CHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONA. BackgroundTo fight the foreign body, the
body has a mutual defense system support. Epidermis that serves as
a physical defense, aided by tears, sebum, saliva, gastric and gum
that contain elements of chemical defense. Body's defense system is
a combination of cells, molecules, and networks that play a role in
resistence of materials or substances into the body. If a bacterial
pathogen successfully penetrated the first line of defense, the
body against attacks by an inflammatory reaction (inflammation) or
a specific immune reaction. Coordinated reaction of cells and
molecules of a foreign object into the body called the immune
response. The immune system is your body needs to maintain its
integrity against the dangers that can be caused by a variety of
materials or substances from the environment.Immune system that
maintains the integrity of the body consists of nonspecific immune
system (natural/innate) and specific (adaptive/acquired).
Nonspecific immune system already exists and is functioning since
birth, is a newly developed specific after that. Non-specific
immune system cells react regardless of whether the originator of
the agency or have never been found. His reaction was not to be
activated in advance as in the specific immune system. Further
non-specific immune response is the first line of defense against a
variety of factors that threaten. Cells that play a role in
nonspecific immune system are phagocytic cells, null cells, and
cell mediators.Cells that engulf and digest particles or liquid
substance called phagocytic cells. Phagocytes (phagocyte) is the
classification of white blood cells that play a role in the immune
system by phagocytosis / ingest pathogens. Phagocytes meaning
"cell" that can eat or swallow solid material. To ingest particles
or pathogens, phagocytes expand the plasma membrane and then wrap
the membrane around the particle until wrapped. Once inside the
cell, the invading pathogens stored in endosom ago united with the
lysosomes. Lysosomes contain enzymes and acids that kill and digest
particles or organisms. Phagocytes is generally around the body in
search of pathogens, but they also respond to molecular signals
produced by specialized cells, called sitokina.Phagocytes was first
discovered in 1882 by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov when he was studying
starfish larvae. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and
Medicine in 1908 because of his findings. Phagocytes is very vital
role to fight infection, foreign particles may enter the body,
bacteria and cell death or apoptosis. When the cells of the
organism is dead, through the process of apoptosis or by damage
caused by viral or bacterial infection, phagocytic cells play a
role by moving them from the scene. By helping to remove dead cells
and encourage the formation of healthy new cells, phagocytosis is
an important part of the healing process of injured tissues.
Phagocytic cells of the host organism is generally a part of the
establishment and maintenance of normal tissue. Phagocytic cells
consisting of mononuclear cell base (monocytes and macrophages) and
polymorphonuclear cells (granulocytes consisting of neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils) is formed in the bone marrow.
B. PurposeA. General Purpose1. The purpose of the preparation of
this paper to learn about the anatomy of physiology of the immune
system.2. Special Purposea. Knowing the meaning of the immune
systemb. Knowing the structure, functions, and processes in the
human immune system.
c. Linking structure, function, and processes in the human
immune system Understand the types of immune.
d. Identify the types of disturbances / disorders that can occur
in the human immune system.
