Learning to Fly With Flight Simulator

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Learning to Fly with Flight Simulator

by John Rafferty

Table of Contents

CoverTitle Page

Foreword

PrefaceAcknowledgments

Introduction

Chapter 1. Basic Flight TrainingFlight 1. Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures

Phase 1: Airplane FamiliarizationPhase 2: Runway Logic and Taxiing

Phase 3: Takeoff and ClimbPhase 4: Cruising En Route

Phase 5: Setting Up for an Approach

Phase 6: Approach and LandingFlight 2. Solo Training Assignment

Flight 3. Solo Training Assignment (II)

Chapter 2. Building Your Aviation SkillsFlight 4. Standard Rate Turns

Flight 5. Airport Traffic PatternsFlight 6. Introduction to Radio NavigationFlight 7. Short-Field Takeoff and VOR Interpretation

Flight 8. Stalls and Engine Failures

Flight 9. Using a Flight PlanFlight 10. Flight-Planning Assignment

Flight 11. Short-Field Landings

Flight 12. Using VOR Checkpoints En Route

Chapter 3. Developing PrecisionFlight 13. Precision Landings

Flight 14. Using Multiple-VOR Checkpoints

Flight 15. Flying the Victor AirwaysFlight 16. Automatic Direction Finding

Chapter 4. IFR: Going the Professional WayFlight 17. Shooting the ILS

Flight 18. An ILS with a Procedure Turn

Flight 19. VOR Approach (I)

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Flight 20. VOR Approach (II)

Flight 21. VOR/DME Approach

Flight 22. VOR Approach with a DME ArcFlight 23. NDB Approach

Flight 24. NDB Approach with a Procedure Turn

Flight 25. The Localizer Back CourseFlight 26. IFR in Wind and Weather

Chapter 5. Airport Approaches

AppendicesA. Reality Mode

B. Quick Reference to Principal Controls

C. Mouse and Menus on 68000 VersionsD. Suggested Reading

IndexAbout the Author

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COMPUTE! Publications, Inc.

A Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. Company

Greensboro, North Carolina

Copyright 1987, John Rafferty. All rights reserved.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and

108 of the United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is

unlawful.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

ISBN 0-87455-115-3

The author and publisher have made every effort in the preparation of this book to insure theaccuracy of the programs and information. However, the information and programs in this book

are sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author nor COMPUTE!

Publications, Inc. will be liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused directly,indirectly, incidentally, or consequentially by the programs or information in this book.

The opinions expressed in this book are solely those of the author and are not necessarily thoseof COMPUTE! Publications, Inc.

COMPUTE! Publications, Inc., Post Office Box 5406, Greensboro, NC 27403, (919) 275-9809,is part of ABC Consumer Magazines, Inc., one of the ABC Publishing Companies, and is not

associated with any manufacturer of personal computers. Amiga is a trademark of Commodore-Amiga, Inc. Atari and Atari ST are trademarks of Atari Corporation. IBM PC is a trademark ofInternational Business Machines, Inc. Macintosh is is a trademark of MacIntosh Laboratory,

licensed to Apple Computer, Inc.

Flight Simulatoris produced by Microsoft Corporation and copyright 1984 and 1986 by Bruce

A. Artwick.Flight Simulator IIis produced by SubLOGIC Corporation and copyright 1984 and

1986 by Bruce A. Artwick.

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Foreword

You're flying in a cloudless sky. Pay attention to your instrumentsthe elevator drifts duringflight, the gyro frequently has to be reset with the magnetic compass, and the altimeter fluctuates

with the barometric pressure. When it gets dark, you'll have to turn on the instrument panel

lights. And if you aren't careful during takeoff, you may get stuck in mud or snow.

Learning to Fly with Flight Simulatorwill help you through the rough spots of Microsoft'sFlight

Simulatorand SUBLogic'sFlight Simualtor II,the popular personal computer flight simulators.The Reality Mode is so real, you'll think you're actually flying. Be thankful you have an

experienced pilot at your sidethe narrator and author of this bookguiding you through the

imaginary airways.

Your instructor, John Rafferty, is an instrument-rated pilot who has flown across the country

countless times in single-engine planes. He begins with the basics inLearning to Fly with Flight

Simulator,so if you've never flown the simulator before, you won't be left on the ground, trying

to figure out what to do. Whether you fly the Cessna, Piper, or Learjet, you'll learn how to doeverything necessary to successfully take off, navigate, fly, and land. You'll also learn to use

official government approach charts, execute precision landings, navigate with the NAV radios,react to in-flight emergencies, prepare and execute authentic flight plans, and do much, much

more.

As you learn, you'll fly 26 simulated training flights, following the official aeronautical charts

provided for each flight and gaining experience flying in various less-than-perfect conditions,

where clouds and wind make flight real. You'll fly air traffic patterns used by commercial pilotsand will use standard approaches and landings.

By the time you complete the simulations inLearning to Fly with Flight Simulator, you'll haveenough experience to chart your own flights and explore the boundaries of the simulator for

yourself.

Strap yourself in, pay close attention to the instrument panel, and get ready to soar.

Preface

I was introduced to SubLOGIC'sFlight Simulator IImore or less against my will, for it was mysonnot Iwho initially chose the program.

Not that I had anything against SubLOGIC, or against flying. I'd never even heard of SubLOGICat the time, and, as for flyingwell, then as now, I just loved it. My first professional experience

with planes was as an FAA-licensed aircraft mechanic, and I made my first solo flight over 30

years ago. I hold an instrument rating, and I've flown single-engine airplanes the entire lengthand width of the United Statesso it was hardly aviation per se that I was opposed to.

Rather, I'd heard thatFlight Simulator IIwasn't just another computer, but rather a real-lifesimulation. I therefore suspected that the program would be difficult to use, especially for my

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son, a young teenager, who was just getting started with his first computer. Convinced that I was

right, I argued persistently for several weeks in the effort to get that point across. It's an

expensive package, I explained, so let's divert those funds to something you'll really enjoy.

But it was to no avail. We finally ended up spending the moneyto prove, of course, that I was

rightwhich of course I was, for just a day or so later theFlight Simulator IIdisk was out ofuse.

Then, in a moment of weakness, I tried the program and was totally stunned by what I found.The simulated airplane was really well equipped, and the panel just glittered with electronic

goodies. It had all the neat avionics equipment you'd find in the most expensive single-engine

airplane; in fact it had most of what you'd find in a commercial jet. Could all this stuff actuallywork? And work realistically?

My flight bag was soon out of the closet; I spread my aeronautical charts and approach plates outbefore me, and, from that point on, my joy and amazement kept climbing to new and unexpected

heights.

The airplane felt pretty testy at first, to tell you the unvarnished truth. Takeoffs and landings

were tricky, and I crashed more times than I care to admit; I even found it difficult to establish

straight-and-level flight. But before too long I stumbled on the trick: If I simply handled thesimulator as I would an airplane in actual flightsurpriseit handled like a dream.

Even better, everything else about the program was just as realisticmore realistic than I couldever have hoped. The miniature world that Bruce Artwick had put inside the computer was an

unbelievably accurate replica of the real world over which I had so often flown.

Why Bother Driving to the Airport?

I found that the runways and taxi strips were laid out in the program exactly as they are in thereal world. I found I could use official aeronautical charts to navigate accurately from place to

place and that I could tune the navigational (NAV) radios and the automatic direction finder in

the cockpit to the very same beacons and transmitters on the ground that I'd used on actualflights, using the same frequencies, and with the very same results. I could even use my

government-published charts to execute the authorized instrument approaches to specific airport

runways.

The battle for time on my son's computer was on, and whenever he wasn't home I'd be in his

room with a flight plan on my lap as I soared above the clouds, switching frequencies, scanningthe needles, scratching out a dead-reckoning estimate from time to time as I cruised en route tosome familiar (or sometimes not-so-familiar) airport. The simulator was an absolute joy, and it

didn't use a single drop of avgas.

