Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan Vol 4 No 1 Januari 2012 - Pengaruh Gelombang pada Profil Kemiringan Pantai Pasir Buatan (Uji Model Fisik dan Studi Kasus Penanggulangan Erosi serta Pendukung

ISSN 20851227

JURNALSAINS DAN TEKNOLOGI LINGKUNGAN

Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan, Fakultas Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan,Universitas Islam Indonesia

Diterbitkan berkala setahun dua kali setiap bulan Januari dan Juni oleh Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan, FakultasTeknik Sipil dan Perencanaan, Universitas Islam Indonesia Yogyakarta. Memuat artikel yang berkaitan dengangagasan dan hasilhasil penelitian dibidang rekayasa lingkungan dan ilmuilmu lain yang terkait dengan bidangrekayasa lingkungan.

PelindungRektor UII

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Pemimpin RedaksiWidodo B., Ir, MSc, DrIng

Dewan RedaksiKasam, Ir., MT; Luqman Hakim, ST., M.Si;Eko Siswoyo, ST., M.Sc.ES; Hudori, ST., MT;Any Yuliani, ST., MSc.

Mitra Bestari (reviewer)Prof. Dr. Joni Hermana (ITS); Dr. Eddy Setiadi Soedjono (ITS);Dr. Eko Sugiharto (UGM); Prof. Djalal Tandjung (UGM);Dr. Prayatni Soewondo (ITB); Dr. Ir. Drajat Soehardjo, SU (UII)Prof. Ir. Widodo, MSCE, Ph.D. (UII); Prof. Dieter Prinz (Karlsruhe);Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Kuehn (TZW); Dr. Jutta Eggers (TZW);Dr. A.H. Malik (COMSAT)

Sekretariat PelaksanaAndik Yulianto, ST, MT; Hijrah Purnama Putra, ST., M.Eng;Agus Adi Prananto, SP; Iwan Ardianta, ST;Tasyono, ST.; Puspa Setyo Rini, ST;Mishbahul Munir

Alamat RedaksiJurusan Teknik Lingkungan UII,Kampus Terpadu UII Jalan Kaliurang Km 14,4 Sleman DIY 55584Telp: 0274896440 ext. 3210, Fax: 0274895330Email: [email protected] dan [email protected]: http://www.environment.uii.ac.id/

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ISSN 20851227

JURNAL SAINS DAN TEKNOLOGI LINGKUNGANVolume 4 Nomor 1 Januari 2012

Daftar Isi1 Reducing Vulnerability and Building Resilience in the PostDisaster Context:

A Case Study of the 2006 Yogyakarta Earthquake Recovery EffortErin Joakim ................................................................................................................. 0114

2 Local Government Unit (LGU) and Academe Partnership for ResponsiveeDisaster SystemsMaria Victoria Pineda................................................................................................. 1523

3 A Brief Review on Electrogenerated Hydroxyl Radical for Organic WastewaterMineralizationErvin Nurhayati........................................................................................................... 2431

4 Pengaruh Gelombang pada Profil Kemiringan Pantai Pasir Buatan (Uji Model Fisikdan Studi Kasus Penanggulangan Erosi serta Pendukung Konservasi LingkunganDaerah Pantai)Nizam, Oki Setyandito, Nur Yuwono, dan Radianta Triatmadja.............................. 3242

5 KLHS untuk Pembangunan Daerah yang BerkelanjutanWidodo B., Ribut L., dan Donan W............................................................................. 4354

6 Pengelolaan Sampah oleh Masyarakat Perkotaan di Kota YogyakartaVidyana Arsanti dan Sri Rum Giyarsih........................................................................ 5566

Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi Lingkungan Volume 4, Nomor 1, Januari 2012, Halaman 0114ISSN: 20851227

Reducing Vulnerability and Building Resilience in the Post-DisasterContext: A Case Study of the 2006 Yogyakarta Earthquake

Recovery Effort

Erin JoakimDepartment of Geography and Environmental Management

University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada

AbstractAs the human and economic costs of natural disaster events have dramatically increased over the pastthree decades, governments, researchers and humanitarian agencies have increasingly focused onreducing disaster impacts and increasing the resilience of individuals, households and communities.Recent disaster recovery efforts have focused on implementing a holistic social-ecological disaster riskreduction approach popularized through post-2004 tsunami recovery programs under the mantra ofbuilding back better. Although this approach has been increasingly adopted by various government andhumanitarian organizations to describe their recovery and reconstruction activities, defining what ismeant by better and measuring better as an outcome has been difficult to conceptualize andoperationalize. In order to rectify this gap in the literature, the Post-Disaster Sustainable Livelihoods,Resilience and Vulnerability framework (PD-SLRV) was developed for the purposes of analyzing,evaluating and monitoring disaster recovery using the concepts of vulnerability, resilience andsustainable livelihoods.

Using the 2006 Yogyakarta, Indonesia earthquake as a case study, this paper will explore how theconcepts of vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods inform the disaster recovery process, thenature of the relationship between these concepts as well as their usefulness in evaluating disasterrecovery efforts. Through a detailed analysis of the various vulnerabilities and resiliencies that existwithin recovering communities, the complex and dynamic nature of resilience and vulnerability isrevealed, indicating a multifaceted relationship dependent on scale, context and place.

Keywords: the 2006 Yogyakarta Indonesia earthquake, disaster recovery efforts, recovery program

1. Introduction

On Saturday, May 27, 2006 at 5:54am local time, Yogyakarta and Central Java provinces inIndonesia were struck by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake (Resosudarmo et al., 2008; Elnashai et al.,2007). Due to the shallow depth of the earthquake, intense ground shaking was felt for almost oneminute, resulting in severe damages, particularly in the districts of Bantul, Yogyakarta province andKlaten, Central Java province (BAPPENAS et al., 2006). With an estimated death toll of over5,700, between 40,000 60,000 injuries, the total destruction of over 150,000 buildings and morethan 200,000 more suffering varying degrees of damage, the Yogyakarta earthquake was one of themost devastating global disasters of 2006 (BAPPENAS et al., 2006, Elnashai et al., 2007;Resosudarmo et al., 2008).

Shortly after the earthquake, there was a tremendous response from various sources, including theIndonesian government, the United Nations, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red

Erin Joakim Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi Lingkungan2

Crescent Societies, international donors, as well as various other NGOs (both domestic andinternational). The recovery effort focused on both housing/building reconstruction as well aslivelihoods rehabilitation. Over 280,000 homes were rebuilt using a community-driven approach:reconstruction funds were distributed based on the community spirit of gotong royong, a localtradition whereby families jointly take decisions and build together (JRF, 2007, 29). As much ofthe building damage was linked to poor quality construction and lack of adherence to buildingcodes, the recovery effort focused on housing reconstruction with higher standards of safety(JRF, 2007).

Although the recovery effort is often portrayed as a successful due to the equitable distribution ofrelief supplies, rapid rebuilding effort and livelihoods programming, this research endeavoured toprovide a more in-depth, holistic evaluation. The Post-Disaster Sustainable Livelihoods, Resilienceand Vulnerability framework (PD-SLRV) incorporates a vulnerability, resilience and sustainablelivelihoods perspective in order to provide further theoretical understanding of these three conceptsas well as provide lessons learned and strategies for effective disaster risk reduction.