B. Systematics of WritingThe paper is based on the immune system
Systematics writing of Chapter I of the Introduction which contains
the background, objective and systematic writing. Chapter II
contains the theoretical concepts of the understanding of the
immune system, anatomy and physiology of immunity. Chapter III of
the cover which contains the conclusions and suggestions.CHAPTER
IIDISCUSSIONA. DefinitionImmune system or immune system is a system
of biological protection of outside influence by special cells and
organs in an organism. If the immune system is working properly,
this system will protect the body against bacterial and viral
infections, as well as destroying cancer cells and other foreign
substances in the body. If the immune system weakens, its ability
to protect the body is also reduced, thus causing pathogens,
including viruses that cause colds and flu, can develop in the
body. The immune system also provides surveillance of tumor cells,
and inhibition of this system has also been reported to increase
the risk of some cancers.The body's immune response is the response
of a complex sequence of events to an antigen, to eliminate the
antigen. This immune response may involve a variety of cells and
proteins, particularly macrophages, lymphocytes, complement,
dansitokin the complex interact with each other. Body's defense
mechanisms consist of non-specific defense mechanisms and defense
mechanisms that meet the foreign spesifik.Substansi system works as
antigen, anti against + genin yield. For example if there is a
substance there is a response from the host, this response can be
cellular, humoral, or both. Antigen can be intact bacterial cells
or tumor cells in the form of macro-molecules such as proteins,
polysaccharides or nucleoprotein. At any circumstances spesitas
immune response is controlled by a relatively small influence of
molecular antigendetenniminan to antigenic proteins and
polysaccharides, antigenic determinants consist of four to six
amino acids or monosacarida unit. If the complex antigenic
determinants such as Yang has a lot of bacterial cells will
generate a spectrum of cellular and humoral responses. Antibodies,
also called immunoglobulins are glikkoprotein circulating plasma
and can interact specifically with antigenic determinants that
stimulate formation of antibodies, antibodies secreted by plasma
cells are formed through the proliferation and differentiation of B
lymphocytes In humans found five classes of immunoglobulins, IgG,
consisting of two identical light chains and two identical heavy
chains linked by disulfide bonds and non-covalent pressure. IgG is
the most numerous class, 75% of serum immunoglobulin IgG served as
a model for other classes.
B. Immune system functionThe immune system has several functions
for the body, namely as :1. DEFENSE body, the body ward off harmful
substances that are not sick, and if the immune cells responsible
for this defence getting interference or are not working properly,
then people will easily get sick.2. Balance, or the means to
maintain the balance of homeostatic functions of the body
components.3. Patrolling, part of the immune cells have ability to
monitor throughout the body. If there are cells that have mutations
in the cells will be destroyed patrol.C. Various kinds of immune
systemThe human immune system is divided into two, namelya.
non-specific immune1. Non-specific immune process first stageThe
first stage of this defense process may also be called a natural
immunity. Body to provide resistance or barriers to entry of the
pathogen / antigen. The skin becomes a barrier for entry of
pathogens because the outer layer of skin containing keratin and a
little water so that the growth of microorganisms is inhibited.
Tears to provide resistance against foreign substances by washing
and dissolving microorganisms. Oil produced by sebaceous glands
have antimicrobial action. Mucus or phlegm is used to trap
pathogens that enter the nose or bronchi, and will be issued by the
lungs. Nose hair also have an influence because of the charge air
filter harmful particles. All the liquid produced by the body
(tears, mucus, saliva) containing enzym called lysozyme. Lysozyme
is an enzyme that can either hydrolysis of bacterial cell wall
membranes or other pathogens so that the cells burst and die later.
When the pathogen defense made it past the first stage, the second
defense will be active.2. The surface of the body, mucosal and
skinThe body surface is the first defense against the penetration
of microorganisms. When the penetration of microorganisms occur as
well, then the microorganisms that enter will meet with various
other elements of the natural immune system.3. glands and cilia
with enzymes that exist in the mucosa and skin.Inhibit the
penetration gland products of microorganisms, as well as the cilia
on the mucosa. Enzymes such as lysozyme could also damage the cell
walls of microorganisms.4. Complement and macrophageAlternative
complement pathway can be activated by a wide range of bacteria
directly so that elimination occurs via the process of lysis or
phagocytosis by macrophages or leukocytes stimulated by opsonin and
the chemotactic substances, because these cells have receptors for
complement components (C3B) and chemotactic receptors. Chemotactic
agent will call monocytes and polymorphonuclear cells to the
microorganisms and will be phagocytosis.5. Acute Phase ProteinAcute
phase proteins are plasma proteins that the body is formed as a
result of tissue damage. Liver is a major acute phase protein
synthesis. C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase protein.