I've always found flyingespecially instrument flyingto be the most satisfying and

exhilarating of experiences (at least when you do it right). But the pleasures and excitement of

truly realistic flight have only been available to few of usat least until now. Now it seems that

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almost everyone has a computer, and, withFlight SimulatorandFlight Simulator II, the world of

flying is open to those who want to try it.

This was just too marvelous to hide. I thought of the scores of computerists like my sonthose

who had triedFlight Simulator IIonly to set it aside before even scratching the surface of its true

potentialand my course was set. The joy and satisfaction of truly realistic flying wassomething I simply hadto share.

The result, of course, is the present book; I sincerely hope you'll enjoy it.

John Rafferty

Phoenix, 1986

Introduction

This book deals with aviation realism. Its purpose is to bring you a truly authentic experience ofmodern aviation, using any version ofFlight Simulator(from Microsoft) orFlight Simulator II

(from SubLOGIC).

Both student and licensed pilots should find the book helpful. It assumes no prior aviation

knowledge or experience, however. It starts out with the basics, and then leads you along in easy

steps through the same authentic procedures that are used on a daily basis on commercial flights.

The Software

Bruce Artwick'sFlight Simulatorsoftware is among the most commercially successful programs

ever written for the personal computer. The program's potential for realistic flight is so extensive,in fact, that its virtues are difficult to describe.

However, largely because of that realism, many people find the program difficult to use, and it'sa safe bet that very few of those who have used the program have even begun to appreciate its

true potential. There's actually very little that an airline captain does on the average commercial

flight that you can't do on the simulator in the very same waybut you do have to learn the

ropes.

Learning to Fly

Learning to Fly with Flight Simulatorwill teach you those ropes in easy-to-follow steps.Through a sequence of hands-on flights, you'll be led gradually from taxi and takeoff through allthe conventional procedures, all the way to the execution of sophisticated instrument approaches.

In the process you'll learn to

fly the airplane smoothly

use your instruments with confidence

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prepare and use a flight plan

fly the victor airways

land from a standard pattern

execute short-field takeoffs and landings

navigate with the NAV radioswhether you're above the clouds or in them

handle stalls and engine failures, and do quite a bit more

And most importantly, you'll find that flying the simulator in a professional manner is satisfying,

exhilarating, and fun.

The book is divided into five chapters, which start with the basics and progress gradually to more

advanced flying procedures.

Chapter 1.All the fundamentals in a single flight are covered. After completing that flight you'll

be able to find your way around any airport, take off smoothly, cruise easily en route, and thenapproach an airport and land in the proper manner.

Chapter 2.Building on the basic skills you learned in the first chapter, now you'll learn to makestandard rate turns, to land from a standard traffic pattern, to handle short-field situations and in-

flight emergencies, and to prepare and execute a flight plan. Plus, you'll begin using your

navigational (NAV) radios to find your way from point to point without having to see theground. At the end of this series, you'll be able to lay out and then efficiently execute a totallyrealistic flight plan between any two airports you choose.

Chapter 3.You'll add to your expertise by learning precision landings, by making more

sophisticated use of your NAV radios and automatic direction finder, and by flying the victor

airways.

Chapter 4.Now you move on to truly professional procedures: For each flight in this sequence,

you'll use the published approach chart for your destination airport, and you'll use the very sameen route and arrival procedures that are used on a daily basis by commercial airlines. Then, on

the chapter's final flight, you'll deal with varying winds aloft, fly through varying cloud

conditions, be routed by Air Traffic Control to an alternate airport, and be directed to fly the

prescribed holding pattern over that airport before you're finally cleared to descend into theclouds and execute the published instrument approach.

Chapter 5.The use of prescribed approaches to individual airport runways is an importantelement in realistic flight, but charts for these approaches are not provided as part of the flight

simulator package. These charts are published by the Department of Commerce and are available

to anyone by annual subscription, but for recreational use their cost (of hundreds of dollars)

would be prohibitive.

For that reason, Part 5 provides a large collection of these charts, which you can use to plan andexecute truly authentic flights on your own. The collection includes nearly all the instrument

approaches published by the government for all of the airports available on the program.

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Finally, the Appendices describe the use of the program's Realistic Mode and provide both a

brief reference to the keyboard controls on differentFlight Simulatorversions and an overview

of the use of the mouse and menus on machines that use the 68000 chip (Amiga, Atari andMacintosh). A list of suggested reading and an index are also provided.

Using This Book

This book belongs to you, so you're free to use it any way you choose. However, you'll find that

most of the flights build upon skills that were developed on previous trips; for that reason, you'llprobably get the most from the book if you take the flights in the order in which they appear.

Most flights begin with a briefing, which explains everything you need to know before departure.

This is generally followed by a previewa brief overview of the tripto give you an idea of

what's involved. The set-up parameters are then provided, to put the airplane in position at the

appropriate airport; the initial NAV radio settings are also given here, when they apply.

Then, after loading the program and entering the setup parameters, you can go ahead and taxi;from there on you'll follow the step-by-step instructions that are provided in "From the Right-Hand Seat," a section that simulates the role of an on-board instructor during the flight.

You're encouraged to use the save function for your particular version of the program frequently,storing the current flight parameters in memory for easy return (by resetting the program) should

you wish to repeat a segment of the flight. Also, feel free to pause program execution at any

time, to stop and think, or to look something up.

The IBM PC Version.Both MicrosoftFlight Simulatorfor the IBM andFlight Simulator IIfor

other computers were written by Bruce Artwick and are virtually identical. The IBM version

does not provide ADF equipment, however, so IBM users may want to skip Flights 16, 23 and24, which deal with ADF. The IBM version also provides retractable landing gear, and the

airplane trims out a little differently in flight, so these minor differences are mentioned in the textwhere appropriate. Note also that many of the airports and some of the VOR facilities that are

referred to in this book are not actually shown on the charts that come with the IBM-version

disk, but you'll find that those facilities are nevertheless available in the program.

The Amiga, Atari, and Macintosh version.These versions ofFlight Simulator IIare also

essentially the same as other versions of the program, but they have a few unique characteristics.

Like the IBM version, these also provide retractable landing gear, and the airplane trims out alittle differently in flight, so these small variations are indicated in the text where they apply. In

addition, the 68000 versions can be flown entirely with the mouse, as outlined in Appendix C.

Well, that should do it. Let's go flying.

The charts provided in the figures throughout the book are not precisely to scale, and are not

meant for use in actual aviation. Also, please note that, though the official approach plates

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which are provided in Part 5 are authentic, by the time this book is published some frequencies,

navigational fixes or other details may have been changed, so charts may not be considered

current for use in actual aviation.

CHAPTER 1Basic Flight Training

FLIGHT 1

Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures

New York /Kennedy International to Br idgeport

The flight simulator is easiest to flyand you'll find it most enjoyable to flywhen you fly it inan authentic way. This is an airplane simulation, not an arcade game, so try to remember that it

doesn't require any muscle.

Instead, learn to fly it as an airline captain would: Decide what you want the airplane to do;

convey those instructions with just your fingertips; and then relax and let the airplane do the

work. Use your head, not your muscles.

Handled properly, the simulator airplane will respond with astonishing realism, and it will

provide a surprisingly authentic experience of modern aviation. Just learn a few basic, realisticprocedures, and the simulator will behave realistically in response.

This first flight, therefore, will guide you through all those basic procedures. You'll first becomefamiliar with the main items on your panel; then you'll develop some runway logic; and then

you'll learn how to pilot the airplane smoothly and easily from one airport to another.

The flight isn't difficult, but it does lay some important groundwork. Therefore, even if you

already have some experience on the simulator, I think you'll find this trip to be worth your

while.

General Briefing

The flight is divided into a series of separate phases, to keep things simple. Each phase is

important, and dealing with each phase separately allows you to tackle things one small step at a

time, to get you off to a good start.

You can still complete all the phases of this first flight in a single sitting if you wishjust move

directly from one phase to the next. Your progress will be faster, however, and your flying willbe more enjoyable later on, if you make sure you've mastered the procedures of each phase

before you move on to the next one.

