Motivation

MotivationMotivation

An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.

Five areas of motivationFive areas of motivation

Choices

Getting started

Intensity of involvement

Persistence

Feelings

How do these five areas relate to your motivation to learn Educational Psychology?

Intrinsic and extrinsic Intrinsic and extrinsic motivationmotivation

Intrinsic: I want to learn. Extrinsic: You must learn.

Mnemonic: Intrinsic—comes from the inside of me, “internal.” Extrinsic comes from the outside, like “external.”

Intrinsic motivation: motivation associated with activities that are their own reward.Extrinsic motivation: motivation created by external factors, such as rewards and punishments.

Locus of causalityLocus of causality

The location—internal or external—of The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior.the cause of behavior.

Locus of causalityLocus of causality

That teacher made the test too hard. My

roommate wouldn’t let me

study.

I should have studied harder.

I made a bad choice going to that party last

night.

Which one has an internal locus of causality? Which one is external?

Other views of locus of Other views of locus of causalitycausality

Internal ExternalLocus of causality is a continuum.

I practice because I

love to play.

I practice because my mom

makes me.

I practice because

it’s fun and it’ll help me get a college

scholarship.

Locus of causality is NOT a Locus of causality is NOT a continuumcontinuum

To understand this argument, you To understand this argument, you need to understand need to understand approach/avoidance. We tend to approach/avoidance. We tend to have two reactions to something—we have two reactions to something—we tend to approach it or we tend to tend to approach it or we tend to avoid it. Actually, we may have a avoid it. Actually, we may have a combination of approach and combination of approach and avoidance feelings, as the following avoidance feelings, as the following diagram will show.diagram will show.

Locus of causality is NOT a Locus of causality is NOT a continuumcontinuum

ApproachHigh

ApproachLow

AvoidanceHigh

AvoidanceLow

Overstrivers: people who are trying for success but also trying to avoid failure.

Success-oriented students: people who are trying for success and not worried about failure.

Failure avoiders: people whose main motivation is to avoid failure—they aren’t seeking success primarily.

Failure accepters: people who have given up on anything to do with success and are not even trying to avoid failure.

Covington and Mueller (2001). Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: an Approach/Avoidance Reformulation. Educational Psychology Review, v. 13, n. 2, 158-176.

Approach/avoidanceApproach/avoidance

This is a more complex formulation This is a more complex formulation of motivation. It has profound of motivation. It has profound implications for the classroom—if you implications for the classroom—if you have failure accepters among your have failure accepters among your students, you will need to work with students, you will need to work with them differently from, say, the them differently from, say, the overstrivers. overstrivers.

Approaches to motivationApproaches to motivation

BehavioralBehavioral HumanisticHumanistic MaslowMaslow Cognitive and Social CognitiveCognitive and Social Cognitive Expectancy x valueExpectancy x value Sociocultural conceptions Sociocultural conceptions

BehavioralBehavioral

Reward: an attractive object or Reward: an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a event supplied as a consequence of a behavior.behavior.

Incentive: an object or event that Incentive: an object or event that encourages or discourages behavior. encourages or discourages behavior.

BehaviorismBehaviorism

AdvantagesAdvantages Rewards increase Rewards increase

good behaviorsgood behaviors

DisadvantagesDisadvantages If the reward is not If the reward is not

rewarding, the rewarding, the behavior will not behavior will not increase.increase.

Rewards Rewards encourage encourage extrinsic extrinsic motivation.motivation.Therefore: use only for things that students don’t like. Be sure to include

quality of work, not just participation. Use rewards to let students know they are getting better at something.

Humanistic Views of Humanistic Views of MotivationMotivation

Humanistic interpretation: approach to Humanistic interpretation: approach to motivation that emphasizes personal motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth.striving for personal growth.

Humanistic psychology—views motivation as Humanistic psychology—views motivation as people’s attempts to fulfill their total people’s attempts to fulfill their total potential as human beings. This psychology potential as human beings. This psychology deals with the whole person. If you want to deals with the whole person. If you want to motivate someone in this way, encourage motivate someone in this way, encourage inner resources—self-esteem, competence, inner resources—self-esteem, competence, etc.etc.

Chief theorists: Rogers, MaslowChief theorists: Rogers, Maslow

Carl RogersCarl Rogers

Unconditional positive regard: believing in the inherent worth of a person—every person has something of value inside just because he or she is a human being.

Creating an emotionally safe climate in the classroom:•Treat students as people first and students second•Provide students with unconditional positive regard by separating behavior from intrinsic worth.•Create safe and orderly classrooms where students believe they can learn and where they are expected to do so•Consider classroom experiences from the students’ point of view.

Can you think of examples of teachers in your experience who have done these things? How about teachers who haven’t? How did those classrooms feel?

Humanistic views of Humanistic views of motivationmotivation

Hierarchy of needs:Maslow’s model of 7 levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization.

Bottom line: hungry kids cannot learn very well. Feed them. Also, kids need achievement, beauty, and the chance to learn to be themselves, not just an endless drill for the Proficiency test.

Deficiency needs: Maslow’s 4 lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first.Being needs: Maslow’s 3 higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs.

Self-actualization: fulfilling one’s potential

Cognitive Theories of Cognitive Theories of MotivationMotivation

Based on Piaget’s theory (equilibrium, Based on Piaget’s theory (equilibrium, adaptation, accommodation).adaptation, accommodation).

We all have a need to understand our We all have a need to understand our world. When something occurs that we world. When something occurs that we don’t understand, we are motivated to try don’t understand, we are motivated to try to figure it out.to figure it out.

This is why people work at puzzles, video This is why people work at puzzles, video games, etc.games, etc.

Five cognitive theories: expectancy x Five cognitive theories: expectancy x value theory, self-efficacy theory, goal value theory, self-efficacy theory, goal theory, attribution theory, self-theory, attribution theory, self-determination theorydetermination theory

Expectancy x value theoryExpectancy x value theory

How you expect to do at the task: success or failure

The value of that success to you

“I expect to be able to pass the Praxis II”

“Passing the Praxis II will make me feel proud and will help me to take the next step in my professional career.”

Therefore, I am motivated to study the material for that test.

If either term is zero, then motivation is zero because anything times zero is zero.