Named for the first time CRP by a typical protein is known because
it is able to bind to protein C of pneumococcus. CRP interaction
will also activate the alternative complement pathway that will be
lysis antigen.6. Cells 'natural killer' (NK) and interferonNK cells
are lymphocytes that can kill the cells occupied by a virus or
tumor cells. Interferon is a substance produced by cells of
leukocytes and virus-infected cells, which are able to inhibit
virus replication in cells and enhance NK cell activation.3. The
process of non-specific defenses to the two-stageInflammation is
one of the non-specific defense, where if there is a pathogen or
antigen into the body and invade a cell, the cell is damaged it
will release a chemical signal which is histamine. Signal chemical
impact on the dilatation (widening) blood vessels and eventually
rupture. Types of white blood cell neutrophils, and monocytes
acidofil out of blood vessels due to motion induced by chemical
compounds (kemokinesis and chemotaxis).Because of its phagocytes,
white blood cells will be directly eat foreign cells. This event is
called phagocytosis by eating solids, if the food is liquid, it is
called pinositosis. Macrophages or monocytes worked to kill the
pathogen by pathogen with pseudopodianya envelop and kill pathogens
with the help of lysosomes. Killer with the help of lysosomes can
be via two methods, namely lysosomes produce compounds toxic to the
pathogen or lysosomes result in lysosomal enzyme that digests
microbial body parts.On certain body parts are macrophages that did
not move to other body parts, such as: lung (alveolar macrophages),
liver (Kupffer cells), kidney (mesangial cells), brain (cells
microgial) , connective tissue (histiocyte) and the nodes and
spleen. Acidofil / Eosinophils play a role in dealing with large
parasites. This cell will put themselves on the outside wall of the
parasite and release destructive enzymes from cytoplasmic granules
possessed. In addition to leukocytes, antimicrobial proteins also
play a role in destroying pathogens. The most important
antimicrobial proteins in the blood and tissues is a protein of the
complement system plays an important role in the process of
non-specific and specific defense as well as interferon. Interferon
is produced by cells infected by a virus which serves to inhibit
virus production in neighboring cells. When the pathogen made it
through the entire non-specific defense, then the pathogen will be
dealing with specific defense mediated by lymphocytes.
b. Specific immune systemSpecific Defense: antibody-mediated
immunity to antibody-mediated immune response, B lymphocytes play a
role in this process, in which B lymphocytes will go through two
processes, namely the primary immune response and secondary immune
responses. If the B lymphocyte cells meet antigen match, the B
lymphocytes to divide by mitosis and produce some B lymphocytes B
lymphocytes immediately releasing all that they have antibodies and
stimulate mast cells to destroy the antigen or cells that have been
attacked by antigen to release histamine.1 B lymphocyte cells kept
alive to keep the same antibodies before the attack occurred. The
remaining B lymphocytes called memory B lymphocytes. This is the
primary immune response. If at any time, again attacking the same
antigen, B lymphocytes rapidly produce more cells than the previous
B lymphocytes. Everything is released and stimulates antibody Mast
cells release histamine to kill the antigen.Then, a B lymphocyte is
left alive to save any of the previous antibody. This leads to why
the secondary immune response is much faster than the primary
immune response. At one point, if an individual is not exposed to
antigen length equal to the previous attack, then he could be pain
caused by the same antigen as that given B lymphocyte antigen is
already dead. Memory B lymphocytes are usually long-lived and do
not produce antibodies but subject to specific antigen. If there is
not the same antigen are attacked in a very long time, then b
lymphocytes could be dead, and individuals that should be resistant
to these antigens could be hurt again if antigen was attacked, then
the whole process of the immune response must be started from
scratch.lymphocytes BLymphocytes T
Created in the bone marrow stem cells that are pluripotensi
(pluripotent stem cells) and allowed to mature in the bone marrow
(Bone Marrow) Made in bone marrow from stem cells that pluripotensi
(pluripotent stem cells) and matured in the thymus
Participate in humoral immunity Participate in cellular
immunity
Striking antigen in the fluid between cells Striking antigen
inside the cell
There are three types of lymphocytes are B cells, namely :
plasma B lymphocytes, produce antibodies splitting B Lymphocytes, B
Lymphocytes produced in large quantities and fast of memory B
lymphocytes, store ever recall antigen enters the body There are
three types of T lymphocytes, which are : helper T lymphocytes
(helper T cells), immune system function settings and control the
quality of the immune system T killer lymphocytes (killer T cells)
or Cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which attack the body cells infected by
pathogens Suppressor T lymphocytes (T cells Suppressor ), and the
stop function lowers the immune response if the infection
persists.