2. Background Information

Of the four phases of the disaster management cycle, disaster recovery has been the most poorlyunderstood and the least well-researched (Barton, 1969; Rubin et al., 1985; Schwab, 1998; Lloyd-Jones, 2006; Chang, 2010). Disaster recovery has traditionally been defined as the longer termactivities undertaken to recover from a disaster event in an attempt to return the community to pre-disaster norms (Mileti, 1999). On the other hand, Alesch (2004) argues that communities rarelyreturn to pre-disaster form as they struggle to achieve viability in the newly-emerging environmentwithin which they exist (3). More recent approaches, particularly after the 2004 Indian Oceantsunami, view disaster recovery as an opportunity to achieve the goals of disaster risk reduction andcontribute to improved re-development. In this sense, disaster recovery can be viewed as a catalystfor transformation and growth in the community (Kumpfer, 1999). This view is summarized in therecent mantra of disaster recovery whereby governments and non-government organizations(NGOs) claim to be building back better. Although this slogan has been increasingly adopted byvarious government and humanitarian organizations to describe their recovery and reconstructionactivities, defining what is meant by better and measuring better as an outcome has been difficultto conceptualize and operationalize.

In order to rectify this gap in the literature, the Post-Disaster Sustainable Livelihoods, Resilienceand Vulnerability framework (PD-SLRV) was developed for the purposes of analyzing, evaluating

Volume 4 Nomor 1 Januari 2012 Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi Lingkungan 3

and monitoring disaster recovery using the concepts of vulnerability, resilience and sustainablelivelihoods. Researchers and aid organizations alike have identified the need for a systematic,independent and replicable framework and approach for monitoring, evaluating and measuring thelonger-term relief and recovery operations of major disaster events (Brown et al., 2008). Asvulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods have been increasingly incorporated intodisaster recovery theory and planning, an approach which integrates all three concepts will providea unique opportunity to critically analyze post-disaster recovery operations. The following sectionsprovide a brief overview of the concepts of vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods.

Vulnerability

The term vulnerability has been used in many disciplines and conceptualized in a variety of ways.Focusing specifically on the hazards literature, vulnerability has more recently been understood as apre-existing condition, influenced by a variety of social, economic and political structures (seeCannon, Rowell & Twigg, 2003; Blaikie et al., 1994; Hewitt, 1997; Birkmann, 2007; Pelling,2003). From this perspective, vulnerability can be defined as the characteristics of a person orgroup and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recoverfrom the impact of a natural hazard (Wisner et al., 2004:11). From this definition, vulnerability canbe seen as existing before, during and after a disaster event and also incorporates aspects ofresilience and coping capacity. From this perspective, some of the main factors that influence levelsof vulnerability include access to various forms of tangible and intangible assets (such as social andmaterial goods), access to knowledge and information, and access to power (Chambers, 1989;Blaikie et al., 1994; Alexander, 2000; Hewitt, 1997). Through this focus on the social, political andeconomic causes of vulnerability, the large-scale processes that are a reflection of power relations ina society are emphasized. While these processes reflect the structural constraints under whichvulnerable households and communities must navigate during their daily activities, levels ofvulnerability are also impacted by agency. The individual choices of households and communitieswill impact the local scale manifestations of those larger-scale processes.

A number of frameworks and models have been developed in the hazards literature to conceptualizevulnerability (i.e. PAR and Access models, BBC model, Hazards of Place). While there are areas ofdivergence, the main similarities that run through these different conceptualizations include: (1)exploring vulnerability from social-ecological perspective wherein both social and environmentalfactors are considered; (2) a focus on place and the unique ways in which larger-scale processes aremanifested at the local scale; and (3) analyzing the underlying root causes of vulnerability. Thesethree themes provide the basis for the conceptualization of vulnerability used for this research.


Resilience

Similar to vulnerability, resilience has been conceptualized in numerous ways. Originating in theecological literature, the first understandings viewed it as the ability to absorb the impacts ofstresses, shocks and changes before a change of state occurred (Holling, 1973). In the hazardsliterature, resilience has commonly been perceived as the capacity to rebound, bounce back orrecover quickly after experiencing a disaster event (Paton, 2006; Ronan & Johnston, 2005). Whilethis is the common understanding of resilience, some argue that this definition is static and fails toacknowledge that communities can never return to their pre-disaster state. The experience of adisaster event creates a new physical, social and psychological landscape within the community(Paton, 2006; Alesch, 2004). More recent approaches are exploring resilience as the capacity toadapt and achieve positive transformation after a disaster event (Birkmann & Wisner, 2006; Paton,2006). In this sense, the disaster can be seen as a tool for promoting positive growth within thecommunity and as having the potential to create opportunity for doing new things, for innovationand for development (Folke, 2006, 253; Ronan & Johnston, 2005; Kumpfer, 1999; Kulig, 2000).

Maguire & Hagan (2007) bring these three conceptualizations together to define resilience alongthree dimensions: (1) resistance: the ability to withstand or absorb external pressures and shocks;(2) recovery: the ability to return to previous levels of functioning as quickly as possible; and (3)creativity: the ability to learn, transform and increase functionality after a disaster event (see alsoAdger, 2000). This understanding incorporates the different conceptualizations of resilience andprovides a holistic approach to explore resilience before, during and after a disaster event.Criticisms of the resilience concept argue that it has a tendency to ignore power relations andpresents a de-politicized, neutral portrayal of the processes impacting disaster risk and vulnerability(Kuhlicke, 2010). Analyzing the recovery process from both a vulnerability and resilienceperspective allows a focus on both the larger-scale structural processes as well as an exploration ofthe opportunities for moving forwards and reducing the impacts of hazards.

Sustainable Livelihoods

While vulnerability and resilience have been used in the hazards literature for many years,sustainable livelihoods (SL) has only been recently been put forth as an important concept toincorporate into the recovery period (see Cannon, Rowell & Twigg, 2003; Arnold, 2006; Pomeroyet al., 2006; Rgnier et al., 2008). While sustainable livelihoods models are more common in thedevelopment literature, the concept originated from participatory approaches to famine and foodsecurity research in the 1970s and 1980s, indicating its roots are based in hazards and hazard


mitigation (Hussein, 2002). Chambers & Conway (1992) provide a definition of sustainablelivelihoods that has been widely used and adapted to this day:

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means ofliving. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses andshocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future,while not undermining the natural resource base.

Livelihood activities are an important consideration during the recovery period due to their impacton levels of exposure to different hazards (through location of home and work activities), and theimpact that livelihood activities can have on the environment (Abramowitz, 2001; Birkmann &Wisner, 2006). Due to the linkages and feedbacks between livelihoods and the environment, SLapproaches provide a useful link between social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities.Although SL approaches have been increasingly used by NGOs and government agencies duringrecovery efforts, there is a lack of conceptual models guiding efforts and experience has beenlimited, ad hoc in nature and success highly localized (Rgnier et al., 2008). The frameworkdeveloped for this research provides an opportunity to further our understanding of sustainablelivelihoods initiatives during the post-disaster period.

Figure 1. Post-Disaster Sustainable Livelihoods, Resilienceand Vulnerability Framework (PD-SLRV)

Post-Disaster Sustainable Livelihoods, Resilience and Vulnerability Framework (PD-SLRV)As vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods have been increasingly incorporated intodisaster recovery theory and planning, an approach which integrates all three concepts will providea unique opportunity to critically analyze post-disaster recovery operations. Using the key issuesaddressed in the vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods literature, there is anopportunity to holistically evaluate long-term disaster recovery initiatives and provide insight into














these concepts and the relationships between them. A preliminary version of the PD-SLRVframework is depicted Figure 1, demonstrating the linkages between the three concepts (representedby the arrows) and the need to incorporate all three aspects in order to achieve successful disasterrecovery that achieves the goal of building back better.

