Motivation

MotivationMotivation

Organizational EffectivenessOrganizational Effectiveness

How Workers Feel How Workers Feel About Their JobsAbout Their JobsSurvey of 2,408 in 1995Survey of 2,408 in 1995 Satisfaction:Satisfaction:

– Usually look forward to going to work:Usually look forward to going to work: 66%66%– Don’t look forward to going to work:Don’t look forward to going to work: 34%34%

Participation:Participation:– Think involvement is important:Think involvement is important: 55%55%– Have a lot of direct involvement:Have a lot of direct involvement: 28%28%

Loyalty:Loyalty:– Feel a lot of loyalty to their employer:Feel a lot of loyalty to their employer: 54%54%– Feel they can trust their employer:Feel they can trust their employer: 38%38%

Personality and Personality and PerceptionPerception

EnvironmentEnvironment CultureCulture ExperiencesExperiences

HeredityHeredity

PersonalityPersonality

PerceptionPerception

Order of Importance of Order of Importance of Various Job FactorsVarious Job Factors

Job FactorsJob Factors

Survey of Survey of EmployeEmploye

esesSurvey of Survey of BossesBosses

Full appreciation of work doneFull appreciation of work done 11 88Feeling of being in on thingsFeeling of being in on things 22 1010Sympathetic help on personnel Sympathetic help on personnel problemsproblems

33 99

Job securityJob security 44 22Good wagesGood wages 55 11Interesting workInteresting work 66 55Promotional growth in organizationPromotional growth in organization 77 33Personal loyalty to employeesPersonal loyalty to employees 88 66Good working conditionsGood working conditions 99 44Tactful discipliningTactful disciplining 1010 77

Source: A. I. LeDue, Jr., 1980.Source: A. I. LeDue, Jr., 1980.

Ways of Eliciting Ways of Eliciting FeedbackFeedback1.1. Surveys—Closed or Open-endedSurveys—Closed or Open-ended2.2. InterviewsInterviews3.3. Focus GroupsFocus Groups4.4. Confrontation MeetingsConfrontation Meetings

Summary of Summary of Reinforcement Reinforcement ContingenciesContingencies

LabelLabel

Effect Effect on on

BehaviBehavioror Nature of the ContingencyNature of the Contingency

1. Positive1. Positive increasincreaseses

Correct response is followed by a Correct response is followed by a positive reinforcing stimulus.positive reinforcing stimulus.

2. 2. PunishmentPunishment

decreasdecreaseses

Behavior is followed by an Behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus.aversive stimulus.

3. Escape3. Escape increasincreaseses

An aversive stimulus is present An aversive stimulus is present and the correct response and the correct response terminates it.terminates it.

4. 4. AvoidanceAvoidance

increasincreaseses

An aversive event will occur An aversive event will occur unless the correct response is unless the correct response is made.made.

5. 5. ExtinctionExtinction

decreasdecreaseses

The behavior is ignored. No The behavior is ignored. No reinforcement is associated with reinforcement is associated with the response.the response.

Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Continuous reinforcement schedule.Continuous reinforcement schedule.

Reinforcement follows every correct response.Reinforcement follows every correct response.– Produces a steady rate of performance as long as Produces a steady rate of performance as long as

reinforcement continues to follow every response.reinforcement continues to follow every response.– High frequency of reinforcement may lead to early High frequency of reinforcement may lead to early

satiationsatiation– Behavior extinguishes rapidly when reinforcement is Behavior extinguishes rapidly when reinforcement is

terminated.terminated.– Best schedule for teaching new behavior.Best schedule for teaching new behavior.

Time Reinforcement is terminatedTime Reinforcement is terminated

Res

pons

esR

espo

nses

per

hour

per

hour

Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Fixed ratio (FR).Fixed ratio (FR). A fixed number of responses must be made A fixed number of responses must be made

before a reinforcement occurs.before a reinforcement occurs.– Tends to produce a vigorous and steady rate of response that is Tends to produce a vigorous and steady rate of response that is

higher than continuous reinforcement.higher than continuous reinforcement.– Tends to extinguish rapidly when reinforcement is terminated.Tends to extinguish rapidly when reinforcement is terminated.