A good approach is to read the material for one phase, execute that phase, then pause program

execution temporarily while you read up on the next phase before going on. If you SAVE the

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current flight parameters just before beginning each phase, then you can easily reset the

simulator and repeat that phase if you'd like some additional practice.

Preview

Glance at your New York and Boston Area chart, and locate Kennedy International Airport. It'sdown near the lower left corner, on the New York end of Long Island. Sikorsky Memorial, at

Bridgeport, is about 45 miles to the northeastacross Long Island Sound on the Connecticut

shore. Our flight path is shown in Figure 1-1.

If you have an ordinary road map or a standard atlas handy, you might want to refer to it, so youcan locate physical features along the route.

You'll be cleared for departure on Kennedy's Runway 31 Left, so you'll be taking off to the

northwest. The tower will instruct you to maintain that initial runway heading as they hand youoff to Kennedy Departure Control. Kennedy departure will then clear you to continue your climb

to 1800 feet.

As you level off at 1800, we'll be headed toward the East River and the foot of Manhattan Island.

In response to the controller's instructions, you'll then turn right to parallel the river going north.

As you pass La Guardia Airport, you'll be instructed to turn right again, onto the course that will

take you first over the Whitestone and Throggs Neck Bridges, then up along the North Shore ofLong Island, with Long Island Sound just to the left of your flight path. Then, Kennedy

Departure will hand you off to Westchester Approach Control.

You'll continue along the North Shore until Sikorsky Memorial Airport comes into view on the

far side of Long Island Sound, at which point Westchester Approach will instruct you to turn lefttoward the airport. You'll start across the Sound, receive a handoff to Bridgeport Tower, and then

be cleared for a straight-in final approach to Sikorsky's Runway 6.

Set-Up Parameters

Call up the simulator Edit Page now, and enter the following parameters to put us on the ramp at

Kennedy International. Note that you can always enter zero for the altitude to put the airplane onthe ground; the correct airport elevation will then be set automatically. (On 68000 machines,

select Position Set from the NAV menu, and then enter the parameters. On those versions you

cannot specify a heading; instead, after the parameters load you'll have to add a little power, then

turn the airplane to the indicated heading as it starts to move forward.)

Set-Up for Kennedy

North: 17027

East: 21066

Altitude: 0

Heading: 310

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Leave all the other parameters at their original default settings, including User Mode 0. (On the

68000, from the Sim menu, leave Auto Coord selected, then select Realism and click on the

Gyro Drift and Barom Drift options to turn those options off.)

After new position parameters load, always be sure to check that all the parameters were loaded

correctly. Sometimes they weren't, so you have to go back and enter them again.

If the setup is correct, then use the Save function to store the new settings right away. (On the

68000, select Save and Name from the Situation menu and enter a filename.) In the unlikelyevent of a mishap, these parameters will load automatically, saving you the trouble of entering

them again. Also, if at any point you decide you'd rather start over again, you can simply reset

the simulator; these parameters will load. (On the 68000, reset by selecting Recall from theSituation menu and entering the filename you used above.)

During the flight, keep the book open and handy. Feel free to pause execution of the programtemporarily from time to time to consult the instructions. (On the 68000, click on Pause from the

Simulator menu.)

And, of course, I'll be in the right-hand seat to coach you along the way.

Phase 1: Airplane Familiarization

We're on the ramp at Kennedy, with the engine running. First, let's take a look at the primarycontrols and the principle instruments on your paneljust enough to get you started.

Briefing

We'll be considering the following:

type of airplane

engine RPM and tachometer

airspeed indicator

compasses

control yoke, or stick

altimeter

The Airplane. The original MicrosoftFlight Simulatorfor IBM PC and PC Jr. simulates a

Cessna 182 Skylane.Flight Simulator IIfrom SubLOGIC simulates a Piper Archer, but the

68000 versions ofFlight Simulator IIfor Amiga, Atari and Macintosh also simulate the Cessna.

The two airplanes are similar in most relevant respects, except that the Cessna's wings are on topwhile the Piper's are on the bottom. Both provide virtually all the standard instruments,

equipment, and avionics options that one would expect to find on the real thingeverything you

need for truly sophisticated, totally authentic aviation. The IBM version does not provide ADFequipment, but you can still do just about everything an airline captain does in getting an

airplane from one airport to anotherand you can do it in the very same way.

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F igure 1-1. New York/Kennedy I nternational to Br idgeport

Not for use in navigation.

Engine RPM. Toward the right side of the panel, you'll find a digital readout labeledRPM(Revolutions Per Minute). The engine is now idling, so the readout now says 650rpm.

Advance the throttle slightly nowby one notch (press F4 once on the IBM PC). The RPM will

increase to about 850 as the airplane begins to move slowly ahead.

Note the vertical indicator to the right of center on the panel; this shows you where the throttle is

set. It's especially handy when you want to advance or retard the throttle all the way.

Reduce the power again and apply the brakes. Notice that it takes a moment or two before the

engine comes all the way back down to 650rpm.

Airspeed Indicator. The instrument at the top left side of the panel, with readings from 0 to 160

(0 to 200 on the 68000) ???in reality, the gyro will drift over time, and should periodically be

reset to the heading shown by the magnetic compass when that compass is at rest. (On the 68000,just click on the Gyro Compass knob.)

The upper readout is now 310. That means your present heading is three one zero degrees, bystandard aviation practice. It is not referred to as three ten or three one oh. Use of the correct

pronunciation reduces the chances of miscommunication between the pilot and Air Traffic

Control.

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The lower digital readout on the gyro compass is the reciprocal headingthe compass heading

in the opposite direction, 180 from the actual heading. (There's no reciprocal readout on the

IBM version.) Since your actual heading is now 310, the reciprocal is 310 minus 180, or 130.Most of the time you'll just ignore this reciprocal readout, but it can be very handy at times, as

you'll see on a later flight.

To visualize compass headings: Picture the airplane in your mind as if it were sitting on a giant

compass rose, with you looking down on it.

Unless you're already familiar with compass headings, it will help you if you take a moment

right now, use a scrap of paper, and make a quick sketch for yourself. Draw a circle, make the

top of the sketch north, and mark it 000. East is to the right, 090; south is the bottom, 180; andwest is to the left, 270.

Thus, your present heading of 310 is between 270 and 000, or roughly northwest. Complete thethought by sketching a small airplane at the center of your compass rose, with its heading at

310.

Now, whenever you have to think about compass headings, just mentally picture this sketch.

Visualize the airplane's heading as you did above, and you shouldn't have any trouble with your

heading.

The Control Yoke or Stick.The Yokerefers to the control column that's found on some

airplanes, which serves the same function as thestickon other aircraft. The keystrokes for theyoke controls and the use of the 68000 mouse for these controls are summarized in Appendices

B and C. To keep things simple, in the discussions I'll usually just refer to the yoke position as

the position of the stick.

Elevator. If you pull back on the stick, you raise the elevatorthe horizontal control

surface on the tailand this causes the nose to rise. Conversely, pushing forward on thestick lowers the elevator, causing the nose to fall.

Ailerons. Turning or pushing the stick to one side or the other moves the ailerons, the

horizontal control surfaces on the wings. In the air, the ailerons cause the wings to bank

to one side or the other, causing the airplane to begin to turn. Right stick (or rightaileron), for example, banks the wings to the right and causes the airplane to begin a right

turn.

Coordinated Rudder. On most conventional aircraft, you use the rudder pedals along with

the ailerons to make coordinated turns, but in auto-coordination mode on the simulator,the rudder and ailerons are coordinated automatically. Some actual airplanes also use this

kind of coordinated control, however, so using this mode is not unrealistic.

Nose Wheel Steering. When you're on the ground, the rudder control also turns the nosewheel, for taxiing. In auto-coordination mode, of course, the rudder is controlled by left

or right stick.