3. Methodology

An in-depth case study was used to explore the disaster recovery process following the 2006Yogyakarta, Indonesia earthquake. As the case study approach contributes uniquely to ourknowledge of individual, organization, social, and political phenomena, this provides an idealopportunity to explore the interactions between various small- and large-scale social, economic,political and environmental processes that create disaster events and influence disaster recovery(Yin, 2003, p. 2). This place-based approach provides an inherently geographic focus where theassessment focuses on discrete areas and places where the risks are better understood, and can bemore easily traced to pertinent processes (Barnett, Lambert & Fry, 2008, p. 105; 115). In thissense, the local vulnerabilities, resiliencies and livelihood strategies are placed within context oflarger-scale social, economic, political and institutional processes (Fuchs, 2009). The 2006Yogyakarta earthquake will serve as the overall case used to examine and evaluate the disasterrecovery process, although embedded cases (i.e. multiple impacted villages) will be used to drawout the depth and breadth of the post-disaster experience.

A total of five villages, three in Yogyakarta province and two in Central Java province, wereselected to explore the recovery program and resulting conditions of vulnerability and resilience.Villages were selected based on experienced vulnerability: (1) high levels of damage (over 90% ofbuildings destroyed); (2) location in earthquake zone; (3) preliminary assessment indicated varyinglevels of vulnerability (some communities were comprised mainly of less educatedfarm/construction labourers, while one was wealthier, with the majority employed as governmentofficers with higher levels of education); and (4) varying levels of resilience (i.e. some communitiesattempted to self-organize and begin reconstruction and recovery independently while others waitedfor external assistance to come to them). In each village one focus group with community leaderswas held along with a series of interviews, including approximately 25 household interviews andinterviews with community leaders. Respondents were asked a series of questions regarding theirperceptions and opinions on the recovery process as well as overall conditions in the communityand their daily activities.


Village Key Issues

1

VUL: Poor relationship with higher level government leads to lack of governmentfunding, low levels of education, lack of employment/low income, low external networksamong most villagers. RES: Village leader has strong connections with academia andNGOs leading to funding for progressive development programs. Community has strongspirit of GR. Housing rebuilding followed construction guidelines. Community hasincreased awareness about hazards, environmental sustainability and role of education.SL: Lack of job opportunities particularly for construction labourers. Strong push forimproving livelihood strategies through training, animal breeding, plantations andtourism need to ensure reliability and sustainability of income so not as dependent onthe seasons.

2

VUL: Low skill-level and education, high unemployment, older population remains incommunity (40+ years) as many of the younger generations have left remainingvillagers have little desire to further their skills, education or start new businesses, lack ofawareness regarding hazards and mitigation and preparedness efforts, low externalnetworks. RES: Strong GR community spirit, strong youth organization for remainingyouth in the village, housing rebuilding followed construction guidelines. SL: Lack ofjob opportunities particularly for construction labourers, low skill level, lack of initiativeto change occupation and receive training.

3

VUL: Social conflict in community remains high, corruption appears to be an issue, lackof hazards knowledge for some villagers. RES: Population is fairly well educated withstrong networks outside village and province. Higher income levels as well as strongreligious component. Many boarding schools in village leads to strong externalconnections, housing rebuilding followed construction guidelines. SL: Majority ofvillagers working as government officers.

4

VUL: High psychological trauma for some victims remains, low income levels. RES:Strong, outspoken community leader who pushes for funding and limiting corruption.Focus on importance of education has led to many of the younger generation attendinguniversity, even among poor families, housing reconstruction followed guidelines. SL:Environmental degradation of rice paddies has led to severely reduced crop yields insome areas. Many skilled labourers who also find jobs for unskilled members of thecommunity strong networks within the community. Require further knowledge andtraining for villagers regarding entrepreneurial activities.

5

VUL: Low levels of education, lack of job opportunities, limited social networks, lack ofawareness of hazard mitigation and preparedness. RES: Strong spirit of GR, housingreconstruction followed guidelines. SL: Insect infestation related to unpredictableweather and lack of dry season has destroyed crops. Lack of networks leads to lowemployment opportunities. Many villagers lack knowledge to start/run/market theirbusinesses.

4. Results

Table 1 provides an overview of the key vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods issuesthat were observed in each village.

Table 1. Overview of Vulnerability (VUL), Resilience (RES)and Sustainable Livelihoods (SL) Issues


While many issues regarding the short- and long-term impacts of the disaster and accompanyingrecovery effort were found during this research, for the purposes of this paper, I will focus on therole of social networks, education and the issues associated the livelihoods.

Social Networks

Social networks examine the different formal and informal social connections (both internal andexternal to the community) of households and communities as well as feelings of reciprocity, trustand exchange that provide the basis for social and economic interaction and activities (DFID, 1999).In the case of the recovery effort, strong external networks were a key strategy for achieving

successful disaster recovery and reducing vulnerability to future disasters. Villages with leaders andmembers with strong external connections were able to obtain a greater amount of goods andmaterials during the immediate response phase, increased funding for house reconstruction andsocial programming to improve overall community conditions. In some cases, particularly thepoorer communities comprised mainly of construction and farming labourers, social networks wereconfined within the village, limiting the assistance they could provide each other since allhouseholds were impacted by the disaster.

While strong external networks increased the speed of recovery and capacity to adapt and transformafter the earthquake, strong resilience was also seen in most villages through the cultural spirit of

gotong royong (GR). After the earthquake, three of the villages used GR to rebuild their housestogether, thereby eliminating labour costs for rebuilding. As the funding provided for houserebuilding was considered low by almost all interviewees (households in Bantul regency received15.000.000RP while Klaten households received 20.000.000RP), this allowed the entire amount tobe spent on building materials as opposed to also having to pay labour costs. Villagers alsoidentified this community spirit of togetherness as an important aspect in providing strength andmotivation to recover after the disaster. In some villages, a strict adherence to the governmentbuilding deadlines meant the villagers were unable to use GR as it would have taken too long totake turns building each others houses and they would have missed the government deadline. Inthese cases, the government requirements reduced the impact of this coping mechanism. In onevillage where the majority of villagers are employed as government officers, the use of GR waslower due to lack of construction skills among the villagers. In this case, villagers hired labourersfrom outside the village to rebuild their houses for them.


Education

For the purposes of this research, education can be understood along three themes formaleducation, skills, and hazards knowledge. In terms of formal education, any person who completeda university degree or diploma had obtained a reliable occupation and had the means to successfullyrecover after the earthquake. On the other hand, for villagers who achieved elementary to highschool education, the difference in livelihood success appeared to be correlated more with skilldevelopment and the strength of social networks as opposed to levels of education. Some villagershad achieved somewhat successful livelihoods with only elementary education while others withhigh school lacked reliable employment and business opportunities. Those with the skills to developan idea, the knowledge to maintain and enhance the business and the networks to market theirproduct also achieved success in their livelihoods initiatives.

Perceptions of formal education and skill development also differed across villages. In communitiesand neighbourhoods where education was viewed as very important, parents were supporting theirchildren to attend higher education institutions regardless of economic conditions (i.e. labourerswere saving and finding funding sources to send their children to university). On the other hand, thepoorest communities and households held less positive views towards education (i.e. while theywould like to see their children attend university, they were not planning for that experience, theypreferred their children to work to provide money for the household, or they held laissez-faireattitudes towards education and allowed their young children to decide what they wanted to do).

A lack of awareness regarding hazards and how to reduce vulnerability to common hazards in thearea is another factor impacting levels of vulnerability and resilience. Although many villagersperceived their hazard awareness and response knowledge was adequate, other comments providedinsight into this issue: many respondents felt earthquakes were caused by the old age of the earth,felt there was no need to prepare for disasters due to their belief that God would take care of them,and expressed limited preparedness actions beyond strong housing construction. Of the 125household interviews conducted, only one interviewee expressed the need to improve the social,economic, environmental and political conditions of the area in order to reduce vulnerability tofuture disasters.