Cellular immunityImmunity cellular immunity is played by T
lymphocytes with or without the help of other immune system
components. T lymphocytes are lymphocytes derived from cells of the
embryo pluripotensial contained in the yolk sac; then the liver and
spleen, and bone marrow. In the development of cells that will be
pluripotensial T lymphocytes require a thymic environment to become
mature T lymphocytes, in the thymus, T lymphocyte precursor cells
will express certain molecules on the membrane surface that would
be characteristic of T lymphocytes The molecules on the membrane
surface is also called surface markers or marker surface, and can
be detected by the monoclonal antibody by WHO to be named with the
letters CD, cluster of differentiation means.Broadly speaking, the
T lymphocytes leave the thymus and enter the peripheral blood
(mature T lymphocytes) consists of a T lymphocyte surface marker
CD4 molecule and the surface markers of T lymphocytes with CD8
molecules. CD4 lymphocytes are also called T4 cells and CD8
lymphocytes called T8 cells (when the monoclonal antibody used is
the output Coulter Electronics). In addition to the appearance of
surface markers, in the thymus are also occur realignment of the
gene (gene rearrangement) to eventually be able to produce a
molecule which is the antigen receptors of T lymphocytes (TCR).So
the next time leave the thymus, each T lymphocyte antigen receptor
have shown themselves (self antigens) usually have an abortion in
the thymus that are generally out of the thymus lymphocytes do not
react to self antigens. Functionally, T lymphocytes are divided
into regulatory T lymphocytes and effector T lymphocytes.
Regulatory T lymphocytes consist of T helper lymphocytes (Th = CD4)
which will help increase the activation of other immunocompetent
cells, and suppressor T lymphocytes (Ts = CD8 +) that will suppress
other immunocompetent cell activation when the antigen from being
eliminated. Whereas effector T lymphocytes consisted of cytotoxic T
lymphocytes (Tc = CD8 +) that melisis target cells, and T
lymphocytes that play a role in hypersensitivity slower (Td = CD4)
that recruit inflammatory cells to the antigen is located.
lymphokineLymphokines to activate macrophages by inducing the
formation of Fc receptors on the surface of macrophages and C3B,
making it easier to see who has bound antigen with an antibody or
complement, and thus facilitate phagocytosis. Besides stimulating
lymphokine production and secretion of various enzymes and
metabolites of oxygen that is bakterisid or cytotoxic against the
antigen (bacteria, parasites, etc.) to enhance the destruction of
antigen by macrophages. Other activities for the elimination of
antigenWhen the antigen cant be eliminated then the macrophages
were stimulated to release fibrogenik factors and the formation of
granuloma tissue and fibrosis, so the spread can be limited.
Activated T cells also stimulate B cells to proliferate and
differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells (see chapter on
humoral immunity). As the final result is the elimination of this
activation antigen. In addition to antigen elimination, this
exposure also raises the memory cells when exposed again later with
a similar antigen will rapidly proliferate and differentiate.