Expectancy for successExpectancy for successSelf-schema #1:•I don’t know how to do this.•Last year I failed this subject.•I hate trying to do something that will take a long time.•I’m not a very good learner.•No one is going to help me with this.•There are more important things than school.

Self-schema #2:•This looks hard, but I have done hard things before.•I have done well in this subject before.•If I do a little at a time, I know I can do this.•I do pretty well in school. I like learning.•If I have trouble, I know my parents will explain this to me.•School is important to me and my family.

Which schema will lead to a student being motivated to try a new task?What are your schemas about yourself as a learner?

Expectancy for success: depends on how difficult the task seems and your schemas about yourself as a learner.

Factors influencing task Factors influencing task valuevalue

Intrinsic interestIntrinsic interest ImportanceImportance Utility valueUtility value Cost Cost

Intrinsic interestIntrinsic interest

This topic relates to things I care about. I can’t wait to learn

more about it.

ImportanceImportanceIt’s important for me to stay in shape so I

can be healthy for a long time.

It’s important for me to stay in shape so I can compete effectively in

my sport.

People can have different reasons for something to be important.

Utility valueUtility valueI can see that this class is

going to help me achieve my goal

of being a doctor.

CostCost I’m not sure I have the time

to put into studying for this class.

Besides, I hate making

speeches. I think I’ll drop this class. It’s

too hard.

This class is going to take a lot of time, but I think I can do it. I’ve never

made a speech before, but I guess I can

learn.

Perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task.

Cost: an exampleCost: an example

Very often as teachers we set up barriers to learning that increase cost. I learned about removing barriers at vacation Bible school this summer.

Cost, an exampleCost, an example

Each night there was a Bible verse to Each night there was a Bible verse to learn and there was a central Bible learn and there was a central Bible verse that was connected to the verse that was connected to the whole theme. whole theme.

For each Bible verse memorized, a For each Bible verse memorized, a child would receive a small prize. If child would receive a small prize. If the child memorized all six verses, the child memorized all six verses, he/she would get a large prize.he/she would get a large prize.


This year, the vast majority of children This year, the vast majority of children chose to memorize verses. What chose to memorize verses. What contributed to that?contributed to that?

I spent part of my music teaching time I spent part of my music teaching time teaching the verses. We chanted them teaching the verses. We chanted them over and over again and we broke them over and over again and we broke them down, learning them phrase by phrase.down, learning them phrase by phrase.

As soon as a child had a verse memorized, As soon as a child had a verse memorized, I sent him/her to the VBS director to recite I sent him/her to the VBS director to recite the verse and receive the prize.the verse and receive the prize.

Cost, an exampleCost, an example What worked? Why did the kids get so enthusiastic What worked? Why did the kids get so enthusiastic

about this?about this? First, students were given time within the classes First, students were given time within the classes

to learn their verses. It wasn’t homework and yet to learn their verses. It wasn’t homework and yet many of the children then opted to practice at many of the children then opted to practice at home on top of what we did in the class.home on top of what we did in the class.

Secondly, I modeled over and over again how to Secondly, I modeled over and over again how to break down the verse and learn it a little at a time. break down the verse and learn it a little at a time. As the fast learners got the verse, they left the As the fast learners got the verse, they left the room to go recite. That gave me a chance to work room to go recite. That gave me a chance to work even more with the students who needed extra even more with the students who needed extra help.help.

There was immediate reinforcement—students There was immediate reinforcement—students could go at any time to recite and get their prizes. could go at any time to recite and get their prizes.


Almost all students succeeded, across Almost all students succeeded, across grades 1-7. The fast learners got what they grades 1-7. The fast learners got what they needed. The slow learners got what they needed. The slow learners got what they needed. The success spawned a desire for needed. The success spawned a desire for more success.more success.

I learned that it is really worth using class I learned that it is really worth using class time on the things you want students to time on the things you want students to learn and do. I learned that when I remove learn and do. I learned that when I remove barriers (homework, an overwhelming task), barriers (homework, an overwhelming task), even students who clearly have a history of even students who clearly have a history of learning struggles are able to succeed. learning struggles are able to succeed.

CostCost

Affective memory: past emotional experiences related to a topic or activity. Affective memory contributes to cost: bad memories increase cost and good memories decrease cost.

I love to dance. I

remember how good it felt the first

time I tried it.

How can we as teachers help students to have good memories of their learning with us?

Sociocultural conceptions of Sociocultural conceptions of motivationmotivation

Perspectives that emphasize Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within interpersonal relations within communities of practice.communities of practice.

Legitimate peripheral participation: Legitimate peripheral participation: genuine involvement in the work of genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are undeveloped and contributions are small.small.

An exampleAn exampleThis is me, in 1974, a ninth grader at Lexington Junior High School. I wore this sweatshirt on this day because I knew this picture would be taken. The sweatshirt was for the Central Kentucky Youth Symphony Orchestra. I had just become a member (as last chair second violin I was definitely in the camp of “legitimate peripheral participation”—you couldn’t get more peripheral than that). I was so proud to be a member of the Youth Symphony Orchestra—that identity was very important to me.

I have no idea if any the rest of these students became teachers or not…

Classrooms as communitiesClassrooms as communities

You can use sociocultural forms of You can use sociocultural forms of motivation by creating classroom motivation by creating classroom communities. Students in these communities. Students in these classes identify with their classmatesclasses identify with their classmates—being part of the class is part of —being part of the class is part of who they are. Students work who they are. Students work together to learn—to develop and together to learn—to develop and test hypotheses, etc.test hypotheses, etc.

Needs: competence, Needs: competence, autonomy, relatednessautonomy, relatedness

Self-determination—we need to feel Self-determination—we need to feel competent and capable.competent and capable.

Need for autonomy: the desire to Need for autonomy: the desire to have our own wishes, rather than have our own wishes, rather than external reward or pressures, external reward or pressures, determine our actions. determine our actions.

In other words, we need to be in In other words, we need to be in charge of our own lives.charge of our own lives.

Self-determination in the Self-determination in the classroomclassroom

When classrooms are organized When classrooms are organized around the idea of self-around the idea of self-determination, students tend to be determination, students tend to be more interested and to do better.more interested and to do better.