Livelihoods

The common livelihood issue through most villages was the lack of job opportunities. Incommunities where the majority of residents had obtained reliable income, economic aspects werenot a major concern for the majority of villagers. Households were able to afford higher education


and health services. On the other hand, for those residents experiencing unreliable income and lackof job opportunities, access to health and education was a concern. In terms of achieving reliableincome, the connections to vulnerability and resilience were quite clear as lack of knowledge andskills, poor social networks and low initiative were identified as key aspects impacting poorlivelihood outcomes. The connections between environmental conditions and livelihood outcomeswas particularly evident in Klaten, where unpredictable weather, rice paddy degradation and buginfestations have severely reduced the yields for some farmers.

Two of the most common livelihood initiatives found in all villages were: (1) a programimplemented by the Indonesian government focusing on training sewers and tailors and providingsewing machines as capital for business ventures; and (2) micro financing initiatives for smallbusiness enterprises. While the first program allowed some tailors to rebuild their businesses afterthe earthquake, the over-reliance on one skill-building technique in all communities limited theimpact of this program to a few households per village. In terms of the micro-financing initiatives,accessibility for the poorest households was identified as an issue as they lacked a guarantee for theloans, lacked the education, knowledge and skills for building and maintaining a business enterpriseand, in some cases, there was a lack of initiative to supplement or change their current livelihoodstrategies.

One important aspect of the recovery effort that could be improved is in relation to livelihood toolreplacement. Many farm and construction labourers as well as small-enterprises lost their tools inthe earthquake or were forced to sell off assets in order to fund the reconstruction of their houses.While there was a program to replace sewing machines, there was almost no attempt to providefunding or goods in order for households to resume their livelihood activities. In some cases, evenafter five years, households have been unable to save enough funds to replace items lost. This hasseverely limited the ability of some households to resume their livelihood activities, resulting inlower economic conditions compared to the pre-disaster context.

The earthquake disaster also had negative impacts for construction labourers, particularly in Bantulregency. Many Bantul construction labourers worked in Yogyakarta city before the earthquake,although after the recovery effort was completed they had difficulty finding employment. While theBantul labourers were rebuilding their houses and villages after the earthquake, project leaders inYogyakarta city began employing workers from outside the province to fill their positions. Thesenew labourers were willing to accept lower pay and work for longer hours and so project leadershave continued to employ them, particularly for unskilled positions. The large supply of unskilledlabourers has driven down the daily wage and resulted in increased unemployment for communitiesimpacted by the earthquake.


5. Discussion

While the recovery after the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake has generally been declared successful,preliminary analysis of the data suggests that the recovery effort did not effectively addressunderlying issues of vulnerability, and, in fact, may have perpetuated a cycle of marginalization forthe poorest members of society. Households with strong networks and businesses were able to takeadvantage of the programs and funding provided during the recovery period in order to rebuild and,in some cases, improve their livelihood conditions. On the other hand, the poorest villagers, mainlythe farming labourers, have been excluded from participating and benefiting from these initiatives,leaving them further behind in terms of economic development.

In terms of the usefulness of the PD-SLRV framework, incorporating concepts of vulnerability,resilience and sustainable livelihoods provided an appropriate method to holistically examine thecomplex aspects of disaster risk and recovery. Each component added a unique perspective thatallowed for a comprehensive analysis of key issues. The importance of incorporating livelihoodinitiatives into vulnerability reduction and recovery efforts should be emphasized. In communitiesand households where livelihood recovery was successful and income sources were reliable andsustainable, overall perceptions of recovery were more positive and quality of life conditions eitherremained similar to pre-disaster conditions or had improved. In other cases, where livelihoodconditions deteriorated, the perception of the recovery effort was not as positive and quality of lifeconditions had declined or were stagnating. While livelihood interventions and programs areimportant, there is a need to focus on some of the most vulnerable populations, as current livelihoodprograms in Yogyakarta and Central Java province appeared to exclude some of the poorest andmost vulnerable households. As well, in order for strategies to be effective, they must providecomplete, long-term support: individuals, households and communities need diversified trainingthat supports the development of knowledge regarding starting, developing, marketing and growingtheir businesses.

The results also demonstrate that the relationship between vulnerability and resilience is neitherlinear nor simple in fact, the relationship was found to be more complex than originallyanticipated. Various indicators of vulnerability can have both positive and negative feedbacks onaspects of resilience. For example, in some cases, a strong belief in God and religious faithappeared to contribute to both resilience (through increased social awareness, attempts to aid othersin the community, bringing the community together, providing strength for recovery) andvulnerability (through belief that God would take care of them and thereby limiting the need for anypreparedness actions to face hazards). This paradoxical relationship was seen in other areas, such as


levels of experience and strength of government institutions. This indicates that the relationshipbetween vulnerability and resilience is difficult to define and may be highly dependent on thecontext.

The importance of scale and the impact it has on understanding the concept of place washighlighted in this research. While an area can be defined as a place based on the sharedexperience of a disaster event, this assumes that the area has some form of homogeneity. Thedifferent experiences and characteristics of each village (including livelihood strategies,government structure, village history, levels of education etc.) and even differences within villagesindicates that the concept of place is not necessarily applicable to the entire area impacted by onedisaster event. Although some experiences were found to be similar across all villages (i.e. the useof gotong royong as a cultural strategy for recovery, the use of pre-existing organizations toeffectively control and distribute aid), the livelihood activities and problems, political andgeographic conditions, community experiences and long-term recovery efforts were different foreach of the five villages. This implies that places exist within places: that a true understanding ofplace may require a focus on various levels of scale, from the smaller-scale communities through toprovincial and national levels.

6. Conclusion

The results reaffirm the usefulness of the PD-SLRV framework. The key components ofvulnerability discussed above were found to be relevant, including a focus on place and connectinghuman-environment interactions. There was a strong correlation between each of the three conceptsalthough the complexity of these relationships was highlighted, particularly for vulnerability andresilience. Incorporating aspects of vulnerability, resilience and sustainable livelihoods was usefulfor providing a holistic analysis of the long-term recovery effort after the 2006 Yogyakartaearthquake.

Acknowledgements

This research was carried out with the financial support of the Social Sciences Research Council ofCanada (SSHRC), the International Development Research Council (IDRC) and the University ofWaterloo, Canada. Support was also provided by the Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation ResearchCentre (TDMRC) at Syiah Kuala University, Indonesia.


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Local Government Unit (LGU) and Academe Partnership forResponsive e-Disaster Systems

Maria Victoria PinedaCollege of Computer Studies, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

e-mail: [email protected]

AbstractMany developing countries have ventured to disaster management programs in the desire to minimize ifnot, eradicate disaster vulnerabilities and improve the coping skills of the people. Many ICT solutionshave been developed and unfortunately, many of these are just one-time big-time solutions. Usability,transparency, costs of the systems and sustainability had become some of the issues.It is in this light that a working model of partnership between the academe and the local government unit(LGU) as a community is shaped. The academe takes the initiative in this endeavor. The tie-up is intendedto support the LGU to become more responsive in managing its resources and addressing the needs of itsconstituents.The paper imparts the experience of the academes ICT project incubation for a community and furtherleads to a meaningful cooperation with the LGU. The ICT project developed is a flood prediction andmapping system for the province of Bulacan in the Luzon island of the Philippines.