humoral immunityImmunity humoral immunity is played by B
lymphocytes with or without the help of other immunocompetent
cells. Tasks will be implemented by the B cell immunoglobulin
secretion by plasma cells. There are five classes of
immunoglobulins are known to us, namely IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, and
IgE. B lymphocytes are also derived from the development
pluripotensial cells in mammals is influenced by environmental
bursa Fabricius and liver in humans by the environment, and the
bone marrow environment called gut-associated lymphoid tissue
(Galt). These developments occurred in the realignment of genes
whose products are antigen receptors on the membrane surface. In
the B cell antigen receptors are surface immunoglobulins (surface
immunoglobulin). At first this is a class of surface immunoglobulin
IgM, and the subsequent development of B cells also showed IgG, IgA
and IgD on the membrane with the F (ab) are similar. This
development does not need to antigen stimulation of mature B cells
all have specific antigen receptors. Number of normal leukocyte
cells.The leukocytes are blood cells contain a nucleus, also called
white blood cells. In the human blood, normal leukocyte count was
found to average 5000-9000 mm3, if the amount is more than 12000,
the condition is called leukocytosis, when less than 5000 is called
leukopenia. Viewed in the light microscope has a white blood
cell-specific granules (granulocytes), which is on a semi-liquid
droplets, the cytoplasm and nucleus have varying forms, which have
no granules, homogeneous cytoplasm to the nucleus round or kidney
shape. There are two types of leukocytes agranuler: limfosit small
cells, the cytoplasm slightly; monocytes rather large cells contain
more cytoplasm. There are three types of granular leukosit:
Neutrophils, Basophils, and Asidofil (or eosinophils) that can be
distinguished by the affinity of the dye neutral granular bases and
acids. Granules are considered specific if it is still present in
certain types of leukocytes and the majority of precursor (pre
substance). Leukocytes have a role in cellular and humoral defense
organism against substances exile. Leukocytes can do amuboid
movement and through the process of leukocyte diapedesis can leave
a break between the capillary endothelial cells and penetrate into
the connective tissue. The number of leukocytes per microliter of
blood, in normal adults is 4000-11000, 15000-25000 birth, and
before the fourth day was down to 12000, at the age of 4 years
according to the normal amount. Quantitative variations in white
blood cells depends on age. at birth, 4 years and at age 14 -15
years the percentage of a typical adult is reached. When examining
the variation of Physiology and Pathology of blood cells is not
only the percentage but also the absolute number of each type per
unit volume of blood to be taken. NeutrophilsDeveloping neutrophils
in the bone marrow released in circulation, this cells is 60 -70%
of circulating leukocytes. The center line of about 12 um, one core
and 2-5 lobes. The cytoplasm is packed with specific granules (0; 3
to 0.8 um) close to the limits of optical resolution, salmon pink
colored by a mixture of types romanovsky. Granules in neutrophils
is twofold :- Azurofilik lisozom containing enzymes and
peroxidase.- A smaller specific granules contain alkaline
phosphatase and bactericidal substances (Cationic proteins) called
fagositin.Neutrophils rarely contain granular endoplasmic
reticulum, a little mitochondria, rudimentary Golgi apparatus and
few glycogen granules. Neutrophils are the front line of cellular
defense against invading microorganisms, small particles with
active phagocytosis. Presence of D amino acid oxidation in the
granule azurofilik important in the digestion of bacterial cell
wall that contains the amino acid D. Peroxide formed during the
process of phagocytosis. Mielo peroxidase contained in neutrophils
binds with halides peroxides and molekultirosin work on the
bacterial cell wall and destroy it. Under the influence of certain
toxic substances such as streptococcal toxic streptolisin granules
neutrophil membrane rupture, resulting in the swelling process
followed by aglutulasiorganel-organelles and destruction of
neutrophils. Neotrofil have a very active metabolism and is able to
perform both glycolysis and anaerobic arrob. Nautropil ability to
live in anaerobic environments is very advantageous, because they
can kill bacteria and help clean up debris in necrotic tissue.
Phagocytosis by stimulating the activity of hexose monophosphate
neutrfil shunt, increasing glicogenolisis. EosinophilsThe number of
eosinophils only 1-4% of blood leukocytes, have 9um diameter
(slightly smaller than neutrophils). Core usually has two lobes,
mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus is less
developed. Have an ovoid granules with eosin asidofkik, granules
are lysosomes containing acid fosfatae, katepsin, ribonuklase, but
did not contain lysozyme. Eosinophils have amuboid movement, and
able to perform phagocytosis, slower but more selective than
neutrifil. Eosinophils will phagocytosis complex antigen and
antibodies, is a function of eosinophils to perform selective
phagocytosis of antigen and antibody complex. Eosinophils contain
profibrinolisin, thought to contribute to maintain the blood from
clotting, especially when the state of liquid modified by processes
of Pathology. Corticosteroids will cause a decrease in the number
of blood eosinophils rapidly. basophilsBasophil numbers 0 -% of
blood leukocytes, the size of 12um diameter, the core of a large,
irregular forms of choice, generally form the letter S, cytoplasm
filled with granules of basophils larger, and often cover core
granules, irregularly shaped granules colored metakromatik, with a
mixture of types Romanvaki appear violet. Metakromatik basophils
granules and secrete histamine and heparin, and under certain
circumstances, basophils are the primary cells at the site of
inflammation of the skin is called hypersesitivitas basophils. This
shows the relationship basophils have immunity.