Ironically, students tend to prefer Ironically, students tend to prefer more controlling teachers, even more controlling teachers, even though they learn more from though they learn more from teachers who support student teachers who support student autonomy. autonomy.

Self-determination TheorySelf-determination Theory

The process of deciding how to act The process of deciding how to act on one’s environment.on one’s environment.

Includes competence, control Includes competence, control (autonomy), and relatedness.(autonomy), and relatedness.

CompetenceCompetence

The ability to function effectively in an environment.

I can swim, get my own food,

and keep away from preditors.

I know how to read, how

to learn, and how to behave in

school.

Helping students to feel Helping students to feel competentcompetentIf you try,

you will be able to do

this problem.

Attributional statements are comments by teachers about causes of students’ performances. They help students to know that they can influence the outcomes of their work.

You did a good job naming the parts. You need

to work on understanding the life cycle.

Accurate feedback (praise and criticism) helps students to know where they have succeeded and what to work on.Wow! Look

what you have done! That’s really

neat.Emotional displays of the teacher give students important messages about their competence. The teacher’s frustration can lead students to feel incompetent.

If you need help, just let me

know. Otherwise, I’ll

assume you are okay.

Offering unsolicited help can give a negative message, that the teacher feels the student is incompetent.

Information and controlInformation and control

Cognitive evaluation theory: Cognitive evaluation theory: suggests that events affect suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing controlling behavior or providing information. information.

Information and controlInformation and control

Informational Controlling

Events tend to be informational (providing the student with information) or controlling (telling the student what to do).

Increases intrinsic motivation Decreases intrinsic motivation

Examples:You did well on that test because you worked hard.We are going to present our projects next week, so you may want to think about what you need to get done on it.

Examples: You did well on that test because you followed directions.The project is due next week so get to work!

ControlControl

Control (autonomy) is the ability to alter the environment when necessary.

I can choose

where I do my

homework and which subject I work on

first.

I can choose what I

practice and how much effort I put

into it.

Helping students to have a Helping students to have a sense of controlsense of control

What rules do you think we need in

this class?

How are you doing on the

goals you set?

It’s great to see everyone so

involved in this project.

I see you using the learning

strategies we have been

working on..

From your work I can tell that you have learned a lot about this

topic.

The need for relatednessThe need for relatedness

Students need to feel that others Students need to feel that others (especially the teacher, but also (especially the teacher, but also other students) care about them and other students) care about them and are responsive to their needs. are responsive to their needs.

RelatednessRelatedness

The feeling of connectedness to others in one’s social environment resulting in feelings of worthiness of love and respect.

This is related to some ideas on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Needs: lessons for teachersNeeds: lessons for teachers

Students need to feel competent and Students need to feel competent and connected. connected.

Goal orientations and Goal orientations and motivationmotivation

Goal: what an individual strives to Goal: what an individual strives to accomplish.accomplish.

Goal orientation: patterns of beliefs Goal orientation: patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement about goals related to achievement in school.in school.

Goals and Goal-orientationGoals and Goal-orientation

I’d like to do as little as I can in order to

get a decent grade.

This subject is so

interesting—I’d like to learn more about this.

Both of these students have goals. Can you see how their goals will influence how they learn?

Types of GoalsTypes of Goals Mastery goal—focuses on mastering information, increasing Mastery goal—focuses on mastering information, increasing

understanding (not concerned with performance)understanding (not concerned with performance) Performance goal—a personal intention to seem competent Performance goal—a personal intention to seem competent

or perform well in the eyes of others.or perform well in the eyes of others. Approach goals are goals focused on achievement Approach goals are goals focused on achievement

(learning-approach is a goal to increase achievement, (learning-approach is a goal to increase achievement, performance-approach is a goal to increase performance).performance-approach is a goal to increase performance).

Avoidance goals are goals focused on avoiding something. Avoidance goals are goals focused on avoiding something. Performance-avoidance is a focus on performing in order to Performance-avoidance is a focus on performing in order to avoid looking dumb.avoid looking dumb.

Task-involved learners: students who focus on mastering Task-involved learners: students who focus on mastering the task or solving the problem.the task or solving the problem.

Ego-involved learners: students who focus on how well Ego-involved learners: students who focus on how well they are performing and how they are judged by others. they are performing and how they are judged by others.

The type of goal a student has determines a lot about how that student learns.

An exampleAn example

I had a violin student whose goal was to get a 93 in his academic classes. According to him, a 93 is the “perfect A” because it is an A with the least amount of work. His goal was basically performance-avoidance: he was avoiding any grade his parents could give him trouble over (such as a B). As you might imagine, his performance in class was lackluster because he didn’t get excited about learning anything. School was a game to play and he knew how to win in such a way that most authorities would leave him alone.

A couple of years later, he appeared to have abandoned this particular goal—he was involved in college-level classes and enjoying them.

Work-avoidance goalsWork-avoidance goals

This is SO boring. I’m going to get

through this reading as fast as

I can so I can watch Survivor on

TV.

What do you think she will remember about the text she is reading? If she were your student, what could you do to help her?

Work-avoidant learners: students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work.

Social goalsSocial goalsRyan said he signed

up for Algebra II. He’s so cute. I guess I’ll sign up so I can be

with him in class.

How do you think she will do in algebra II? How can you, as a teacher, harness the social goals your students have?

Social goals: a wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group.

Feedback and goal Feedback and goal acceptanceacceptance

Students need accurate, positively-Students need accurate, positively-stated (e.g., you have achieved 75% stated (e.g., you have achieved 75% of your goal rather than you have of your goal rather than you have fallen short by 25%) feedback to help fallen short by 25%) feedback to help them with their goals.them with their goals.

Students need to accept and commit Students need to accept and commit goals if they are going to work on goals if they are going to work on them. Commitment matters.them. Commitment matters.

Effective goal setting: Effective goal setting: SpecificSpecific

My goal is to do better in

school.

My goal is to spend one hour every evening

studying.

Why are specific goals better than general goals? Which student will be able to monitor his progress better on his goal?

Effective Goal Setting: Effective Goal Setting: ImmediateImmediate

I want to graduate with honors four years from

now.

My goal is to make dean’s

list this semester.

Why might immediate goals work better than goals that are far away?

Effective Goal Setting: Effective Goal Setting: ChallengingChallenging

I want to graduate in four years with a

perfect 4.0 average.