Keywords: e-Disaster system, mitigation system, academe-LGU partnership

1. Introduction

In crafting disaster management programs to support communities in developing countries, climate,geography, population and economic conditions are the primary factors considered. But more thanthese, a workable disaster management program should include research, education and trainingaimed at eliminating vulnerabilities (Watanabe, no date). Further, analysis of resources, socio-anthropological factors and capacity for governance that push or pull the programs must beconsidered as well (Watanabe, no date).

To eliminate vulnerabilities may sound too good to be true. But, in the advent of informationcommunications technologies (ICT) and other useful web solutions, the convergence of research,education and training and ICT solutions with systematic methods, resources and capacity analysis,elimination of risks and vulnerabilities would be possible.

ICT drives our lives nowadays. ICT also has become a cornerstone of progress in many nationsincluding the Philippines. It is a dominant and vibrant force that led to diffusion and application ina nations development (Mokhtar, 2007). Likewise the creative and pragmatic use of ICT caneffectively deliver a pure public service that will benefit all societal stakeholders (Pineda, 2010).

Maria Victoria Pineda Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi Lingkungan16

In the recent report of Gonzales and Vanegas (2010) in South America, ICTs are used for datadelivery, public awareness and education, capacity building, public involvement and institutionalstrengthening within disaster mitigation.

Experiences of developed and developing countries are incomparable as far as resourcemanagement and capacity-building are the trepidations. Hence, the goal of this paper is to present aworkable model that fuses research, ICT and strong cooperation between the government and theacademe for a sustainable effort of developing disaster management systems and applications indeveloping countries.

This paper also presents a recent incubation project, the Sawatain, a flood prediction system,intended to be a tool for disaster mitigation and preparedness. The paper imparts how a partnershipwas borne out of the efforts of the academe to support an LGU and the LGU in return adhering tothe invitation.

2. CITe4Ds Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction Research

The Center for ICT for Development (CITe4D) of the College of Computer Studies of De La SalleUniversity has ventured for the past years on developing web-based disaster management systems.The CITe4D started to study and design disaster response systems for the leading governmentagencies during the first phase. In the second phase, CITe4D focused on disaster mitigation systemsas hazard mitigation is a very strategic approach to harm reduction in developing countries(Doberstein, 2010). The approach has been to develop community-based disaster risk reductionfunctional prototypes. CITe4D at present has several on-going LGU partnerships and one of them iswith Bulacan.

Further, Rahman (2002) and Gaillard and Le Masson (2007) have agreeing views that an effectiveapproach to supporting the coping competencies of the people is through community-based disasterpreparedness and risk reduction. Most developing nations adhere to the same idea. In thePhilippines, it was last May 2010 when the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and ManagementLaw (RA10121) was passed. The law now encompasses disaster risk reduction, preparedness andmitigation from the former emphasis on disaster response and recovery (Sy, 2010). While it wasonly recent the Philippines finally braced a national policy on disaster risk reduction, many localcommunities have exerted efforts on proactive ways of community-based disaster preparedness, oneof which is the Bulacan province, considered as the Most Disaster-Prepared Province in CentralLuzon (Velez, 2010).


3. Sawatain, the Flood Prediction System for Bulacan

In September 2009, Typhoon Ketsana, brought an estimated 45 cm of rainfall in 24 hours,equivalent to a months rainfall in the monsoon season and affected over 2.2M people because offlooding (COE-DMHA, 2009). This deluge motivated the development of a mitigation system. Thescope of the study focused on the Bulacan province.

Bulacan is a suburban province situated north of Metro Manila. It has 21 municipalities, 3 cities and

569 barangays. The topography is from level to rugged terrain with many streams and large riversproviding water and hydroelectric power. There are 3 dams--Angat, Ipo and Bustos. Angat Damprovides the greater portion of water supply in Metro Manila as well as providing electrification inthe whole of Bulacan (Provincial Government of Bulacan, 2007).

Sawatain (came from the Tagalog word to mitigate or to stop) is a web-based flood predictionsystem which focuses on mapping the flood hazard or affected areas in the province of Bulacan.The stakeholders and important agencies involved in the disaster management workflow are able tostudy the effects and impacts of an incoming typhoon by district or the whole province throughvisual mapping.

The Sawatain system aims to predict the risk level of the municipalities in the province thoughsimulations of the impact of rainfall in the province. This is done effectively with the simulationversioning feature of the system. The versioning can be done before the actual rainfall or when therainfall reaches the area of responsibility. Other variables that were considered are the dam outflow,level of terrain and the projected number of hours of rainfall. It also predicts the number of peopleand families which will be affected in each town and informs important agencies such as the localgovernment units, the office of the governor, and other provincial agencies. The system provides aneffective alternate method of early warning through the web system and mobile/SMS (shortmessaging system) facilities.

The system supports the decision-making process of the Bulacan Provincial Disaster ManagementOffice and the office of the governor by providing on-time and reliable reports. The expectedflooded areas and evacuation centers also become transparent to the citizens with the use of theGoogle maps.

It was developed using open source development tools making it a very cost-effective solution andencouraging open development. The system can be readily modified to cater to other specific needs


of Bulacan. The system developers had to conduct their data gathering and interviews with theProvincial Disaster Management Office, the PAG-ASA weather bureau, the National PowerCorporation, and the Angat Dam experts.

Sample Screens

Figure 1. The Sawatain Main Screen

Figure 2. The Sawatain Simulation Screen


Figure 3. The Sawatain Sample Map after the simulation

Figure 4. The Sawatain Google map for reference of the citizens in terms of hazardsand evacuation centers.

4. Proposed LGU-Academe Partnership Model

According to Bildan (2003) an affected community has a variety of urgent needs that can beresponded to in a timely and appropriate manner. Hence action and resolve plans would be aconcerted effort by the stakeholders such as the civil society, the government and the private sector.


This is where the academe would come in. The academe, especially the higher educationinstitutions, can spearhead and initiate meaningful partnerships with the local communities or theLGUs in crafting ICT solutions that will enhance disaster mitigation and preparedness. Based on theCITe4D experience, there is a very good opportunity of designing systems that cater to therequirements of the community and developing cost-effective solutions.

Figure 5. The LGU-Academe Partnership Model

In the LGU-Academe Partnership model above, the major involvement lies on the academe and theLGUs disaster management unit. This LGU disaster management unit can be at the provincial levelor at the municipal level.

The LGU disaster management unit is in-charge of directing all the activities and efforts initiated bythe partnership. Regular consultation with the academe unit is vital.

The academe shall interface with the other entities such as the LGU office, the community andincluding the attached surveillance agencies like the weather bureau, the water resourcesadministration or the local police. The role of the academe is to capture the workflow andcoordination processes of the different entities, determine the user requirements, and design asuitable infrastructure and IT solution given the present resources and sustainability capabilities ofthe LGU.

The academe unit, equipped with strong ICT competency, is in-charge of the systems feasibility orprototyping study, development of the project details and terms of references and the whole projectmanagement and development.

The model is intended to be a continuing partnership. This is enhanced by active participation andpresence of a change champion. A change champion is somebody who has great faith in nationbuilding, exerts high level of efforts to see the delivery of excellent systems and programs. To cite,in the stages of the Sawatain project, the weather bureau scientist is the change champion.


5. The Bulacan Partnership Experience

In most of the CITe4Ds community engagement, the research center took the initiative to beinvolved, to do research and get to know the community together with the Information Technologystudents and the research advisers. Communities welcome partnership with the academe.Communities are aware of their own weaknesses and they are typically willing to invest time tocreate solutions and be supported by the academe.