LymphocytesLymphocytes are spherical cells, diameter 6-8um, 20-30%
of blood leukocytes. Normal, relatively large nuclei, round little
depressions on the one hand, chromatin dense core, the core of
children seen by electron microscopy of new. Very little cytoplasm,
slightly basophilic, containing granules azurofilik. The color
purple with Romonovsky contains free ribosomes and poliribisom.
Other Classification of lymphocytes seen with met specific
molecular signs on the membrane surface in these cells. Some of
them carry receptor as antigen-specific immunoglobulin binding to
the membrane. Lymphocytes in normal blood circulation can be sized
10-12um size larger due to more cytoplasm. Sometimes referred to as
lymphocyte medium. Large lymphocytes in the lymph nodes and will
appear in the blood in pathological circumstances, the lymphocyte
cell nucleus is large with child vasikuler a clear core.
Lymphocytes can be classified by origin, fine structure, surface
markers associated with immunological nature, life cycle and
function. MonocytesLeukocyte cell is 3-8% greater than normal
number of leukocytes, 9-10 um diameter, but in dried blood supplies
reach 20um diameter, or more. Nucleus is usually eccentrically, the
indentations in the shape of a horseshoe. Chromatin is less dense,
more fibriler arrangement, it is the nature of the cytoplasm
remained relatively momosit wrigh much with the outward appearance
of a gray bim on a dry dish. Azurofil granules, is a primary
lysosomes, more but smaller. Retikulim endoplasmic encountered
little. Also ribosomes, pliribosom little, many mitochondria.
Apparatusgolgi, microfilaments and microtubules are found in the
core area of indentation. Monocytes found in blood, connective
tissue, and cavities of the body. Classified as mononuclear
phagocytic monocytes (retikuloendotel system) and have receptor
sites on the membrane surface. For immunoglobulins and complement.
Monocytes circulate through the bloodstream, through the capillary
wall into the connective tissue. In blood a few days. In tissue
reacted with lymphocytes and plays an important role in the
recognition and interaction of cells with antigen
immunocompetent.
D. REGULATION OF IMMUNE RESPONSEAfter the antigen can be
eliminated, so in order to avoid the activation of the immune
system is out of control, it is necessary to the regulation of
immune responses. There are three kinds of mechanisms to regulate
the body's immune response has occurred. Regulation by the
antibodiesAntibodies formed by antigen exposure may influence
subsequent antibody production. At the time of antibody levels
remained low at the beginning stages of response, the antibodies
would stimulate B cells that have the capacity to produce
antibodies with high affinity. So the newly formed antibodies is an
important factor to encourage the process of affinity maturation.
This happens because the antibodies will compete with the antigen
receptor on B cells to bind antigen, so that is stimulated B cells
that have a high holding capacity of the antigen or the
high-affinity, because it also generated antibodies of high
affinity. The existence of the effect of such antibodies is
influenced by the type of antibody isotip. IgM generally have a
tendency to increase the production of antibodies, but more often
are suppressive IgG.In addition, at the beginning of the response
phase, when the ratio is still greater than the antigen antibody,
the presence of antibodies will facilitate the Ag-Ab complex
immobilized on macrophage cells via Fc receptors, to be presented
at a later Th cells stimulate B cells to make antibodies. So at the
beginning of an increase in the number and affinity of antibodies.
But when the antibody is present in high concentrations, ie after
reaching an amount sufficient to neutralize the existing antigen,
the antibody will be a negative feedback that did not form the same
antibody further. This happens because the dependent parts of F
(ab) 2 antibody to the antigen epitope antigen receptor on B cells
would not be aroused again by the antigen epitopes, so there is no
activation and priming of B cells is inhibited.In addition,
antibodies can also be an increased negative feedback via its Fc
part. B cell antigen receptor but has also had Fc receptors. With
the antibody bound to the Fc receptor of B cells, the antigen
epitope bound to the antigen receptor on B cells cant be held
because of the combination of bridging cross between antigen
receptors and Fc receptors, so there is no activation of B cells
(see Figure 3-4). The absence of bridging between an antigen
receptor with other antigen receptors on B cells did not result in
the activation of the enzyme, so that B cells are not stimulated to
undergo blast transformation, proliferate and differentiate, and
consequently the formation of antibodies more and more reduced.D.