I don’t care what my grades

are in four years—I just

want to get out of here.

I think I can maintain a high B average for the next four

years.

What happens when students set goals that are too challenging? What happens when the goals are not challenging enough?

Goal monitoringGoal monitoringI studied for an hour

yesterday and today. Two days in a row!

That’s pretty good. It’s helpful to do it right after supper and to get into a

habit.

Why do you think monitoring goals would be important?

Strategy UseStrategy Use

Even though I studied an hour a day, I still

didn’t do very well on the test. My teacher

says I need to do more than just read the

text. I think I’ll make a goal of working on 5

problems per day.

Why is it important to be strategic in the process of achieving goals?

MetacognitionMetacognitionThe t.v. is too distracting. I had better study here in my room where it is

quieter.

Can you see how metacognitive strategies are critical for effective goal setting and achievement? How can you help students to develop metacognitive strategies?

Interests and emotionsInterests and emotions

When students are not interested in When students are not interested in a topic, they will not learn.a topic, they will not learn.

Personal interests: enduring Personal interests: enduring interests that a person has. interests that a person has.

Situational interest: more temporary Situational interest: more temporary interest—something that catches the interest—something that catches the eye of the student.eye of the student.

Capturing student interestCapturing student interest

Find out about their interests—if a Find out about their interests—if a group of them have a personal group of them have a personal interest in something, perhaps you interest in something, perhaps you can use that topic.can use that topic.

Work with situational interest—find Work with situational interest—find interesting ways to approach interesting ways to approach curricular topics (e.g., using a curricular topics (e.g., using a computer program, using a puzzle, computer program, using a puzzle, using an unexpected event). using an unexpected event).


This is critical, particularly for This is critical, particularly for students who are at risk for failure. students who are at risk for failure. Students from strongly academic Students from strongly academic backgrounds have a degree of backgrounds have a degree of tolerance for boredom, but students tolerance for boredom, but students who don’t have a strong academic who don’t have a strong academic background do not have this background do not have this tolerance. tolerance.


This takes some creativity—but it is This takes some creativity—but it is one of the most fun aspects of one of the most fun aspects of teaching.teaching.

Further, when you teach something Further, when you teach something that is interesting, you will really that is interesting, you will really enjoy the teaching process and enjoy the teaching process and watching the students get into the watching the students get into the activity.activity.

For exampleFor example

For several years I have been part of an For several years I have been part of an Appalachian project that involves an urban Appalachian project that involves an urban school and my students in Education 214, school and my students in Education 214, Integrating the arts in the elementary Integrating the arts in the elementary classroom.classroom.

In this project, we build dulcimers, sing In this project, we build dulcimers, sing Appalachian songs, dance to a live band, Appalachian songs, dance to a live band, perform a Jack tale, decorate quilt squares perform a Jack tale, decorate quilt squares and sew a quilt, and learn about the and sew a quilt, and learn about the culture in general. We meet a lot of social culture in general. We meet a lot of social studies benchmarks in this project.studies benchmarks in this project.

The Appalachian ProjectThe Appalachian Project

The classroom teacher plays guitar. We had a volunteer banjo player, as well.


Our volunteer banjo player came every week and was generous about sharing with the students (that’s a $2000 banjo a child is holding).


The dance


Our quilt

You can do this, tooYou can do this, too Not every day has to be filled with Not every day has to be filled with

something this special—but this sort of something this special—but this sort of thing needs to happen periodically. thing needs to happen periodically.

We began with an interest I had. Because We began with an interest I had. Because of my personal interest in Appalachian of my personal interest in Appalachian music, I had resources—I had books about music, I had resources—I had books about it, I knew the music, and I knew people it, I knew the music, and I knew people who could help us to pull this project off.who could help us to pull this project off.

Most of the students did not have an initial Most of the students did not have an initial interest in this subject, but because of the interest in this subject, but because of the nature of the activities (building a working nature of the activities (building a working musical instrument) they became musical instrument) they became interested.interested.

Arousal: excitement and Arousal: excitement and anxiety in learninganxiety in learning

Arousal: physical and psychological Arousal: physical and psychological reactions causing a person to be reactions causing a person to be alert, attentive, wide awake.alert, attentive, wide awake.

ArousalArousal

Curiosity: this is related to interest. Curiosity: this is related to interest. People have studied curiosity and People have studied curiosity and found that it often happens when we found that it often happens when we don’t fully understand something—don’t fully understand something—there is a gap in our knowledge.there is a gap in our knowledge.

Anxiety: general uneasiness, a Anxiety: general uneasiness, a feeling of tension. feeling of tension.

Anxiety Anxiety

Can get in the way of learning and Can get in the way of learning and showing what one has learned.showing what one has learned.

Anxiety gets in the way of our ability Anxiety gets in the way of our ability to pay attention. It’s a negative to pay attention. It’s a negative cycle—we feel anxious, struggle to cycle—we feel anxious, struggle to pay attention, then become more pay attention, then become more anxious as we realize we are not anxious as we realize we are not comprehending the material. comprehending the material.

Arousal and anxietyArousal and anxietyI’m so nervous I don’t know what to do. All I can think of is how nervous I am.

When people get nervous, they lose some of their ability to think logically. In anticipation of a nervous situation, they may use poorer strategies to prepare.

Anxiety: a general uneasiness and feeling of tension. Anxiety can affect motivation both positively and negatively. A little anxiety can be good motivation. Too much anxiety can get in the way of effective learning.

Managing anxietyManaging anxiety

Problem-solving—trying to address Problem-solving—trying to address the learning problems in an intelligent the learning problems in an intelligent and do-able way. It is important for and do-able way. It is important for teachers to help students with teachers to help students with problem solving.problem solving.

Emotional management—trying to Emotional management—trying to reduce feelings of anxiety.reduce feelings of anxiety.

Avoidance—avoiding situations that Avoidance—avoiding situations that cause anxiety (not a good strategy to cause anxiety (not a good strategy to use in school).use in school).