The Bulacan is one of the on-going tie-up of the research center with the community. Bulacan

stakeholders are confident it is a win-win cooperation with the academe. The disaster managementoffice of Bulacan was grateful to see that the flood prediction system developed was able to capturethe work processes and the methods they employ in the province. They also commended theappreciation of the web system design that exhibits the Bulacan ways and traditions.

Plans are underway to further improve the Sawatain system, integrate it with the existing digital raingauges of the disaster management unit for more accurate reports.

6. Conclusions

Mango and Rafisura (2007) posted that the main challenge for developing countries would be tocascade the national policies on disaster management to local disaster preparedness and mitigationplans. But with the available skills and competencies from the academe and the expertise of theLGUs, the direction now is actualizing all the mitigation and preparedness plans.

There are two faces in developing e-disaster system solutions. First is the need to determine the realneeds and the resources of the community. A community has its own topographical characteristicsand its own strategies in dealing with its hazards. These socio-anthropological factors areunderscored for in-depth scrutiny.

The other face indicates the localized systems approach to ICT solutions development is imperative.This means commercial ICT disaster mitigation solutions that are costly or may not be customizableor are not be able to capture the work processes and methods of the community may not effectivelyserve the community. Localized approach still best serves the purpose.

The higher education institutions specializing in ICT that have ventured in many communityprojects have the necessary expertise in development. The LGU-Academe Partnership model brings


about a nurturing cooperation to develop better e-disaster systems, increase public awareness andcitizen involvement, participation of surveillance agencies and better disaster governance from thelocal government units.

The close tie-up does not happen overnight. It is like planting a tree. The tree is nurtured with water,sun and much care to see it bear fruit. This is what it takes to have a sustainable partnership.

Acknowledgment

This paper would like to acknowledge the Sawatain system developers, namely, Nicole Inciso, FJSta. Rita, Juno Sioco and Raymund Cruz. This paper would also like to express appreciation to theDLSU-AdRIC and CITe4D, the research centers of the college.

References

Bildan, L. (2003). Disaster management is Southeast Asia an overview, Asian DisasterPreparedness Center.

COE-DMHA. (2009). Tropical storm Ketsana Update September 30, 2009, Center for Excellencein Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance. Retrieved from http://www.coe-dmha.org/apdr.

Doberstein, B. (2010). Adaptive hazard mitigation: the theory and practice of responding toenvironmental change-driven disasters, Proceedings of the ICSBE 2010 InternationalConference on Sustainable Built Environment with the theme Enhancing Disaster Mitigationand Prevention, May 25-27, 2010, Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

Gaillard, J.C., and Le Masson, V. (2007). Traditional societies response to volcanic hazards in thePhilippines. Mountain Research and Development, vol. 27(4), pp. 313-317.

Gonzalez, P., and Vanegaz, W. (2010). Applying information and communication technology fordisaster mitigation in the Central American Isthmus, Final Technical Report, IDRC ProjectNumber 104410-001, July 2010.

Magno, F., and Rafisura, K.M. (2007). Developing research education agenda on disasterpreparedness, Workshop: Strengthening local government capacity for disasterpreparedness in Asia, Manila, Philippines, October 8-9, 2007.

Mokhtar, K.S. (2007). ICT and distance education: towards local disaster preparedness in Malaysia,International Workshop and Book Project, Strengthening local government capacity fordisaster preparedness in Asia, Manila, Philippines, October 8-9, 2007.


Pineda, M.V. (2010). A perfect storm, a perfect disaster, and the challenge to responsive disastermanagement systems, Proceedings of the ICSBE 2010 International Conference onSustainable Built Environment with the theme Enhancing Disaster Mitigation andPrevention, May 25-27, 2010, Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

Provincial Government of Bulacan. (2007). About Bulacan. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bulacan.gov.ph/generalinfo/physicalprofile.php.

Rahman, H. (2002). Community-based disaster information management system: perspectiveBangladesh, Regional Workshop on Best Practices in Disaster Mitigation, Asian DisasterPreparedness Center.

Sy, M. (2010). Disaster risk reduction, management law signed, The Philippine Star, June 10, 2010.Retrieved from http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=583034.

Velez, F. (2010). Bulacan bags Gawad Kalasag Hall of Fame, Manila Bulletin, October 11, 2010.Retrieved from http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/281684/bulacan-bags-gawad-kalasag-hall-fame.

Watanabe. M. (no date). Building a tougher disaster coping capacity, Institute for InternationalDisaster Prevenion and Peace Inc.


A Brief Review on Electro-generated Hydroxyl Radical for OrganicWastewater Mineralization

Ervin NurhayatiPhD Student at Institute of Environmental Engineering,

National Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan.e-mail: [email protected]

AbstractHydroxyl radical is a highly reactive oxidizing agent that can be electrochemically generated on thesurface of Boron doped diamond (BDD) anode. Once generated, this radical will non-selectivelymineralize organic pollutants to carbon dioxide, water and organic anions as the oxidation products. Itsapplication in Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) to degrade nonbiodegradable even the recalcitrantpollutants in wastewater has been increasingly studied and even applied.

Keywords: Advanced Oxidation Process, Boron Doped Diamond, Hydroxyl radical, Organic pollutants

1. Introduction

Biological processes, so far is the most economically preferred technique for organic wastewatertreatment. However, many industrial wastewaters contain complex organics that possiblybiologically inert or even toxic for microorganism involve in the respective processes.Physicochemical process such as filtration, coagulation, adsorption, and flocculation, and chemicaloxidation by means of adding oxidation agents such as chlorine, ozone, hydrogen peroxide or evenwet air oxidation are among other popular industrial organic wastewater treatment but not alwayssufficient to completely removed all pollutants (Panizza and Cerisola, 2009; Saez et al., 2007; andComninellis et al., 2008).

Conventional process used to treat wastewater from textile industry includes chemical precipitationwith alum or ferrous sulphate which suffers from drawbacks such as generation of a large volume ofsludge leading to the disposal problem, and also the contamination of chemical substances in thetreated wastewater. Moreover these processes are inefficient in completely oxidizing dyestuffs andorganic compounds of complex structure (Shashank Singh Kalra, 2011).

Another highly favorable alternative is Advanced Oxidation Process (AOPs). AOPs generallydefined as aqueous phase oxidation methods based on the intermediacy of highly reactive speciessuch as (primarily but not exclusively) hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the mechanisms leading to thedestruction of the target pollutant (Comninellis et al., 2008). This physicochemical method, basedon the production and use of hydroxyl radical have been successfully tested for elimination of manykind of compounds in water (Comninellis et al., 2008; Palma-Goyes et al., 2010).


The aim of AOP is the generation of free hydroxyl radicals (OH), a powerful, highly reactive, non-selective oxidizing agent which acts very rapidly with most organic compounds and destroy eventhe recalcitrant pollutants. Once generated, the hydroxyl radicals aggressively attack virtually allorganic compounds (Munter, 2001).

There are several currently known methods for hydroxyl radicals generation such as H2O2/UV,UV/O3, H2O2/O3, TiO2 photocatalysis, Fentons reagent, photo-Fenton ultrasound (US) and wet airoxidation (WAO), while less conventional and less popular processes include ionising radiation,microwaves, pulsed plasma and the ferrate reagent (Comninellis et al., 2008; Palma-Goyes et al.,2010). Munter (2001) classified them as photochemical and non-photochemical methods based onthe presence or absence of light energy. Above mentioned OH generation methods is not the focusof this present study and will not be further discussed here.