Control Position Indicators. A set ofslotsnear the center of the panel shows the positionof the elevator, aileron, and rudder. First, move the stick right and left and watch the

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horizontal indicators respondyou're in auto-coordination mode, so both the aileron and

rudder indicator move together.

Now move the stick forward and back, as you would to lower or raise the nose in flight. Watch

the pointer closely as it moves up and down along the vertical slotthe indicator jumps in

distinct, individual notches as you move the stick, about three such jumps from one tick mark onthe indicator to the next. For instructional purposes, I'll refer to notchesand tick marksby those

terms.

Altimeter.The altimeter is the third instrument from the left in the top row. It has two hands,

like a clock, with readings from 0 to 9.

The small hand on the altimeter indicates thousands of feet; the big hand indicates hundreds.

Picture the small hand between 0 and 1 and the big hand at 7your altitude is 700 feet. Now

picture the small hand between 3 and 4 with the big hand still at 7your altitude is 3700.(There's also an indicator on the rim of the instrument for 10,000-foot increments.)

Be aware that the altimeter is basically a barometer. When set to the current atmosphericpressure (which is given to you by the control tower), it indicates distance abovesea levelnot

distance above theground. The reading looks like zero at present, because at Kennedy your

distance above sea level is a mere 10 feet.

However, when you're sitting on the ground at most airports, the altimeter reading will be well

above zero. It's especially important to be aware of this when you're coming in to landyouhave to know the airport's elevation (as given on your charts) in order to interpret the altimeter

correctly.

During flight, therefore, your distance above the ground is the altimeter reading at that pointminus the elevation of the ground above sea level at that point. Seemingly minor arithmetic

errors in this respect have often turned out to be fatal.

But this will be enough to get you flying, so let's move on to the next phase.

Phase 2: Runway Logic and Taxiing

You have completed your routine walk-around check of the aircraft, have ceremoniously kicked

the left-hand tire before climbing aboard, and now are ready to taxi.

But before you start to move, you first have to figure out where you are and where you'resupposed to go. This is easy, however, if you can use your gyro compassand if you understand

how airport runways are numbered.

Briefing

Runway Numbers.The number of any runway indicates that runway's compass heading. Just

add a zero to the end of the runway number, and you know which way it runs.

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If a runway is identified as Runway 31, for example, that means you'd have a compass heading

of (approximately) 310 while landing on or taking off from that runway.

When used in the opposite direction, the same strip of concrete will be called Runway 13. That

is, 310 minus 180 equals 130 (or 31 minus 18 equals 13).

Similarly, Runway 4 would have a compass heading of about 040 (zero four zero degrees), and

when used in the opposite direction the same physical strip of concrete would be referred to as

Runway 22, with a heading of 220 (two two zero degrees).

Airport Diagram.Now get the overhead radar view on the screen and zoom in or out asrequired to put it into perspective (on the 68000, from the NAV menu select Map Display and

then Zoom.). Then turn to Chapter 5, the Airport Approach section, where you'll find the official

Airport Diagram for John F. Kennedy International. The airports appear alphabetically by

location, so you'll find it under New York. Notice that the simulator's portrayal of the airportrunway and taxistrip layout is surprisingly accurate.

Runway Layout.From the chatter on the COM radio, it seems likely that we'll be taking off onRunway 31 Left. This implies that there are two parallel runways with the number 31Runway

31R and Runway 31L. Our present heading is 310, so we must be sitting parallel to the two

parallel runways in question. Runway 31 Left has to be the one parallel to us on the left, while 31Right is over on the other side of the airport.

Taxiing.To taxi in a professional manner, you'll first increase power enough to get the aircraftrolling, then ease back on the throttle and let the airplane coast at an appropriate speed; taxi

patiently, and use the time to check your panel and prepare yourself mentally for the departure.

Note that the nose wheel steering will be a little sluggish as you taxi; you'll have to think ahead

and move the stick a little bit in advance.

Final Checks.When you've been cleared to take off from a specified runway, you'll taxi out, lineup perfectly with the centerline stripe, then do as the airline captains usually do and stop for your

final checks:

Check the compasses. (Are you on the right runway?)

Check that controls are centered and (later on) that flaps are up.

Make a mental note of the altimeter reading.

Check the digital clock and write down the time.

From the Right-Hand Seat

This is a controlled field with a 24-hour operating control tower, so before you taxi you need to

call Ground Control and find out where to go.

Let's go through all the prescribed procedures. Be on your toes, because the controller has no

time to spare: His transmissions will be clear, but they'll be crisp and very rapid.

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Pilot:Kennedy Ground, Piper Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot Kennedy go ahead.

Pilot: Ground, Four Six Fox for Bridgeport, ready to taxi.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot cleared to taxi for Runway Three One Left hold short of the active.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot thank you.

Hmmm. Now what?

Taxiing for Takeoff.You will take off on 31 Left, so you need to make a U-turn from here andtaxi back to get in position at the start of the runway; hold short of the runway, as directed, which

means stop and wait for clearance before taxiing out into position for takeoff.

So, add a touch of power and begin to taxi forward, then throttle back and coast. With the aircraftmoving slowly ahead, hold the stick to the left to make a 180 U-turn.

When you've completed the U-turn and are parallel to the runway again, turn slightly right or leftas required until your gyro compass indicates 130, then note that now the reciprocal readout is

310.

Turn right again, so as to enter the taxi strip that leads into Runway 31, and be prepared to stop.(It's usually desirable to begin your takeoff roll from the threshold at the start of the runway, but

this is a busy airport and this runway is more than two miles long, so you can accept the

controller's instructions and start from the taxi-strip intersection.) Unless you did so whiletaxiing, you now complete your engine run-up, while waiting for takeoff clearance.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot contact Kennedy Tower on one one niner point one. So

long.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

We've received our hand-off to the tower, so you switch frequencies now and let them know

you're alive.

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Pilot:Kennedy Tower, Piper Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot Kennedy cleared for takeoff Runway Three One Left.Visibility fifteen. Altimeter three zero point two zero. Wind three zero zero

degrees at three. Caution wake turbulence.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

The visibility is fifteen miles, the altimeter settingwhich is the barometric pressureis 30.20,

the wind is 3 knots from heading 300, almost from straight ahead, and we're told to be careful

about possible turbulent gusts from heavy aircraft in the vicinity.

Pre-Takeoff.You're cleared for takeoff, which means the runway now belongs to youso take

your time.

Add a touch of power, taxi onto the runway, and turn right. Cut the power again, and begin to

apply the brakes as you line up in the center of the runway and stop. (When the runway has awhite centerline stripe, line up directly on that centerline.)

The runway heading of 310, as we determined from the runway number 31, is only

approximate: In this case, a heading of about 315 rather than 310 will get you pointed straight

down the center.

When you're lined up correctly, complete your final checks:

Check the compass heading; reset the gyro.

Get controls centered and flaps up.

Note the altimeter reading.

Write down the time.

Now you're ready to go.

Phase 3: Takeoff and Climb

Many of the problems experienced by beginners are the result of improper takeoff. If you race

down the runway and just jerk the airplane abruptly into the air, you'll probably have trouble

and the trouble will still be with you when you try to level off.

Briefing

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First, learn to just sit back and relax: Let your fingertips convey your instructions, and let the

airplane do the work. Properly executed, the takeoff and climb are simplicity itself, and a climb

at the proper rate will allow you to level off smoothly at your destination altitude, without theroller coaster effects that make flying the simulator a headache instead of a joy.

Takeoff.When you're ready to go, first advance the throttle slightly to start your roll, and, whenyou're lined up correctly, give it full power (F2 on the IBM PC). The tachometer will increase to

about 2450rpm. Monitor the airspeed, and, at about 60 knots, raise the nose slightlynudge the

stick back gently. Try just two little notches of up elevator, referring to the vertical slot indicatoron the panel.

When you raise the elevator, the airplane will rotate;you'll notice the nose lift slightly. You'llstill be on the ground, however, so be patient. The airplane will continue down the runway,

gathering speed, and, when it's ready, it will just fly itself into the air.