Regulation of specific idiotipAs a result of antigen stimulation of
B cells to form antibodies that will increasingly grow. At certain
levels, idiotip of these antibodies will act as an immunogenic
stimulus that resulted in the formation of anti-idiotip. The basis
of this reaction is actually not clear because it is a
contradiction of self tolerance. But the facts do suggest the
existence of lymphocytes that can recognize and react with
antibodies idiotip, because there are lymphocytes that have
receptors for this idiotip. Anti-formed idiotip idiotip also have
to be to stimulate the formation of anti-idiotip, and so on.In the
presence of anti idiotip animal is seen in the phase of the immune
response begins to decline. Anti-idiotip that emerged from similar
antigen, as it is called internal image of antigen origin. But the
presence of antibody anti-idiotip at a normal immune response will
not stimulate the re-occurrence of antibodies to the antigen
origin. The formation of anti-idiotip consecutive number of
antibody resulted in more and more reduced. Can be equated as a
rock that fell into the water and causes bubbles in the water more
and more disappear.Regulation through the establishment of
anti-idiotip is regulation to reduceimmune response (down
regulation) is known as imunoregulator network of Jerne (1974).C.
The factors that undermine the immunology systemThe immune system
has tightly relationship with our way of life. Here are the factors
that undermine our immunology system :1. Way of life that is not
health2. Deficient diet3. Air pollution or the environment.
4. Fatigue5. Stress and anxiety6. Lack of exercise7. Excessive
use of antibioticsWhen our immune system declines, it is easier for
us to get an outbreak. People who have low immune system is easy to
feel tired, not excited, catarrh always, intestinal outbreaks (food
that does not comply will cause vomiting and nausea), wound
difficult to heal, allergies and so on. In addition, immune system
irregularities may also cause injury to cells.D. Due to immbalance
diseases of the immune systemHere is a disease caused by an
imbalance of the immune system :1. AIDSAlso known as the syndrome
is less resistance against the disease; in which the HIV virus
attacks the immune system. When entering the human body, the virus
will destroy brain cells and 'leucocytes' and he develops in the
lymphocytes multiply and cause loss of human body to fight disease
efforts. patients be weak and exposed to various infectious
diseases such as pulmonary tuberculosis, candidiasis, kayap, when
enteritis, pneumonia, 'cephalitis' and others are caused by
pathogenic microorganisms incredible.2. Disease
AutoimmunityAutoimmunity is the immune response that turns against
its own organs and tissues. Autoimmunity may occur in humoral
immune responses or cell-mediated immunity. For example, type 1
diabetes occurs because the body makes antibodies that destroy the
insulin that the patient's body cant make sugar. On myasthenia
gravis, the immune system makes antibodies that attack normal
tissues such as neuromuscular and causes paralysis and weakness. On
rheumatic fever, antibodies attack the heart and can cause
permanent heart damage. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus on, commonly
called lupus, antibodies attack a variety of different tissues,
causing symptoms that spread.3. AllergyAllergies, sometimes called
a hypersensitivity, caused by an immune response against the
antigen. Antigens that trigger allergy are called allergen.
Reactions allergy is divided into 2 types :immediate allergic
reactions and delayed allergic reactions.a. Allergic reactions are
caused directly humoral immunity mechanisms. This reaction caused
by IgE antibodies production when someone is exposed to antigen
excess. IgE antibodies attached to mast cells, leukocytes have a
compound histamine. Many mast cells present in the lungs so that
when IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, Histamine released and
cause sneezing and watery eyes.b. Delayed allergic reaction caused
by the intermediary cells. Extreme example is when macrophages cant
swallow or destroy the antigen. Finally, T lymphocytes, triggering
immediate swelling of the tissues.
E. PreventionTerms have a perfect immune system against viruses
and bacteria, we need to have certain requirements as follows :1.