2. Electrochemical Mineralization and Electro-generated Hydroxyl

Hydroxyl radical (OH) can also be produced electrochemically by employing electrolysis process.In order to do so, water should be activated, by electrolytic discharge of water at potential above itsthermodynamic stability (Martnez-Huitle and Brillas, 2009). According to this mechanism, inacidic media, water is discharged (1.23 V/SHE under standard condition) on the electrode (M) toproduce hydroxyl radical (OH) (1) on the surface of the electrode which actually is the mainreaction intermediates for O2 evolution (2):

H2O + M M (OH) + H+ + e- (1)M (OH) M + O2 + H+ + e- (2)

The electrochemical oxidation of organic compound (R) by electrogenerated hydroxyl radical thentakes place close to the surface of the anode according to this (simplified) equation:

R(aq) + M (OH)n/2 M + Oxidation product + n/2 H+ + e- (3)

where n is the number of electron involved in oxidation reaction of organic R.

Chemical reaction with electrogenerated species from water discharge at the anode such asphysically adsorbed active oxygen (physisorbed hydroxyl radical OH) as mentioned above iscategorized as indirect anodic oxidation, while direct anodic oxidation refer to the oxidation processoccurred due to direct electron transfer between the pollutant and the anode which usually yield apoor decontamination (Martnez-Huitle and Brillas, 2009).

Ervin Nurhayati Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi Lingkungan26

Because of the strong reactivity of OH, it can potentially mineralize organic pollutants into carbondioxide, water and organic anions as the oxidation products. This particular AOP technique is cleanand able to decompose a great number of compounds with selectivity. Besides to its environmentalcompatibility, the electrochemical process presents important advantages related to its versatility,high energy efficiency, amenability of automation and safety because it operates at mild conditions.Electrochemical oxidation is classified as electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) andconsists in the oxidation of pollutants in an electrolytic cell by chemical reaction withelectrogenerated species from water discharge at the anode (Migliorini et al., 2011).

3. Importance of Anode Material

There are several parameters that influence the efficiency of this electrochemical processes such as

pollutants concentration, pH, applied current intensity, and supporting electrolyte, but apparentlythe most important and major influence comes from the kind of electrode material being used(Peralta-Hern et al., 2012).

The side reaction of the anodic discharge of hydroxyl radicals to oxygen (2) will occurcompetitively with the reaction of organics with electrogenerated electrolytic hydroxyl radicals (3).The interaction of hydroxyl radicals with the electrode surface M will affect the activity (rate ofreaction (2) and (3). The general rule is, the weaker the interaction, the lower is the electrochemicalactivity (reaction (2) is slow) toward oxygen evolution (high O2 overvoltage anodes) and the higheris the chemical reactivity toward organics oxidation.

Comninellis (1994) categorized electrodes based on its behavior towards interaction with hydroxylradicals it produced, namely active anodes, for example Pt, IrO2 and RuO2 and non-active

anodes such as and PbO2, SnO2 and BDD (Comninellis, 1994). Assuming that the initial reaction inboth kind of anodes (M) corresponds to the oxidation of water molecules leading to the formation ofphysisorbed hydroxyl radical (1), the subsequent reaction that will occur then will be determined bythe type of the anode.

When higher oxidation states are available for a metal oxide anode, above the standard potential for

oxygen evolution (E0 = 1.23 V vs. SHE) then the surface of surface of so called active anodes willinteract strongly with OH and cause the formation of higher oxide or superoxide (MO) accordingto following reaction (4).

M (OH) MO + H+ + e- (4)


Oxidation of organics will follow reaction (5) mediated by the redox couple MO/M, but there willbe competition with the side reaction of oxygen evolution via chemical decomposition of the higheroxide species from reaction (6).

MO + R M + RO (5)MO M + (1/2) O2 (6)

When the surface of the anode in discussion is weakly interact with OH then this non-active anodewill allow organics to directly react with M(OH) to produce completely oxidized products such asCO2 following reaction (7).

aM(OH) + R aM + mCO2 + nH2O + xH+ + ye- (7)where R is an organic compound with m carbon atoms and without any heteroatom, which needs a= (2m + n) oxygen atoms to be totally mineralized to CO2. Reaction (5) is much more selective thanthe mineralization reaction (7) with physisorbed heterogeneous hydroxyl radical that also competeswith the side reactions (2) (Martnez-Huitle and Brillas, 2009; Christos Comninellis, 2010).A non-active electrode simply acts as an inert substrate and as a sink for the removal of electronswithout any involvement in the direct anodic reaction of organics and nor providing any catalyticactive site for their adsorption from the aqueous medium. Hydroxyl radical produced from waterdischarge by reaction (1) is subsequently involved in the oxidation process of organics (Martnez-Huitle and Brillas, 2009).Boron-doped diamond-based anode (BDD) is a typical high oxidation power anode that exhibits avery weak interaction hydroxyl radical it produces (no free p or d orbitals on BDD. Theseconsidered quasi-free hydroxyl radicals, which related to the high overpotential for oxygenevolution on BDD anodes, are very reactive and can result in the mineralization of the organiccompounds through following reaction (Christos Comninellis, 2010):

R(aq) + BDD (OH)n/2 M + Oxidation product + n/2 H+ + e- (8)It is important to note that oxygen evolution on BDD occurs with a high overpotential with respectto thermodynamic potential for O2 formation (E OER = 1.23 V vs. SHE), but is very close to thethermodynamic potential of HO formation (E HO = 2.38 V vs. SHE) (Kapalka, Foti andComninellis, 2009).

4. Recent Application of BDD for Organic Wastewater Anodic Oxidation

As mentioned above, via electrolysis process considerably large amount of electrogenerated OHretains weak interaction with the surface of BDD anodes resulted in a high reactivity towardsorganics that in turn will incinerate those organics and totally mineralize them. But not until the past


10 years, the boron-doped diamond anode received researchers attention and became an attractivematerial for numerous environmental applications (Peralta-Hern et al., 2012; Panizza and Cerisola,2005).Peralta-Hern, et al. (2012) presented a thorough review on electrochemical treatment processes foroxidation of synthetic dye compounds with the use of BDD anodes. Evidently BDD anodes alwaysoffer the most advantages regarding removal efficiency and decontamination of wastewaters,compared to Ti/Sb2O5SnO2, Pt/Ti, TiRuO2, and PbO2 with respect to its high stability, high

activity towards organic oxidation and low cost. Satisfactorily color removal and COD decay(ranging from 80 100%) of many kind of dyestuffs being studied, such as 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoicacid, Remazol Brilliant Blue, Acid Yellow 1, O-toluidine, Basic Blue 3, Crystal Violet, Acid Black

210, Orange II, and Alizarin Red S were achieved.

However, the oxidation mechanism seems to be dependent on the nature of the dye. Investigatingthe degradation of Alizarin Red and Eriochrome Black T using BDD electrode under differentexperimental condition, Saez et. al. (2007) showed that complete COD and colour removal wasobtained regardless of the current density, temperature and initial dye concentration in theelectrochemical oxidation of AR and EBT under respective condition. However, it was found thatthe electrochemical oxidation of AR leads to almost direct generation of carbon dioxide, withoutaccumulation in the system of large amounts of intermediates. In contrast, the EBT oxidationprocess starts with breakage of the azoic group and continues with oxidation of the intermediatesgenerated.

Combining electrochemical process with other process to achieve even more enhanced result seemsto be another trend. Diego et. al. (2011) combined reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membraneswith the electrochemical oxidation using BDD as the anode to treat wastewaters containingpersistent pollutants. Phenol and Acid Orange 7 dye were used as model pollutants. Overall,efficiency of the treatment obtained was significantly high. The results showed that very high CODremoval values can be obtained in both the cases of phenol and AO7, above 95%.