When you leave the runway, your immediate concern will be to put some distance between you

and the ground as quickly as you can. Then you'll want to establish a proper rate of climb. Forthis purpose, there's another instrument on the panel that you'll find to be your closest friend.

Vertical Speed Indicator.The vertical speed (or rate of climb) indicator is the round instrument

just below the altimeter, at the bottom center of the panel.

When the needle points directly left, to the nine o'clock position where the instrument reads 0,

the airplane is neither climbing nor descending.

If it points up and to the left, to the numeral 5, the airplane is climbing at 500 feet per minute

(500fpm). Pointing up to the numeral 10 indicates a climb at 1000fpm, while pointing down to 5

indicates you're descending at 500fpm, and so on. The vertical speed indicator is more sensitivethan the altimeterit shows a climb or descent first; the altimeter follows.

Climb.Standard procedure is to climb and descend at 500fpm. Therefore, you'll first climb a few

hundred feet above the airport; then you should begin to gradually throttle back until the vertical

speed indicator needle settles on 500fpmpointing up steadily to the numeral 5. About 2250rpmwill usually do it.

(On the IBM, after lift-off immediately raise the gearpress G; then you'll also need to begin toslowly lower the nose as you reduce the engine RPM. You'll get a 500fpm climb at 100 knots

and 2000rpm if the elevator is centered in the indicator slot.)

(On 68000 machines, immediately after lift-off raise the gear by clicking on the panel indicator.

Then throttle back at once to around 2300rpm, and begin to gradually ease forward on the stick

(lower the nose) to reduce the rate of climb. Continue to throttle back, to about 2000rpm, and toease forward on the stickgraduallyuntil the elevator indicator is one full tick mark below

center. This takes patience, but you'll end up with a 500fpm climb and an airspeed of about 120

knots at 2000rpm.)

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From the Right-Hand Seat

Takeoff.After writing down the time, advance the throttle slightly; get the airplane rollingstraight down the strip; then give it full power (F2 on the PC). At about 60 knots, up elevator

(stick back)but just slightly (two notches). Let the airplane fly itself off the ground.

(On the IBM and 68000immediately raise the landing gear.)

Climb.When 300 feet or so above the ground, throttle back slightly. A tap or two on the throttle

key should do it.

Give the engine a moment to respond, then glance at your rate of climb. Reduce the power a little

further, now. With the stick position set to two notches of up elevator, you'll usually get a

500fpm climb at just about 2250rpm.

(On the IBM: Lower the nose, gradually. Try getting the elevator centered and reaching

2000rpm, which will give a 500fpm climb at about 100 knots).

(On the 68000: Power back to 2000rpm; gradually begin to lower the nose; and continue

lowering it so as to end up with the elevator indicator one tick mark below center for a 500fpmclimb at 120 knots.)

ATC: Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot maintain heading three one zero degrees. Contact KennedyDeparture on one twenty-one point one. Good day.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot, so long.

You've been handed off to Kennedy Departure, so you'd now switch frequencies and see whatthey have in mind for us. They know we're going to Bridgeport, so you can expect them to routeus around to the right and up along the East River.

Pilot:Kennedy Departure, Piper Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot Kennedy climb and maintain eighteen hundred. Heading

three one zero degrees.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

Phase 4: Cruising En Route

We're now climbing toward 1800 feet, at a steady 500fpm on a heading of 310. The twin-towered World Trade Center is up ahead, at the tip of Manhattan Island.

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Briefing

Leveling Off.As you approach 1800 feet, level off by gradually reducing powernothing else.Begin to throttle back at 1700 feet, and continue to gradually reduce power to 1950rpm. You'll

end up in straight and level flight at 1800 feet with a cruising airspeed of 120 knots. You can get

a tad more speed if you wish, but 120 knots works out well.

(On the IBM: Try leaving the power at 2000rpm, but slowly lower the nose to just below center

on the vertical indicator.)

(On the 68000: Try 1900rpm with the elevator still one notch below center, for an airspeed ofaround 130 knots.)

Maintaining Altitude. The airplane will occasionally drift from your assigned altitude. Try

correcting this with engine power alone. The less you fiddle with the elevator, the better.

Just increase or decrease rpm slightly, until the assigned altitude is restored. And start now tomake it a habit to always remain within 50 feet of an assigned altitude.

Turns to an Assigned Heading. When Air Traffic Control gives you instructions to make aturn, they'll give you a specific new heading to turn to.

Keep your turns very shallow and gradual for now; we'll work on standard turns later on. Bankthe wings very gently, then monitor the gyro compass as the airplane comes around toward the

new heading.

While turning, nudge the stick to the side again from time to time to maintain the bank, if

necessary. In shallow banks the airplane has a built-in tendency to level off again by itself.

Start to roll out about 5 early, so that you don't over-shoot the heading.

From the Right-Hand Seat

Leveling Off.At 1700 feet, reduce power slightly, then reduce it further so as to be at 1950rpmas the airplane levels off at 1800 feet.

(On the IBM: Maintain 2000rpm and just lower the nose slightly.)

(On the 68000: Try 1900rpm for cruise.)

Cruise.The airplane will cruise at 120 knots with 1950rpm when it's trimmed the way you had it

at lift-offtwo notches of up elevator.

(On the IBM: Position the elevator just below center on the indicator, with around 2000rpm.)

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(On the 68000: You want 1900rpm with the elevator one notch below center, for about 130

knots.)

You're approaching the East River now, so you can expect a call from the controller.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot turn right. Heading zero four five degrees.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

Turn to 045.Bank the wings gently to the right with the stick, and let the airplane come aroundgradually in a shallow right turn. Monitor the gyro compass. At about 040, use the stick to begin

to roll out gently, so as to end up straight and level on a heading of 045.

If you missed, make very shallow turns until you have 045 precisely.

Turn to 080.The two crossed runways of La Guardia field have now come into view just to theright of your course, with the upper reaches of the East River crossing in front, where it runs out

to the right and up into Long Island Sound.

Now, as you come up alongside La Guardia, you can expect another heading change from the

controller.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot turn right. Heading zero eight zero degrees.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

Bank again gently to the right, and roll out on 080 on the nose.

This course will take you out over the Whitestone and Throggs Neck Bridges, out of the NewYork Terminal Control Area (TCA), and up over the North Shore of the Island, with Long IslandSound just below on the left.

Make changes in altitude with engine power alone.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot climb and maintain two thousand five hundred.

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Pilot:Four Six Fox.

For reasons unknown, the controller has given us a new altitude. Simply add some throttle toincrease the engine RPM, adjust it gradually for a 500fpm climb, then reduce power again as

2500 feet is reached.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot descend and maintain eighteen hundred.

Pilot:Four Six Fox.

Sometimes it seems like the controller is just trying to be annoying. Of course, you have a right

to ask him the reason for the altitude changes, but he undoubtedly has one, so there's no point inmaking a fuss.

Reduce power; descend at 500fpm; then at 1900 feet add power again so as to level off at 1800

with a cruising RPM.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot Contact Westchester Approach Control on one twenty-six

oint niner-five good day.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot, so long.

Pilot: Westchester Approach, Piper Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot Westchester maintain eighteen hundred heading zero eight zero degrees.

Expect straight-in final to Bridgeport.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot.

Locating the Airport.You're now passing over the inlets and coves along the North Shore of

the Island.

About 18 minutes (flying time) after departure, you'll pass over Glen Cove, and then there will

be one last narrow point of land jutting out ahead before you start out over open water.

At 20 minutes out, you should be passing over that last narrow point, and right about then

Sikorsky should pop into view, just to the left of your course, over on the Connecticut side of the

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Sound. It will come into view suddenly, as a short white strip there on far shoreline. At that

point, be ready for a left turn toward the airport.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot turn left heading zero six zero degrees.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot.

Turn left gently to 060, which should put the airport dead ahead.