Beliefs and self-schemasBeliefs and self-schemas

Beliefs about abilityBeliefs about ability Beliefs about causes and controlBeliefs about causes and control Beliefs about self-efficacy and Beliefs about self-efficacy and

learned helplessnesslearned helplessness Beliefs about self-worthBeliefs about self-worth

IntelligenceIntelligence

Is intelligence a set characteristic like Is intelligence a set characteristic like your height as an adult or the color your height as an adult or the color of your eyes? Or can intelligence be of your eyes? Or can intelligence be influenced by what you do? How you influenced by what you do? How you answer these questions may answer these questions may influence how motivated you are as a influence how motivated you are as a learner.learner.

Entity view of intelligenceEntity view of intelligence

This means that intelligence is an unchanging characteristic.

Since I can’t do anything about how

smart I am, I will focus my efforts on

how I approach tasks.

Performance goal

This attitude “works” for learners who feel that they are pretty smart. Learners who feel non-intelligent are likely to give up because they feel hopeless.

Incremental view of Incremental view of intelligenceintelligence

If I work at learning this, I can get a lot

smarter.

Learning goal

This view gives students a sense of control over their own destiny. If they work, they will be rewarded with increasing ability.

Does it work? Is it fair to get Does it work? Is it fair to get kids’ hopes up?kids’ hopes up?

There are limits. Most piano students aren’t going to become Vladimir Horowitz, no matter how hard they work. Most student athletes are not going to break world records at the Olympics. But the belief in learning and work increasing ability does go a long way, even in sports and music. Hard work can make up for a smaller amount of talent and no amount of talent can make up for the lack of practice.

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory

LocusLocus StabilityStability ControlControl

Attribution theory involves how we explain our successes and failures. Do we attribute them to ourselves or to factors outside ourselves? Do we attribute them to things that change or things that don’t change? How much control do we have over these factors?

Attribution theory: descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior.

LocusLocusIt’s not my fault. The teacher made the test too hard. If I had studied

more, I would have done

better on the test.Locus means

“location.” It can be internal or external. For which student is the cause of not doing well external? For which is it internal? What are the implications when a student attributes her performance to an external cause? How about to an internal cause?

StabilityStabilityI didn’t do so well this time, but maybe my

luck will change. I’m bringing my

rabbit’s foot the next time we have a test.

I don’t think I’m very good at this subject. It’s awfully hard for me to understand.

Luck can change (with or without the rabbit’s foot). Ability doesn’t change (although effort can change and it can make up for ability to a certain extent).

The point of stability is how changeable is the cause of the situation.

ControlControlI can

control how much I study for the test.

Yeah, but you can’t control how hard the

teacher makes the test.

Some things are controllable by the person and others are not. What implications does this have for your students? What implications does it have for the strategies you suggest?

Attribution Theory: Attribution Theory: ApplicationApplication

The answers to these questions influence how you respond to the student. For example, if the student is externalizing, you might guide him to think about his own contribution to the problem. Whatever the cause, you might want to help the student to focus on his effort. You need to be aware of what the student can control and what is beyond the student’s control.

Where does the student consider the

locus of the problem to be? How stable is the cause? What kind of

control does the student have?

Impact of Attributions on Impact of Attributions on LearnersLearners

I feel bad because I got a C-

Emotional

I’ll never be able to do

this

Expectations for future success

I’m not going to bother

studying for the next one

Future effort

It’s not surprising, then, that I keep doing

badly.

Achievement

Fortunately, you can help students change this kind of attitude…

Self EfficacySelf Efficacy Your beliefs about your abilities.Your beliefs about your abilities. Four factors influence them:Four factors influence them: Past performancePast performance Observing othersObserving others Verbal persuasion (a teacher tells Verbal persuasion (a teacher tells

you you can do it)you you can do it) Physiological and psychological Physiological and psychological

factors (hunger, being upset, etc.)factors (hunger, being upset, etc.)Guess what: students who are high in self-efficacy do better in school. What can we do as teachers to help students develop self-efficacy?

This is a review of a concept you had in the last chapter.

Learned HelplessnessLearned HelplessnessI can’t succeed,

so I might as well not even

try.

Learned helplessness is associated with low self-esteem, depression, and refusal to try.

The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all one’s efforts will lead to failure.

Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness is a psychological condition in which is a psychological condition in which

a human or animal has learned to believe that it is helpless. a human or animal has learned to believe that it is helpless. It thinks that it has no control over its situation and that It thinks that it has no control over its situation and that whatever it does is futile. As a result it will stay passive when whatever it does is futile. As a result it will stay passive when the situation is unpleasant or harmful and damaging.the situation is unpleasant or harmful and damaging.

It is a well-established principle in It is a well-established principle in psychologypsychology, a description , a description of the effect of inescapable punishment (such as electrical of the effect of inescapable punishment (such as electrical shock) on shock) on animalanimal (and by extension, (and by extension, humanhuman) ) behaviourbehaviour. . Learned helplessness may also occur in everyday situations Learned helplessness may also occur in everyday situations where environments in which people experience events in where environments in which people experience events in which they feel or actually have no control over what which they feel or actually have no control over what happens to them, such as repeated failure, happens to them, such as repeated failure, prisonprison, , warwar, , disabilitydisability, , faminefamine and and droughtdrought may tend to foster learned may tend to foster learned helplessness. An example involves helplessness. An example involves concentration campconcentration camp prisoners during prisoners during the Holocaustthe Holocaust, when some prisoners, called , when some prisoners, called MussulmenMussulmen, refused to care or fend for themselves. Present-, refused to care or fend for themselves. Present-day examples can be found in mental institutions, day examples can be found in mental institutions, orphanages, or long-term care facilities where the patients orphanages, or long-term care facilities where the patients have failed or been stripped of agency for long enough to have failed or been stripped of agency for long enough to cause their feelings of inadequacy to persist.cause their feelings of inadequacy to persist.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness Not all people become depressed as a result of Not all people become depressed as a result of

being in a situation where they appear not to being in a situation where they appear not to have control; in what Seligman called "have control; in what Seligman called "explanatory styleexplanatory style," people in a state of learned ," people in a state of learned helplessness view problems as personal, helplessness view problems as personal, pervasive, or permanent. That is,pervasive, or permanent. That is,

PersonalPersonal - They may see themselves as the - They may see themselves as the problem; that is, they have problem; that is, they have internalizedinternalized the the problem. problem.

PervasivePervasive - They may see the problem affecting - They may see the problem affecting all aspects of life. all aspects of life.