Nutrition Perfect Every dish has to have a complete range of
substances, do not choose the food, not excessive and the principle
of such nutrients include carbohydrates, protein, vitamins,
minerals, water, fiber, fat, and so forth.2. The line of sports,
Exercise can increase the resistance provided timeless long (15
minutes and above), this sport can deliver fresh oxygen to organs
and tissues in our bodies. Exercise refers to jog, swim, walk,
cycling, jumping, yoga and so on, which he can promote blood
circulation, strengthens cardiovascular function and increase the
body's immune system.3. Always Happy and Wise Handle Pressure.
Psychological pressure and anxiety in a long time may disrupt the
body's immune system and is not good for health. If the brain is in
a depressed state, it produces a type of the hormone cortisol. If
this hormone is excessive, it gives a negative impression and
disrupt our immune system.4. The Adequate Intake of Nutrients cause
noisy bustle that make processed foods as an option, which has a
nutrient content that has been lost. Nutrients and the immune
system has a latch circuit. Thus, it is important for us to get our
immune-boosting nutrients.i. Protein : Intake of adequate protein
in our daily Ingestion is important because protein is an important
nutrient required for earning various immunoglobulins and
antibodies. This is because the protein consists of amino acids
rather than 22 different types, 8 types of the purposes thereof is
a human body, human body can not process it and have to take your
body with adequate and quality protein such as meat, fish, eggs and
nuts.ii. Vitamins and minerals: Meeting the needs of vitamins and
minerals needed by the body such as Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin
E, Zinc, Iron, Selenium, and so forth.iii. Lingzhi: Lingzhi
contains polysaccharides, triterpene kompaun, germanium, protein,
elemental selenium, etc. which can help against cancer and
harmonize the immune system. Lingzhi is rich in germanium that can
enhance the absorption of oxygen in the blood, speed up metabolism
and improve the immune phase of the human body. Kompaun triterpene
kompaun original organic is so that can improve allergy and
inflammation. Polysaccharide that contains ingredients to speed up
the growth suppression cancer antibodies, strengthens the immune
system and body resistance to help prevent tumor growth and
cancer.iv. Green Tea: Green tea has antioxidants such as flavonoids
and catechins. Accordingly, it can help improve our immune system.
Scientists see "theanine" in the tea leaves that can help the
body's immune cells against bacteria and viruses.v. Aloe Vera:
Growing up in the hot and dry, aloe vera has a high resistance to
weather. He may soothe the body and remove toxins, heals
inflammation and against bacteria and increase endurance. Aloe vera
has various active substances such as amino ASID, micro-nutrients,
vitamins and so forth, and so distinctive element germanium
contained in micro-nutrients that help the body remove toxins
material, restoring the injured tissue and increase the body's
immune system quickly.CHAPTER IIICLOSING3.1. Conclusionimmunology
agency meetings we have relationships with our way of life and
Ingestion. If the agency have with adequate and appropriate
nutrients, can you strengthen your immune system. Products quality
like Phyto Greens, Juice Aloe Vera, Royal Spores Lingzhi and green
tea can enhance the resilience of our bodies. We are surrounded by
a virus and bacteria, by it, is very important to ensure that our
immune systems functioning properly in order to maintain the body
and fight off various diseases.
3.2. SuggestionIn order for the preparation of this scientific
work can offer significant benefits over the authors suggest :-
Maintain a healthy lifestyle so as not susceptible to disease.-
Paying attention to each food to be consumed.- Maintaining a clean
and healthy
environment.REFERENCEShttp://www.stimuno.com/index.php?mod=article&id=113http://drveggielabandresearch.blogspot.com/2008/05/sistem-imun.htmlhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_kekebalanhttp://tonangardyanto.blogspot.com/2006/04/1-virus-sistem-imun-dan-antibiotika.htmlhttp://rhamnosa.wordpress.com/2006/03/11/stimuno-si-penguat-sistem-imun/List
of Material
Cover
Foreword
i
List of Material
iiChapter 1 Introduction
1
Background
1
Purpose
2
Chapter 2 Discussion
4
Definition
4
Immune system function
6
Various kinds of immune system
6
Regulation of immune response
17
Chapter 3 Closing
24
Conclusion
24
Suggestion
24
References