Variable ratio (VR)Variable ratio (VR). A varying or random number of . A varying or random number of responses must be made before reinforcement occurs.responses must be made before reinforcement occurs.– Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is

vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction. Variable Interval (VI).Variable Interval (VI). The first correct response after a The first correct response after a

varying or random interval of time is reinforced.varying or random interval of time is reinforced.– Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is

vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.

Time Reinforcement is terminatedTime Reinforcement is terminated

Res

pons

esR

espo

nses

per

hour

per

hour

Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Fixed Interval (FI).Fixed Interval (FI). The first response The first response

after a fixed period of time is reinforced.after a fixed period of time is reinforced.– Produces an uneven response pattern that Produces an uneven response pattern that

varies from a very slow, lethargic response varies from a very slow, lethargic response rate immediately following reinforcement to a rate immediately following reinforcement to a fast, vigorous response rate immediately fast, vigorous response rate immediately preceding reinforcement.preceding reinforcement.

Time Length of fixed intervalTime Length of fixed interval

Res

pons

esR

espo

nses

per

hour

per

hour

Summary Motivation Summary Motivation ModelModel

1.1. EffortEffortExpectancyExpectancyInstrumentalityInstrumentalityValenceValence

6.6. RewardsRewards

5.5. OrganizationalOrganizationalStructureStructureand Cultureand Culture

4.4. WorkWorkDesignDesign

SatisfactionSatisfaction

7.7. EquityEquityComparisonsComparisons

ExtrinsicExtrinsic

IntrinsicIntrinsic

PerformancePerformanceXX

3.3. Goal SettingGoal SettingSpecificitySpecificityDifficultyDifficultyAcceptanceAcceptanceCommitmentCommitment

2.2. AbilityAbilitySkillsSkillsTrainingTraining

Implications from Theory Implications from Theory and Research on How to and Research on How to Motivate OthersMotivate Others1.1. Set clear and specific goals Set clear and specific goals withwith employees. employees.2.2. Employees should feel that they can Employees should feel that they can

accomplish the goals. Thus they need to have accomplish the goals. Thus they need to have the ability, training, and resources to succeed.the ability, training, and resources to succeed.

3.3. Job design, organizational culture, and Job design, organizational culture, and structure should facilitate the achievement of structure should facilitate the achievement of the goals.the goals.

4.4. Goal accomplishment should be linked with Goal accomplishment should be linked with salient internal and external rewards.salient internal and external rewards.

5.5. Inappropriate behaviors can be eliminated by Inappropriate behaviors can be eliminated by punishment or by failing to reinforce them.punishment or by failing to reinforce them.

6.6. Rewards should be seen as being fair.Rewards should be seen as being fair.

Advantages of Advantages of SpecializationSpecialization1.1. Learning time is reducedLearning time is reduced2.2. Workers don’t spend time Workers don’t spend time

changing jobschanging jobs3.3. Increased proficiencyIncreased proficiency4.4. New technologies are more New technologies are more

compatible with specialized jobscompatible with specialized jobs5.5. Supervisors have more control Supervisors have more control

over employee behaviorover employee behavior

Disadvantages of Disadvantages of SpecializationSpecialization1.1. Workers often can’t control the pace of the Workers often can’t control the pace of the

work.work.2.2. Repetitiveness can lead to boredom and poor Repetitiveness can lead to boredom and poor

quality. It also may result in health problems.quality. It also may result in health problems.3.3. Workers only use a narrow set of skills. They Workers only use a narrow set of skills. They

may be able to do more.may be able to do more.4.4. Since workers see only a small part of the Since workers see only a small part of the

process, they may not be able to solve problems process, they may not be able to solve problems or improve productivity/quality very effectively.or improve productivity/quality very effectively.