PermanentPermanent - They may see the problem as - They may see the problem as unchangeable. unchangeable.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness Martin SeligmanMartin Seligman's foundational experiments and 's foundational experiments and

theory of learned helplessness began at the theory of learned helplessness began at the University of PennsylvaniaUniversity of Pennsylvania in 1965, as an extension of in 1965, as an extension of his interest in depression, when, at first quite by his interest in depression, when, at first quite by accident, Seligman and colleagues discovered a result accident, Seligman and colleagues discovered a result of conditioning of dogs that was opposite to what B.F. of conditioning of dogs that was opposite to what B.F. Skinner's behaviorism would have predicted. A dog Skinner's behaviorism would have predicted. A dog that had earlier been repeatedly conditioned to that had earlier been repeatedly conditioned to associate a sound with electric shocks did not try associate a sound with electric shocks did not try (later in another setting) to escape the electric shocks (later in another setting) to escape the electric shocks after that sound and a flash of light was presented, after that sound and a flash of light was presented, even though all the dog would have had to do is jump even though all the dog would have had to do is jump over a low divider within ten seconds, more than over a low divider within ten seconds, more than enough time to respond. The dog didn't even try to enough time to respond. The dog didn't even try to avoid the "aversive stimulus"; the dog had previously avoid the "aversive stimulus"; the dog had previously "learned" that nothing it did mattered."learned" that nothing it did mattered.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

Dealing with learned Dealing with learned helplessnesshelplessness

Seligman eventually taught the dogs Seligman eventually taught the dogs how to escape—but they had to be how to escape—but they had to be dragged over the barrier to learn.dragged over the barrier to learn.

Students who have experienced a lot Students who have experienced a lot of failure and who are in learned of failure and who are in learned helplessness need to have lots of helplessness need to have lots of success in order to get out. They success in order to get out. They need immediate small successes and need immediate small successes and then to build up to longer term and then to build up to longer term and larger successes. larger successes.

Self-worth TheorySelf-worth Theory

How the maintenance of self-worth gets in the way of achievement. What can you do as a teacher to help a student like this?

I couldn’t work on the project ‘til the last minute. If I had had more time, it would

have been better.

What he says:

What he means:If I really put in time on the project, it might not have been very good. So I didn’t put in the time so I have an excuse I can live with for it not being good.

That project was too hard. It’s not

fair to be assigned such a difficult

task.

What he says:

What he means:If I can blame someone else, then I don’t have to look at my own contribution to the failure of the project. This is how I maintain a sense that I am competent in the face of possible evidence otherwise.

An emotional reaction to or evaluation of the self (also known as self-esteem).

Self-worthSelf-worth

Master-oriented students: students who Master-oriented students: students who focus on learning goals because they focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as value achievement and see ability as improvable.improvable.

Failure-avoiding students: students who Failure-avoiding students: students who avoid failure by sticking to what they avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.not to care about their performance.

Failure-accepting students: students who Failure-accepting students: students who believe their failures are due to low ability believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.and there is little they can do about it.

Motivation to Learn in Motivation to Learn in SchoolSchool

The tendency to find academic The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them.and to try to benefit from them.

How motivated are you?How motivated are you?

In what classes or subjects do you find In what classes or subjects do you find learning to be interesting?learning to be interesting?

What has contributed to your What has contributed to your motivation to learn in those classes or motivation to learn in those classes or subjects?subjects?

Is there anything you can learn from Is there anything you can learn from those situations that might help you those situations that might help you to feel more motivated about other to feel more motivated about other subjects or topics?subjects or topics?

Learning from bad teachingLearning from bad teaching Probably all of us have stories of “teachers from Probably all of us have stories of “teachers from

hell.” This is unfortunate, but remains true. hell.” This is unfortunate, but remains true. When you find yourself in a bad situation, now that When you find yourself in a bad situation, now that

you are studying educational psychology, think to you are studying educational psychology, think to yourself: “what can I learn here about what NOT to yourself: “what can I learn here about what NOT to do with other people—students, colleagues, etc.?”do with other people—students, colleagues, etc.?”

Remember that you can be motivated about a topic Remember that you can be motivated about a topic but not about a class, especially if a teacher has but not about a class, especially if a teacher has done a poor job. I loved French before and after done a poor job. I loved French before and after high school but had a very bad teacher in high high school but had a very bad teacher in high school. Even as many problems as this teacher school. Even as many problems as this teacher had, she never stamped out my love of French. had, she never stamped out my love of French.

Barriers to motivationBarriers to motivationCurriculum determined by state, not students

School attendance is mandatory, not a choice

Too many students in classes

Classrooms are a social setting where failure becomes public

Grades

“Daily grind”—routines that lead to boredom.

What can you do as a teacher to get rid of the barriers?

TARGETTARGET

TaskAutonomy

RecognitionGrouping practices

EvaluationTime

TaskTask

Academic task: the work the student must Academic task: the work the student must accomplish, including the content covered accomplish, including the content covered and the mental operations required.and the mental operations required.

Importance/attainment value: the Importance/attainment value: the importance of doing well on a task; how importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs.success on the task meets personal needs.

Intrinsic or interest value: the enjoyment Intrinsic or interest value: the enjoyment a person gets from a task.a person gets from a task.

Utility value: the contribution of a task to Utility value: the contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. meeting one’s goals.

Task valueTask value

Interest Importance

Utility Cost

Task value and Educational Task value and Educational PsychologyPsychology

Interest Importance

Utility Cost

Interest:If you like people-watching, you’ll probably like Educational Psychology. It explains WHY you see what you are seeing.

Utility:If you are working with people in any sort of job, you will find Educational Psychology useful because it tells you how to teach and motivate people. This means you potentially can get your ideas accepted over someone who does not have the same people skills, regardless of level of authority.

Importance:Being able to understand why people do what they do is critical information. It helps you to respond in a more constructive way.

Cost:Here’s the rub. It’s not always easy to understand all these theories and ideas. It takes work to absorb these ideas in a way that makes them really useful.

What does it mean to you to do What does it mean to you to do well in this class?well in this class?