Phase 5: Setting Up for an Approach

This procedure is tricky, but it's the key to successful landings: Get the airplane set up properly

in advance, and the approach and landing will be a snap. In fact, when properly set up for the

approach, the airplane will virtually land itself.

Briefing

There are several distinct steps in the setup procedure:

Reduce power (the nose position will begin to fall off).

Keep the nose up to maintain altitude (airspeed will fall).

At 100 knots, lower flaps 10 (the nose will rise).

Stabilize the position of the nose.

Adjust power as required, to maintain altitude.

(On both the IBM and 68000, put landing gear down; stabilize the nose.)

Reduce Power. First, ease back on the throttle, gradually reducing power to around 1650rpm.

(On the 68000: Try 1350rpm.)

Keep the Nose Up. When you power back, the nose of the airplane will begin to drop, orfall off

(the horizon line starts moving up on the windshield). As it begins to fall, start nudging back onthe stick to keep it up, so as to maintain altitude as your airspeed bleeds off.

This may cause the nose to rise too much, so you'll have to nudge the stick down again, to keep itfrom getting away from you. A quick succession of several up-and-down nudges will usually do

the trick. (On the 68000: Just keep easing back gradually on the stick, to prevent any descent.)

You want the nose stable and just slightly raised, so that your altitude is maintained while the

airspeed begins to fall. The horizon line will be just a hair lower on the windshield than it was innormal cruise. Keeping an eye on the vertical speed indicator will help you prevent any loss ofaltitude.

Lowering the Flaps. At 100 knots lower flaps 10. One touch of the designated key will do it.(A second tap of the key will give you 20, and a third, 30. But 10 is adequate in most

circumstances.) Note the small vertical slot toward the top right of the panel indicates the flap

position.

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(On the IBM PC: Press F3 for 10 flaps, F5 for 20, and F7 for 30.)

(On the 68000: Click on the second dot of the flap indicator for 10.)

Controlling the Nose. Lowering the flaps changes the airplane's trim. As the flaps come down,

the nose will tend to rise, so you'll have to nudge the stick a few times again to keep theairplane's attitude under control.

(On the 68000: At this point, ease foreward on the stick to keep the nose down, then promptly

increase power back to 1900rpm.)

Maintain Altitude. Once you have the nose under controlslightly raised and stabilizeduse

changes in engine RPM to adjust and maintain your altitude.

About 1650rpm should keep you straight and level. (On the IBM: Try around 2000rpm; on the

68000 try 1900rpm.)

When properly executed, you'll end up straight and level at about 95 knots with 10 flaps and the

engine at about 1650rpm. (On the IBM: You'll end up at 90 knots and 2000rpm. On the 68000:

You'll end up at 90 knots and 1900rpm.)

Landing GearIBM and 68000. Make it a practice to drop the landing gear as part of this set-

up procedure so you won't forget to do it later on.

IBM. On the IBM, lowering the gear will change the trim, so you have to stabilize the

nose again. But airspeed will not be affected much. Try to end up at 2000rpm with gearand flaps down, giving an airspeed of about 90 knots.

68000. Dropping the gear will cause the nose to fall off, but it also will createconsiderable drag. Ease back on the stick to keep the nose up, and end up with theelevator slide just a hair below center at 1900rpm, which will give you an airspeed of

about 70 knots. This is a bit slow on a long approach, however. So, after you get the hang

of things, you may want to leave the gear up until you're actually on final approach to the

runway. This is up to you; the problem is that if you wait until later to lower the gear,sooner or later you'll forget to lower it, and you'll come in on your belly.

The procedure is a little tricky, but your landings will be immensely easier and smoother if you

nail down the setup procedure right here and now.

From the Right-Hand Seat

We've turned left to 060, and we're now headed out across the Sound toward the airport. First,save the current flight parameters, so that you can come back to this point and practice. Then,

gradually throttle back, and follow the sequence of procedures discussed above.

Phase 6: Approach and Landing

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Once you're straight and level at 95 knots with 10 flaps, the rest is a piece of cake.

Briefing

Beginning the Descent. From this altitude, you'll want to start your 500fpm descent from about

five miles out.

Later on you'll be able to determine your distance from the airport very easily and reliably, butfor now you'll have to guess. From this altitude, however, you'll be just about five miles from the

airport when the direction of the runway first becomes distinct on the computer screen.

At that point, simply ease backgraduallyon the power. Then monitor the vertical speed

indicator, and reduce the RPM just enough to establish a steady 500fpm descent. (In actual

practice, the carburetor heat is turned on before throttling back, to prevent it from icing at low

RPM. I usually don't bother to turn on the carburetor heat on the simulator, but you can do so ifyou wish. Remember to turn it off again, however, if you return to cruise RPM, since the warm

intake air reduces power.)

Adjusting the Glide. As you approach your destination runway, look ahead at the runway

thresholdthe point where the pavement begins. If you're headed directly for that touch-down

point, then that point will remain at the exact same spot on the windshield.

If the touch-down spot is slowly creeping up on the wind-shield, however, it means your presentglide path will cause you to touch down short of the runway. To prevent this, add a little engine

power to extend the glide.

If the touch-down spot is moving down on the wind-shield, then your present glide path will

cause you to over-shoot the runway threshold. To prevent overshooting, reduce the power toadjust your glide accordingly.

Keep an eye on the position of that touch-down point on the airplane's windshield, and adjust the

throttle as necessary to keep the spot steady.

Make shallow, gentle turns now, to get the airplane lined up with the runway. The sooner you get

lined up the better, but be patient and keep the turns shallow. Your airspeed will be low, soaerodynamic stalls will be much more threatening, and the controls will be somewhat mushy and

difficult to handle.

Glance at the altimeter from time to time, to determine how far you are above the ground.Increase power if you're coming down short of the runwayuse full power if you need itbut

power back a bit if you seem too high.

If you're very high, you can lower the flaps further, to 20, which will give you a steeper angle of

descent, but be sure to control the nose if you do this.

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Landing. If you execute a proper approach, the airplane will almost fly itself right onto the

pavement.

As the airplane is just about to touch down, ease back on the power and raise the nose very

slightly. This is called theflare, and it does take some practice to get the feel, but you'll have

very little trouble with it if the approach itself is executed properly.

Keep an eye on the altimeterit will help you determine when the airplane is just about to touch

down. At Bridgeport, the airplane will touch down when the altimeter reads 22 feet. This is theairport elevation; it's shown on aviation charts (and on some of theFlight Simulatorcharts) just

below the airport name. OnFlight Simulatorcharts, the airport elevation is generally given in the

table listing the airports.

Be careful of over-controlling. You have to be quick and decisivebut gentlein handling the

elevator control at this point. Just nudge the stick up or down as required to keep the noseslightly up and under control. Gentle up or down nudges are the key. Don't raise the nose too

much, however, or your airspeed will fall off, you'll hear the stall-warning horn, and.

When you touch down, cut the power; center the controls; and raise the flaps. You may hear the

stall-warning horn, but that's OK if you're no longer airborne. Slow down with the brakes, and

turn off the runway.

From the Right-Hand Seat

Approach.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot contact Bridgeport Tower on one two zero point niner see

a.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot so long.

Pilot:Bridgeport Tower, Piper Three Zero Four Six Foxtrot.

ATC:Piper Four Six Foxtrot cleared for straight-in final approach to Runway Six. Visibilitytwenty-five. Altimeter three zero point two zero. Wind zero six five degrees at four report on

final.

Pilot:Four Six Foxtrot.

The airport should be directly ahead; make gentle turns, if necessary, to point the airplanedirectly at it.

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When the airport runway configuration is distinct, ease back on the power, and gradually adjust

the RPM for a 500fpm descent.

Pilot:Bridgeport Tower, Four Six Foxtrot on final.

ATC:Four Six Foxtrot OK.

Adjusting the Glide.Make gentle turns to line the airplane up with the runway.

If the runway threshold is moving up on the screen, add some power.

If the threshold is moving down, reduce power.

If you're much too high, lower another 10 of flaps, and control the nose as the airplane's trim

changes.

