into the environment by volatilisation or dust

formation during the handling of treated products (Mcdonald, no date; Alaee et al., 2003; Darnerud,

2003; Covaci et al., 2007; Law et al., 2008; Muenhor et al., 2010). A consequence of a BFR’s and

PFCs ability to function throughout the whole lifespan of the product is its persistence in the

environment which extends beyond the life cycle of the product (WHO, 1994, 1997; de Boer, de Boer

and Boon, 2000; Darnerud, 2003; Watanabe, 2003).

PBDEs, HBCDDs, and PFOS has been detected in a variety of different human tissues such as adipose

tissues, blood serum, liver, placenta and breast milk (Tao et al., 2008; Frederiksen et al., 2010;

Abdallah and Harrad, 2011, 2014; Pratt et al., 2013). Different external exposure pathways (i.e.

dermal exposure, inhalation, diet, ingestion of dust and water) can cause human body burdens of the

specified POPs, as shown in the direct measurements of these previous biomonitoring studies. A

combination of factors, e.g. diet, air and indoor dust (by dermal contact or ingestion), causes

occupational and non-occupational human exposure to PBDEs and HBCDDs (Lorber, 2008;

Abdallah and Harrad, 2011, 2014; Trudel et al., 2011).

Human body burdens of PFOS occur in a similar manner, with the most prominent exposure pathways

being identified as ingestion of drinking water (Ericson et al., 2008; Thompson, Eaglesham and

Mueller, 2011) and indirect exposure via metabolism of the “PFOS-precursors” which produce PFOS

as end product (Miralles-Marco and Harrad, 2015). Ambient air particulates have recently risen some

awareness, as they hold a significant responsibility in several environmental processes. SVOCs can

accumulate in street dust and be transported by the runoff into water. Some POPs, like BFRs, are

insoluble in water and therefore would not affect the water quality. However, PFCs hold the ability

to dissolve in water and can affect waste as well as drinking water. Studies have looked at PFCs in

ambient air particulates (PM2.5, PM10 and total suspended particles (TSP)). The outcome of a Chinese

study indicated presence of PFCs in TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 (Zhang et al., 2016). Consequently, these

harmful compounds are able to enter the airways and circulate throughout the human body.

Up to date there have been no correlations between external and internal exposure metrics established.

This is most likely due to inadequate sample quantities in conjunction with the element of long human


residence times of POPs, which implies that body burdens must be evaluated as a complex integral

of different pathways of exposures and over long periods of time; subsequently, body burdens of a

given pathway may not relate to recent eternal exposure (Harrad et al., 2010).

Comprehension of the origins of current body burdens of these contaminants will only be possible if

exposure via different pathways are characterized.

5 Objectives of this project

The ELEVATE project will conduct the first study of levels of BFRs (tri- through deca-PBDEs, and

a-,b- and g-HBCDD) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in indoor air, dust and water in Irish

private microenvironments (homes and cars), as well as occupational environments (offices and

primary schools). Data will be combined with existing data on concentrations in the Irish diet to

evaluate the relative contribution of the different exposure pathways. A human biomonitoring study

will also be carried out (by analysing human milk samples) to provide information on body burdens

in the Irish population. Comparison with a previous such study will facilitate assessment of the impact

on body burdens of restrictions on the manufacture and use of these chemicals. Specific project

objectives are to:

Ø Evaluate the relative contributions of different exposure pathways (diet, indoor air and dust)

to POP-BFRs and PFOS in Ireland.

Ø Establish the current body burdens of POP-BFRs and PFOS in the Irish population and by

comparison with previous biomonitoring data in Ireland, assess the impact of recent

restrictions on the manufacture and use of these contaminants.

Ø Evaluate the relationships between external and internal exposure of the Irish population to

POP-BFRs and PFOS using simple one compartment pharmacokinetic models.

6 Provisional Results Approximately 32 samples each of air, dust and tap water were collected from Irish

microenvironments such as homes, cars, primary schools and offices between August 2016 and

January 2017. Air samples were collected using a sorbent (XAD-3) impregnated polyurethane foam

disk (PUF). Dust samples were collected by vacuuming a measured area of the floor surface (1 m2 of

carpet floor and 4 m2 for tiles/wood) in each home and office for 4 minutes. Air samples were

extracted via pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) using an ASE-350, with hexane and

dichloromethane (3:2, v/v ratio). Dust samples were extracted via a combination of vortexing and


ultrasoncation in hexane:acetone (1:1, v/v ratio). Extracts (air and dust) were further purified on a

SPE cartridge (silica (dust) or florisil (air)). Clean extracts were concentrated and analysed via GC-

EI/MS (PBDEs and DBDPE) or LC-MS/MS (HBCDDs).

Dust samples collected from Irish offices and schools contained relatively low concentrations of

BDE-209 (median: 3500 ng/g, range: 550-15000 ng/g; median: 8100 ng/g, range: 200-71000 ng/g

respectively), unlike homes and cars (median: 13000 ng/g, range: 140-650000 ng/g; median: 26000

ng/g, range: 14-680000 ng/g respectively). Highest concentrations of DBDPE were observed in

schools (median: 10000 ng/g, range: 620-540000 ng/g respectively), followed by cars, offices and

homes (median: 7700 ng/g, range: <LOQ-190000 ng/g; median: 6100 ng/g, range: <LOQ-130000

ng/g; median: 4200 ng/g, range: 410-460000 ng/g respectively) (Figure 6-1).

Figure 6-1. Boxplot of BFRs. 𝛴BDE, BDE-209 (PBDE congener) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) concentrations of dust samples collected from microenvironments cars (n=28), homes (n=29), offices (n=31), schools (n=31).

Concentrations of BFRs in air samples were as expected lower than recorded in dust. The highest

concentration was recorded for BDE-209 in schools (median: 410 pg/m3, range: 3.8-21000 pg/m3),

followed by homes (median: 410 pg/m3, range: 3.8-5500 pg/m3), offices (median: 240 pg/m3, range:

1.6-1600 pg/m3), and cars (median: 200 pg/m3, range: 3.8-7100 pg/m3). The highest concentration of

DBDPE at 7000 pg/m3 has been observed in homes.


Concentrations of PBDEs found in this study are comparable with concentrations detected in other

European countries, however concentrations of DBDPE are higher, suggesting that DBDPE is

commonly used in Ireland.

Analysis for HBCDDs in air and dust samples is currently ongoing. Air, dust and water samples will

be analysed for PFOS in February 2018. Breastmilk samples of Irish primiparous will be analysed

for BFRs and PFOS in July 2018 and results from the full study will be available at the end of 2018.

7 Conclusion The connection between aerosolized particles and long-range transport of POPs is not well studied,

and further research of aerosolised POP-exposure to the Irish population is desperately needed. This

research will be completed in Irish homes, cars, offices and schools, and will evaluate the human

exposure through its different pathways. Aerosol particles are not only found in the atmosphere, they

can also bind to deposited dust and by linking those different pathways, new data will be developed

to further aid research in this field. Preliminary results of dust and air indicate the presence of POPs

in occupational as well as private environments. With this new data it will be possible to incite

reductions in human body burdens in Irelands in keeping with the tenets of the Stockholm Convention

and, furthermore, fulfil Ireland’s obligation as a signatory to the Treaty. The gathered information

will be fundamental to developing policies that will reduce the exposure of the Irish population.

8 Acknowledgements This project is funded by the Environmental Protection Agency of Ireland.


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PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLUTANTS IN OCCUPATIONAL AND … · Air, water and deposited dust samples will be collected and analysed for brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluorooctane

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