5.5. Workers often experience low social Workers often experience low social interaction.interaction.

6.6. Workers may not be encouraged to think on the Workers may not be encouraged to think on the job.job.

How to Enrich JobsHow to Enrich Jobs

1.1. AccountabilityAccountability2.2. AchievementAchievement3.3. Control over ResourcesControl over Resources4.4. FeedbackFeedback5.5. Personal Growth and Personal Growth and

DevelopmentDevelopment6.6. Control over Work PaceControl over Work Pace

Job Characteristics Job Characteristics ModelModel

Combining Combining taskstasks Skill varietySkill variety DependablDependabl

e e performanperforman

ceceForming Forming

natural work natural work unitsunits

Task identityTask identity MeaningfulMeaningful

Establishing Establishing client client

relationshipsrelationshipsTask Task

significancesignificanceGood Good

attendanceattendance

Vertical Vertical loadingloading AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility High High

satisfactionsatisfaction

Opening Opening feedback feedback channelschannels

FeedbackFeedback Knowledge of Knowledge of resultsresults

SpontaneoSpontaneous and us and

innovative innovative behaviorsbehaviors

Job redesignJob redesignmethodsmethods

Core jobCore jobdimensionsdimensions

PsychologiPsychologicalcal

statesstates

WorkWorkoutcomesoutcomes

PersonalPersonalvaluesvalues

Why Performance Why Performance Appraisals?Appraisals?

1.1. To recognize and reward good To recognize and reward good performanceperformance

2.2. To make decisions regarding To make decisions regarding promotions and hiringpromotions and hiring

3.3. To provide individuals with feedback to To provide individuals with feedback to help in their developmenthelp in their development

4.4. To identify training and other needs for To identify training and other needs for individuals and the organizationindividuals and the organization

5.5. To obtain data for human resource To obtain data for human resource planningplanning

Problems with Problems with AppraisalsAppraisals1.1. Evaluation and feedback are poor Evaluation and feedback are poor

(see exhibit in text)(see exhibit in text)2.2. The atmosphere in the interview is The atmosphere in the interview is

highly defensive and not constructivehighly defensive and not constructive3.3. The rating system used is not linked The rating system used is not linked

to the desired behaviorsto the desired behaviors4.4. The behaviors that are being The behaviors that are being

measured and rewarded are not measured and rewarded are not linked to the organization’s mission linked to the organization’s mission and goalsand goals

Types of CompensationTypes of Compensation Individual Incentives:Individual Incentives:

1.1. SalarySalary2.2. Merit PayMerit Pay3.3. Bonuses/StockBonuses/Stock4.4. Piece-RatePiece-Rate5.5. CommissionCommission6.6. Skill-Based PaySkill-Based Pay7.7. Knowledge-Based PayKnowledge-Based Pay

Group Incentives:Group Incentives:1.1. Merit PayMerit Pay2.2. BonusesBonuses3.3. Piece-RatePiece-Rate4.4. CommissionsCommissions

Company-Wide Incentives:Company-Wide Incentives:1.1. Profit SharingProfit Sharing2.2. Gain SharingGain Sharing3.3. Scanlon PlansScanlon Plans4.4. Bonuses/Stock or Stock Bonuses/Stock or Stock

OptionsOptions

Solving Performance Solving Performance ProblemsProblems

1.1. Describe the situationDescribe the situation2.2. Diagnose whether it’s an ability or Diagnose whether it’s an ability or

motivation problemmotivation problem3.3. Use joint problem solving to come up with Use joint problem solving to come up with

solutions to the problemsolutions to the problem4.4. Communicate consequences for the Communicate consequences for the

problemproblem5.5. Handle emergent problems (but don’t get Handle emergent problems (but don’t get

deflected from the core problem)deflected from the core problem)6.6. Decide who will do what by when and Decide who will do what by when and

follow upfollow up

Effective PunishmentEffective Punishment1.1. Timely—Occurs immediately after the Timely—Occurs immediately after the

mistakemistake2.2. Unpleasant but not severeUnpleasant but not severe3.3. Should focus on the particular act/behaviorShould focus on the particular act/behavior4.4. Should be consistent across persons and Should be consistent across persons and

timetime5.5. Inform the person what he/she did wrong Inform the person what he/she did wrong

and how they can change/improveand how they can change/improve6.6. Punishment should occur in a supportive Punishment should occur in a supportive

environmentenvironment7.7. Punishment should not be followed by Punishment should not be followed by

undeserved rewardsundeserved rewards

Progressive DisciplineProgressive Discipline

1.1. Verbal WarningVerbal Warning2.2. Verbal ReprimandVerbal Reprimand3.3. Written ReprimandWritten Reprimand4.4. SuspensionSuspension5.5. DischargeDischarge