Perhaps it means that you are smart?Perhaps it means that you are smart? Perhaps it means that the instructor likes Perhaps it means that the instructor likes

you?you? Perhaps it means that you have achieved a Perhaps it means that you have achieved a

goal you set for yourself?goal you set for yourself? Perhaps it means that you have learned Perhaps it means that you have learned

something interesting and useful?something interesting and useful? Perhaps it means that you will be able to Perhaps it means that you will be able to

maintain your high GPA?maintain your high GPA? Perhaps it allows you to avoid the anger of Perhaps it allows you to avoid the anger of

your advisor or your parents?your advisor or your parents?Doing well has different meaning for different people. This is the importance or attainment value.

Authentic tasksAuthentic tasks

Tasks that have some connection to Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom.face outside the classroom.

Problem-based learning: methods Problem-based learning: methods that provide students with realistic that provide students with realistic problems that don’t necessarily have problems that don’t necessarily have right answers.right answers.

Authentic tasks are Authentic tasks are motivating…motivating…

……because students can see the because students can see the connection between what they are connection between what they are doing in the classroom and what they doing in the classroom and what they will be doing out in the “real world.” will be doing out in the “real world.”

You will probably find your field placement classes to be really fun and interesting because in those you will be doing what you plan to do as a professional. The further you move in your degree program, the more authentic the tasks of learning are likely to be.

Problem-based learningProblem-based learning

One way to create authenticity is to use One way to create authenticity is to use problem-based learning, using real problem-based learning, using real problems either within the community or problems either within the community or problems students are likely to face problems students are likely to face (e.g., how to deal with the proficiency (e.g., how to deal with the proficiency test). Students can research the test). Students can research the problem and explore solutions. With problem and explore solutions. With community problems, students can community problems, students can express their opinions in local forums express their opinions in local forums such as the letters to the editor of the such as the letters to the editor of the local newspaper. local newspaper.

Supporting autonomy and Supporting autonomy and recognizing accomplishmentrecognizing accomplishment

Students need a balance between structure and choice.

“Bounded choice”—giving the students a range of options but not total freedom.

Choices Choices

For younger students, the choices For younger students, the choices need to be simpler: between fewer need to be simpler: between fewer options. The same is true for options. The same is true for students who have not had many students who have not had many choices in the pastchoices in the past

Older students can handle more Older students can handle more choices.choices.

Choices Choices

When students are resisting something, When students are resisting something, give them a choice about HOW they do give them a choice about HOW they do it. it.

They can work on their math facts at They can work on their math facts at their desk or lying on the floor (if this is their desk or lying on the floor (if this is not a frequent option, it will make doing not a frequent option, it will make doing the math facts more fun). They can do the math facts more fun). They can do their sustained silent reading in a chair their sustained silent reading in a chair or on the floor. Even high schools or on the floor. Even high schools students like the opportunity to move students like the opportunity to move around.around.

Portfolios and choicesPortfolios and choices

Portfolio assessment (which you will learn about in a later chapter) allows you to offer many choices to students, including what gets assessed (not every student work goes into a portfolio) and even how it gets assessed (e.g., choosing which work is to be assessed for which characteristic). Portfolios can be used in almost any subject area.

Recognizing Recognizing accomplishmentsaccomplishments

Students need feedback on their work.Students need feedback on their work. We need to recognize what is right along We need to recognize what is right along

with helping students to work on problems.with helping students to work on problems. Instead of praise (“good job”) it is more Instead of praise (“good job”) it is more

effective to point out how a student might effective to point out how a student might feel about the accomplishment (“Look what feel about the accomplishment (“Look what you did. You worked hard. I bet you feel you did. You worked hard. I bet you feel proud of that.”) This encourages students to proud of that.”) This encourages students to own the accomplishment and to attribute own the accomplishment and to attribute the accomplishment to their own efforts.the accomplishment to their own efforts.

GroupingGrouping

Goal structure: the way students Goal structure: the way students relate to others who are also working relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal. Can be toward a particular goal. Can be cooperative, competitive, or cooperative, competitive, or individualistic.individualistic.

Cooperation leads to higher Cooperation leads to higher achievement than competition.achievement than competition.

Competition Competition Competition is a zero-sum game: when Competition is a zero-sum game: when

someone wins, other(s) lose. This doesn’t someone wins, other(s) lose. This doesn’t work in a classroom where there is a work in a classroom where there is a commitment to teach everyone.commitment to teach everyone.

Competition might be motivating for the Competition might be motivating for the people who are near the top but it is people who are near the top but it is enormously demotivating for the people at enormously demotivating for the people at the bottom. Their thinking tends to be: “I’ll the bottom. Their thinking tends to be: “I’ll never win, so why should I try?”never win, so why should I try?”

Competition doesn’t work in the workplace. Competition doesn’t work in the workplace. The best companies encourage employees The best companies encourage employees to work cooperatively. to work cooperatively.

Evaluation Evaluation

There is a difference between There is a difference between evaluation and grading.evaluation and grading.

Grades are simply one form of Grades are simply one form of evaluation.evaluation.

A more valuable form of evaluation is A more valuable form of evaluation is constructive, detailed feedback given constructive, detailed feedback given in a caring manner. This can be done in a caring manner. This can be done in person or in writing if the student is in person or in writing if the student is able to read.able to read.

Evaluation Evaluation Don’t make a test the reason students Don’t make a test the reason students

need to learn something.need to learn something. Think of the utility of what they are Think of the utility of what they are

learning and use that as a primary reason.learning and use that as a primary reason. If at all possible, use authentic tasks as If at all possible, use authentic tasks as

part of the learning process.part of the learning process. Be prepared to re-think what you are Be prepared to re-think what you are

asking students to do. Is it part of the asking students to do. Is it part of the curriculum or is it something you just curriculum or is it something you just always do? If it is part of the curriculum, always do? If it is part of the curriculum, in what other way can you teach it?in what other way can you teach it?

Time Time

How do you feel when you are doing How do you feel when you are doing something engaging and have to something engaging and have to stop to do something else? stop to do something else?

Students will be frustrated if they Students will be frustrated if they have to stop all the time. See what have to stop all the time. See what you can do to schedule relatively you can do to schedule relatively large blocks of time for students to large blocks of time for students to work on important and interesting work on important and interesting projects.projects.

Time Time

Another challenge with time is that Another challenge with time is that some students move through work some students move through work quickly and others desperately need quickly and others desperately need more time.more time.