Monitor the altimeter. Again, this airport's elevation is just 22 feet.

Landing.When about to touch down, ease back on the power, and keep the nose up slightly.

Pray if you want to.

On the ground, cut power; center the controls; raise the flaps; slow down with the brakes; and

turn off the runway to the left.

Post-Flight Briefing

The problem areas on this flight are getting set up for the approach and judging your glide to the

runway. Let's consider some common causes of these troubles.

Setting Up for the Approach.The main problem here, usually, is controlling the attitude of the

airplanethe position of the nose relative to the horizonwhen the RPM is reduced prior tolowering the flaps. This simply takes some practice. The main trick on the simulator is to

respond quickly, with gentle up-and-down nudges on the stick, keeping the nose up slightly.

Under-Shooting the Runway.If you found yourself coming down short of the runway, youshould have made the correction with increased power aloneeven using full throttle

(temporarily) if that was what it took.

If you instead started pulling back on the stick at that pointtrying to raise the nose in order to

stretch the glide, you probably got into trouble. Without added power, stretching a glide is one

aeronautical trick that doesn't work, as countless unhappy pilots have learned.

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Raising the nose without changing the power causes the airplane to lose airspeed, which in turn

only increases the rate of descent, so that it touches down even further from the runway than if

you hadn't done anything at all. In fact, if you tried to stretch the glide, it's likely that you got tooslow to maintain adequate lift, at which point you probably heard the stall-warning horn. And an

aerodynamic stall at such a low altitude is invariably followed by a rather embarrassing landing.

Over-Shooting the Runway.Similarly, if you found yourself too high as you came in over the

runway threshold, you should have corrected by reducing power (while keeping the nose from

falling too much, by means of gentle nudges on the stick).

If you lowered the nose in order to touch down sooner, you increased your airspeed (you put the

airplane into a dive), making it more difficult to touch down without damaging the aircraft; thesimulator, like any other airplane, is not very forgiving of really hard landings.

Incidentally, Runway 6 at Sikorsky is 150 feet wide and 4677 feet long. It's desirable to touchdown right on the centerline stripe at the very threshold (right on the numbers, as they say,

referring to the large white identification numerals that you'll find on the threshold of mostrunways). But even if you came in a bit high, you still had nearly a mile of concrete stretching

out ahead of you. A Boeing 747 might need that much runway to stop, but you could afford tocheat a bit if you found it necessary. In fact, the general aviation facilities (and the coffee shop)

are on the left, way down at the far end of Runway 6; so in this case it would have been quite

defensible to fly well down the runway and not actually touch down until you were near theendto save the time of taxiing nearly a mile.

In any event, if you really were too high as you came in over the runway threshold, a properprocedure is to lower another 10 of flaps. With 20 of flaps, the airplane descends at a steeper

angle, thereby shortening your glide. You can even go to 30 flaps if you have to, but be careful

to control the nose. (We'll work on full-flap landings a bit later on.)

Missing the Pavement.If your glide path was OK except that you were not quite lined up with

the runway, then you could have touched down on the grass. In this respect, the simulator is quiteforgivingand if anyone happened to be looking you could have just lied and told them you did

it on purpose.

A personal note: I took my first flying lessons at Peter O'Knight Airport, on Davis Island in

Tampa, Florida, in 1955. My instructor was Mark Brann, one of the early aviation pioneers.

When he was young, he bought a damaged airplane, repaired it, and taught himself how to fly.

What's relevant here is that when Mark began teaching me how to land, he taught me to come inparallel to the runway pavement but to intentionally land beside it, on the grassbecause

landing on the grass saves wear and tear on the airplane's tires.

FLIGHT 2

Solo Training Assignment

Br idgeport to JFK

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This flight will give you a chance to try out what you've learned so far, so you can be sure you

have things really nailed down. It's the return trip to JFK, by the same route we took coming up.

Since you're already familiar with the territory, you'll do this one on your own.

Flight Plan.You'll soon be using a simple but effective flight-plan form for your cross-country

flights, but for this one a narrative overview will be adequate. There's also a brief summary at theend, for quick reference during the flight.

The following set-up parameters will put you on the ramp at Sikorsky Memorial in Bridgeport, ifyou aren't already there.

Set-Up for Bridgeport:

North: 17287

East: 21250

Altitude: 0

Heading: 240

You should now be on the ramp facing southwest, parallel to Runway 24, which will be about a

hundred yards to your left. Note that Runway 24 is the same strip of concrete as Runway 6 (the

one we just landed on); it's just going in the opposite direction. (That is, 240 minus 180 = 60.)

Taxi forward, turn left, continue out onto the runway, and turn right to a heading of 243, then

stop on the centerline. (A heading of 243 rather than 240 should line you up with the centerline

stripe.)

Runway 24 will therefore give you an initial heading of 243roughly southwest.

During your climb, turn left slightly, to 240. This will take you across the Sound on the same

path you took coming in. (Remember to visualize the airplane sitting on a compass rose, as anaid in keeping things straight.)

Establish your 500fpm climb, then level off at 1800 feet as you cross the Sound.

When you start coming in over the North Shore of Long Island, turn right to heading 260. (Youcame up along the shoreline on 080, so now you'll return along that leg on the reciprocal of that

heading, which is 080 + 180, or 260.)

Your 260 heading will take you back over the Long Island ends of the Throggs Neck andWhitestone Bridges, and you'll see La Guardia Field just beyond.

Fly over La Guardia, turning left as you pass it, so you'll fly over Queens parallel to the East

River and Manhattan Island. On the last flight, your heading on this leg of the flight was 045, so

your return heading is 225 (045 + 180).

After turning at La Guardia, get the airplane set up for the approach.

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Then use your radar (overhead) view intermittently, to locate Kennedy International and to make

a left turn that will line you up with the same runway you departed on. That was Runway 31

Left; now you're using it in the opposite direction, so it's referred to as Runway 13 Right (310 -180 = 130). Therefore, your inbound heading to the airport will be 130.

Start your descent to the airport right after you make that last turn.

Have a good flight.

En Route Summary, Flight 2

Depart on Runway 24, initial heading 243.

Climb on heading 240.

Level off at 1800 feet.

At North Shore, turn right heading 260.

On passing La Guardia, turn left heading 225.

After turning at La Guardia, set up for the approach:

Reduce power

Keep the nose up as airspeed bleeds off

At 100 knots, lower 10 degree flaps

Stabilize nose (slightly raised)

Adjust power to maintain altitude (1650-1750)(On the IBM and 68000gear down)

Use radar view to locate airport and runway.

Turn left heading 130, toward airport.

After turning to 130, throttle back to begin descent.

Use power and very shallow turns to adjust glide path.

FLIGHT 3Solo Training Assignment (II)

Seattle-Tacoma to Snohomish and Return

This is a pleasant, short hop of only 28 miles, with a route that's almost a perfect straight linefrom one runway to the other. The navigation involved is therefore negligible, so the flight is

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perfect for practicing the basics. The one-way trip will take about 15 minutes, and after landing

at Snohomish you'll turn around and return to Seattle Tacoma.

Enter the following set-up parameters to get started.

Set-Up for Seattle-TacomaNorth: 21338

East: 6582

Altitude: 0

Heading: 130

These parameters will put you on the ramp at Seattle-Tacoma International (Henry M. Jackson),

with the airplane parked near the fuel pumps.

Departure.As shown by the Seattle Area Chart, Seattle-Tacoma has only two runways, which

are parallel and close together. You'll depart from Runway 34 Right, so you need only taxiahead, turn slightly, and then follow the taxi strip to the end, where you'll need to make a 180turn onto the runway.

You could turn onto the runway earlier, but it's good practice to begin your takeoff roll right atthe runway thresholdgive yourself as much real estate as you can.

En Route.Runway 34 Right will give you a departure heading of 340. Maintain that initialheading and climb to 2500 feet; then level off.

Boeing Field is directly ahead. Interstate 5 passes just to the right of the field, to the east, then

crosses your flight path and continues along on your left.

Setting Up For the Approach.As you approach Snohomish, Interstate 5 turns back to the east

again, so you'll cross over it a second time, as it continues off to your right. That's your

checkpoint for your set-up procedure. Have the airplane all set up before you reach that point.

Descent and Landing.As you cross the highway, throttle back and begin your descent. The

airport should be clearly visible by now, directly ahead.

When the runway direction becomes distinct, line the airplane up for the final approach. You'll

have to turn right a bit, then left again to get lined up; keep the banks shallow, and be patient as

the airplane comes around.

You're landing on Runway 34, so your inbound heading on final approach will be just about340.

The field elevation at Snohomish is 603 feet. Locate 603 feet on the altimeter dial and fix thatpoint firmly in your mind; then monitor the altimeter as you approach the runway threshold.

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Return Flight.After landing at Snohomish, taxi down to the end of runway 34 and turn around;

then get into position for takeoff there at the end. This is now Runway 16, so your departure

heading will be around 160. (Did you remember to raise the flaps and center the controls?)

Maintain that heading of 160 on the way back, and then use your radar view to locate the airport

and Runway 16 Left.

CHAPTER 2

Building Your Aviation Skills

FLIGHT 4

Standard Rate Turns

Long I sland/MacArthur F ield

By now you've noticed that turns can be very tricky. On the preceeding flights, you kept your

turns very shallow; but, if you managed to get into a relatively steep turn at one time or another,you probably found the airplane somewhat difficult to control.

But flying won't be as much fun as it could be if you're always handling the airplane like a kid onhis first bikeafraid to bank it sideways a bit for fear of tipping over. So, on this flight we'll

work on turns.

In addition, you'll need to be able to make standard rate turns in order to land properly from a

traffic pattern.

You'll just climb up over the South Shore of Long Island where it'll be safe to practice. That way

you'll be able to focus all your attention on the maneuvers themselveswithout having to worryabout where you're going. Soon, you'll be wheeling the airplane around like a pro.

Briefing

Standard Rate Turns.At any given airspeed, the steeper you bank the wings, the quicker the

airplane will turn. A standard rate turn is a turn in which the angle of bank is such that a 360

circle would take exactly two minutes. For that reason, it's also referred to as a two-minute turn.

How steeply do you bank the wings to make a standard rate turn? That depends on your airspeed,

but there's an instrument on your panel that saves you from having to guess.

The Turn Coordinator.The round-faced instrument in the lower left corner of the instrumentcluster is the turn coordinator. It shows the rear view of a miniature airplane. When you bank the

simulator's wings during flight, the wings on the miniature airplane also bank, showing the rate

at which you're turning.

To turn at the standard rate, you'll bank the airplane's wings so that the wings on the turn

coordinator are lined up with the tick mark on the edge of the instrumentthe tick mark labeled

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Lfor a left turn, or the one labeledRfor a right turn. If you keep the airplane banked so that the

wings on the turn coordinator stay aligned with the tick mark, you'll be turning at this standard

rate.

At lower speeds you'll use shallower turns, but they'll still be standard rate turns if the indicator

is aligned with the tick mark.

Making a Standard-Rate Turn.You can think of a standard rate turn as consisting of five

separate steps. Here are the steps to make a standard rate turn to the left:

Bank the wings to the leftgraduallywhile keeping an eye on the turn coordinator.

The turn coordinator responds a bit slowly, so take your time as you establish a bank at

which the indicator's wings are lined up with the tick mark.

Nudge back on the stick (up elevator), to maintain altitude.

With the wings banked this steeply, they lose some of their lift. As a result, when you

start into the turn, the nose will begin to fall off, and the vertical speed indicator will

reveal that you're beginning to descend. Therefore, to prevent a loss of altitude, you'llneed to nudge the stick back slightly.

Monitor the horizon and the vertical speed indicator, and use up-and-down nudges on thestick to prevent either a climb or a descent.

The elevator has a tendency toward over-control, so you'll have to use up-and-downnudges on the stick (as you do while setting up for an approach) to prevent either a climb

or a descent. Also, glance at the altimeter from time to time, as a check: You want tomaintain your altitude throughout the turn.

Maintain the correct bank by nudging the stick to the left periodically, as required.

As the airplane turns, it will tend to level off some by itself, so you also have to nudge the

stick left periodically in order to maintain the correct angle of bank.

Begin to roll out of the turn 10- to 15-degrees beforereaching your final heading.

Know in advance the heading you wish to turn to, and start the roll-out early enough to

end up right on that heading.

Thus, as you turn, in addition to watching the position of the horizon, you'll glance back and

forth between the turn coordinator and the vertical speed indicator, with an occasional glance at

the altimeter as well.

Set-Up Parameters.Enter the following set-up parameters to get started.

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Set-Up for MacArthur Field:

North: 17131

East: 21275

Altitude: 0

Heading: 240

These settings will put you on the ramp at Islip/MacArthur Field, with a heading of 240, facing

parallel to Runway 24. (This of course is also Runway 6, in the opposite direction.)

You'll be departing on Runway 6 this time, so taxi ahead, then make a 180 turn to the left, onto

the runway threshold.

From the Right-Hand Seat

Departure and Climb.Your departure heading from Runway 6 will be 059. Complete your

takeoff procedures; climb to 400 feet above the airport (499 feet on the altimeter); and establish a500fpm climb.

As you climb away from the field, start a shallow turn to the right, to heading 180. That will

take you toward the South Shore of the Island, with the Atlantic Ocean beyond.

Continue climbing, to 3000 feet; for practice maneuvers it's desirable to put a little distance

between the airplane and the ground.

You're still climbing as you approach the shore. Begin a shallow right turn now, so as to fly rightabove the beach. Your heading will be about 280. Level off when you reach 3000 feet.

The Practice Area.The shoreline is straight for a while, and ahead there's a small, blunt pointjutting out into the ocean. Beyond the point the shoreline is straight again, and that straight

section of shoreline just beyond the point is where you're going. Highway 27 will be visible in

the distance, with Republic Field over to the right.

As you cross the base of the point, turn right slightly, and fly directly over the next straight

stretch of shore. Take up a heading of 270. On that heading, the shoreline will appear as analmost (but not quite) perfectly-vertical line down the center of the windshield.

Practice 360s.Let's do a full-circle, 360 turn to the left, out over the ocean. First, tap the key to

save the current flight parameters; should you lose control and crash, the simulator will put youright back at this point so you can try it again.

Gradually bank the wings left, aligning the wings on the turn coordinator with theLtick

mark.

Nudge back on the stick, to maintain altitude.

Control the nose with gentle up-and-down nudges on the stick, as required, while youmonitor the vertical speed indicator and the horizon.

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Maintain the proper bank with leftward nudges on the stick, while monitoring the turn

coordinator.

Begin to roll out gradually when your heading comes around to about 255, so you'll endup straight and level at your initial heading of 270.

About a 10- to 15-degree lead on the roll-out should work out right, depending on how quicklyyou do it, which really is a matter of developing your own style.

Further Practice. You have the general idea, so now try a few more 360s, including some to theright.

Then, starting from a heading of 270, do a standard rate, 90 right turn, to heading 000, which

will take you inland. Try to time your roll-out so that you hit 000 on the nose.

Now do a 180 left turn, which will take you back toward the shore. Finally, turn left again to090, which will take you back up along the shore the way you came.

If you still feel up to it, you might try doing a figure eight around that pointbut I'll leave thatup to you.

Descent and Approach to the Airport.As you return up along the coast, get the airplane set up

for the approach, and begin your descent.

You have quite a bit of altitude to lose before you land, so do another 360, to circle around while

you descend. For this one, try doing it at the shallower half-standard ratewith the wings on theturn coordinator only half-way to the tick mark.

Descend to 900 feet and level off while still well away from the airport. Make some additionalturns, if necessary, to get down to 900 feet.

Now use your overhead radar view to locate the field, and head directly for it. Your heading will

be somewhere around 030.

Landing. For now, do a straight-in app