You need to plan learning activities You need to plan learning activities for those who move through their for those who move through their work quickly. You need to plan how work quickly. You need to plan how students might have more time on a students might have more time on a topic when they need it.topic when they need it.

Time Time

Technology can help. Students who work Technology can help. Students who work quickly in an area might read a text that quickly in an area might read a text that goes quickly over the material they need goes quickly over the material they need to learn.to learn.

Students who need to consider things at a Students who need to consider things at a slower pace might benefit from a power slower pace might benefit from a power point that covers the same material but point that covers the same material but with greater explanation. In other words, with greater explanation. In other words, take the text, break it into smaller parts, take the text, break it into smaller parts, and add explanations and examples.and add explanations and examples.

Motivation and Motivation and demotivationdemotivation

Motivation is based on an inner Motivation is based on an inner feeling. We cannot control other feeling. We cannot control other people’s feelings. SO it is hard to people’s feelings. SO it is hard to make someone feel motivated about make someone feel motivated about something (although we can something (although we can encourage it).encourage it).

On the other hand, it is EXTREMELY On the other hand, it is EXTREMELY easy to DEMOTIVATE someone. Just easy to DEMOTIVATE someone. Just give them a bad or unpleasant give them a bad or unpleasant experience in some way.experience in some way.

MotivatorsMotivators Messages of accountability and high expectationsMessages of accountability and high expectations Teacher communicates importance of workTeacher communicates importance of work Clear goals/directionsClear goals/directions Connections across the curriculumConnections across the curriculum Opportunities to learn about and practice dramatic artsOpportunities to learn about and practice dramatic arts Attributions to effortAttributions to effort Encouraging risk-takingEncouraging risk-taking Uses games and play to reinforce concept Uses games and play to reinforce concept Home-school connectionsHome-school connections Multiple representations of a taskMultiple representations of a task Positive classroom management, praise, private reprimandsPositive classroom management, praise, private reprimands Stimulating creative thoughtStimulating creative thought Opportunities for choiceOpportunities for choice Teacher communicates to students that they can handle Teacher communicates to students that they can handle

challenging taskschallenging tasks Value students—communicate caringValue students—communicate caring

Demotivators Demotivators Attributions to intellect rather than effortAttributions to intellect rather than effort Teacher emphasizes competition rather than cooperationTeacher emphasizes competition rather than cooperation Few displays of student workFew displays of student work No scaffolding for learning a new skillNo scaffolding for learning a new skill Ineffective/negative feedbackIneffective/negative feedback Lack of connectionsLack of connections Easy tasksEasy tasks Negative class atmosphereNegative class atmosphere Punitive classroom managementPunitive classroom management Work that is much too difficultWork that is much too difficult Slow pacingSlow pacing Emphasis on finishing, not learningEmphasis on finishing, not learning Sparse, unattractive classroomSparse, unattractive classroom Poor planningPoor planning Public punishmentPublic punishment

Motivation and cultureMotivation and culture

Culture influences motivation. You Culture influences motivation. You need to be aware of this and the need to be aware of this and the possibilities for the nature of the possibilities for the nature of the possible influence.possible influence.

Encouraging MotivationEncouraging Motivation

Build confidence and positive Build confidence and positive expectationsexpectations

Help students to see the value in Help students to see the value in learninglearning

Help students stay focused.Help students stay focused.

Emphasize incremental views Emphasize incremental views of intelligenceof intelligence

The more you work on this, the better

you are going to get.

Emphasize goals, strategies, Emphasize goals, strategies, and metacognitionand metacognition

This piece is a real challenge. But if you

work on it thoughtfully and every day, I know

you’ll be able to do it.

Promote student interestPromote student interest

I’m so glad you are ready to play the

Paganini. It’s one of my very favorite

pieces. Did you know that Paganini was so

much better than anyone else at his

time, he had to write his own music?

Nothing that had been written then was hard

enough for him.

Emphasize the utility value of Emphasize the utility value of increased skillsincreased skills

Because you have worked on this

skill, it’s going to make the next unit SO much easier for

you.

Give students the opportunity Give students the opportunity to practiceto practice

Here are some problems that are

like the ones on the test. Let’s see what

you can do with these.

Deemphasize competitionDeemphasize competitionLet’s work on this

together so everyone can succeed.

Model effort attributionsModel effort attributionsThe last time we had

a test, all of you worked hard and did really well. I’m sure

you can do this again.

Assess frequentlyAssess frequently

Now tomorrow we are going to have a

practice quiz to get you ready for Friday’s

test.

Model efficacyModel efficacyIt wasn’t easy for me to learn to play, but I practiced and I began to use the techniques

my teacher taught me. Pretty soon, I could see progress.

Provide Evidence of Provide Evidence of AccomplishmentAccomplishment

Look at what you have done!! Last week you

couldn’t do this kind of problem and this week,

you can!

Encourage internal attributions Encourage internal attributions for successes and controllable for successes and controllable

attributions for failuresattributions for failures

You did this part of the test really well because

you practiced these problems. I think you’ll do better on the other part after some more

practice.

VocabularyVocabulary

Affective memories

Anxiety

Attribution theory

Attributional statements

Cognitive theories of motivation

Competence

Control

Cost

Deficiency needs

Entity view of ability

Expectancy x value theory

Extrinsic motivation

Goal

Growth needs

Humanistic psychology

Importance

Incremental view of ability

Intrinsic interest

Intrinsic motivation

Learned helplessness

Learning goal

Motivation

Motivation to learn

Performance goal

Relatedness

Self-determinatio

n

Self-efficacy

Self-schemas

Self-worth

Unconditional positive regard

Utility value

Locus of causality

RewardIncentive

Humanistic interpretatio

n

Being needsHierarchy of

needs

Self-actualization

Sociocultural views of

motivation

Legitimate peripheral

participation

Goal orientation

Ego-involved learners

Task-involved learners

Mastery goal

Work-avoidant learners

Social goals

Mastery-oriented students

Failure-accepting students

Failure-avoiding students

Intrinsic or interest value

Importance/Attainment

value

Academic tasks

Authentic task

Problem-based learning

Goal structure

Motivation

Education

main motivation

students dont

internal locus of causality

successoriented students

growth needs

views of locus

higherlevel needs

deficiency needs