While conventional methods will require multistep sequence to degrade guaiacol derivatives, Kristeet al (2011) showed that anodic treatment on boron-doped diamond electrodes (BDD) provides adirect access to nonsymmetrical biphenols to instantly degrade them.

The influence of several operating parameters (applied current density, initial organicsconcentration, temperature, flow rate and initial pH value) on anodic oxidation process using BDDto degrade sinapinic acid (4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-cinnamic acid), one of the most representativepolyphenolic type compounds present in olive oil mill wastewater was investigated by Elaoud et al


(2011). Color degradation and COD removal were observed to study the reaction kinetics ofsinapinic acid mineralization. Again, BDD showed its superiority in producing electrogeneratedhydroxyl radicals on its surface to almost completely removing COD. Moreover, the COD removalfollows a pseudo first-order kinetics and the apparent rate constant increased with flow rate andtemperature, while applied current and pH shows insignificant effect. Under experimental optimal

condition (flow rates 300L h-1, temperature 50C, and current density 10mA cm-2) within 3 helectrolysis 97% of COD was removed and 17 kWh m-3 energy was consumed (Elaoud et al., 2011).

Comparison of BDD and Pt electrodes in performing anodic oxidation of atenolol, known as -blocker, has been investigated by Murugananthan et al. (2011) under the presence of NaCl, Na2SO4and NaNO3. The BDD anode was found to be effective in the presence of Na2SO4 while Pt anode

exhibits better removal in the presence of NaCl. Both BDD and Pt anode performance on themineralization of atenolol were significantly depend on the initial concentration of NaCl andapplied current density. Initially it was observed that the rate of mineralization on Pt were higherbut in fact the overall rate of mineralization is more or less similar after 15 h of electrooxidation.The presence of residual chlorinated organic compounds which are very refractive contributed tothe slow degradation process at the later stages of electrooxidation. Again, The completemineralization was achieved using BDD as anode, this time in the presence of Na2SO4(Murugananthan et al., 2011).

An attempt was done by Petrucci and Montanaro (2011) to examine BDD electrode performance ina system that resembles the complexness of real wastewater containing the Reactive Blue 19 dye,taken after the rinse and softening bath from a typical reactive dyes process. This effluent is acomplex mixture of dyes, electrolytes at high concentration, mainly chlorides or sulphates andcarbonates together with dyeing auxiliaries. The efficiency of the process was evaluated byobserving the colour, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) removal.This study results in the proof that carbonate presence is negatively affected the color removalwhile complete mineralization was found to mainly depend only on temperature. The study ofcurrent density effect conclude that discoloration mainly occurs via oxidation mediated byelectrogenerated active chlorine while COD and TOC removal is primarily due to oxidation bymeans of hydroxyl radicals produced at BDD surface.

A study has successfully scaled-up boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode system (24 cm2) incontinuous mode electrochemical oxidation of phenol simulated wastewater to over 100 times

larger (2904 cm2) with expectedly relatively the same level of COD degradation efficiency andspecific energy consumption. At the optimized conditions, the larger BDD anode system could


easily reduce the COD of phenol simulated wastewater from 633 mg L-1 to 145 mg L-1 during 80minutes operation with specific energy consumption only 31 kWh kg COD-1 (Zhu et al., 2010).

Numerous studies have also been conducted to investigate BDD performance to anodically oxidizeother kind of complex organics such as pesticide, drugs and surfactants (Panizza et al., 2005; Brillas,et al., 2004; Caizares et al., 2009).

5. Summary

AOP technique is clean and able to decompose a great number of organic compounds. It possessadvantageous in term of environmental compatibility, versatility, high energy efficiency,amenability of automation and safety because it operates at mild conditions. Electrogeneratedhydroxyl radical produced on the inert surface of BDD is a very strong reactive oxidizing agent thatcapable of mineralizing organics especially the nonbiodegradable ones. Its non-selective nature onoxidizing pollutants opens a wide possibility in environmental application.

References

Panizza, M., and Cerisola, G. (2009). Direct and mediated anodic oxidation of organic pollutants.Chemical Reviews, 109(12): p. 6541-6569.

Saez, C., et al. (2007). Electrochemical incineration of dyes using a boron-doped diamond anode.Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 82(6): p. 575-581.

Comninellis, C., et al. (2008). Advanced oxidation processes for water treatment: advances andtrends for R&D. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 83(6): p. 769-776.

Shashank Singh Kalra, S.M. (2011). Alok Sinha and Gurdeep Singh. Advanced OxidationProcesses for Treatment of Textile and Dye Wastewater: A Review. in 2nd InternationalConference on Environmental Science and Development. Singapore: IACSIT Press.

Palma-Goyes, R.E., et al. (2010). Electrochemical degradation of crystal violet with BDDelectrodes: Effect of electrochemical parameters and identification of organic by-products.Chemosphere, 81(1): p. 26-32.

Munter, R. (2001). ChemInform Abstract: Advanced Oxidation Processes: Current Status andProspects. ChemInform, 32(41): p. no-no.

Martnez-Huitle, C.A., and Brillas, E. (2009). Decontamination of wastewaters containing syntheticorganic dyes by electrochemical methods: A general review. Applied Catalysis B:Environmental, 87(3-4): p. 105-145.

Migliorini, F.L., et al. (2011). Anodic oxidation of wastewater containing the Reactive Orange 16Dye using heavily boron-doped diamond electrodes. Journal of Hazardous Materials,192(3): p. 1683-1689.


Peralta-Hern, et al. (2012). A Brief Review on Environmental Application of Boron DopedDiamond Electrodes as a New Way for Electrochemical Incineration of Synthetic Dyes.International Journal of Electrochemistry.

Comninellis, C. (1994). Electrocatalysis in the Electrochemical Conversion/Combustion of OrganicPollutants for Waste-Water Treatment. Electrochimica Acta, 39(11-12): p. 1857-1862.

Christos Comninellis, G.C. (2010). Electrochemistry for the environment, London: SpringerKapalka, A., Foti, G., and Comninellis, C. (2009). The importance of electrode material in

environmental electrochemistry Formation and reactivity of free hydroxyl radicals on boron-doped diamond electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 54(7): p. 2018-2023.

Panizza, M., and Cerisola, G. (2005). Application of diamond electrodes to electrochemicalprocesses. Electrochimica Acta, 51(2): p. 191-199.

Diogo, J.C., Moro, A., and Lopes, A. (2011). Persistent aromatic pollutants removal using acombined process of electrochemical treatment and reverse osmosis/nanofiltration.Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy, 30(3): p. 399-408.

Kirste, A., Schnakenburg, G., and Waldvogel, S.R. (2011). Anodic coupling of guaiacol derivativeson boron-doped diamond electrodes. Org Lett, 13(12): p. 3126-9.

Elaoud, S.C., et al. (2011). Electrochemical degradation of sinapinic acid on a BDD anode.Desalination, 272(1-3): p. 148-153.

Murugananthan, M., et al. (2011). Role of electrolyte on anodic mineralization of atenolol at borondoped diamond and Pt electrodes. Separation and Purification Technology, 79(1): p. 56-62.

Petrucci, E. and Montanaro, D. (2011). Anodic oxidation of a simulated effluent containingReactive Blue 19 on a boron-doped diamond electrode. Chemical Engineering Journal,174(2-3): p. 612-618.

Zhu, X., et al. (2010). Scale-up of BDD anode system for electrochemical oxidation of phenolsimulated wastewater in continuous mode. J Hazard Mater, 184(1-3): p. 493-8.

Panizza, M., Delucchi, M., and Cerisola, G. (2005). Electrochemical degradation of anionicsurfactants. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 35(4): p. 357-361.

Brillas, E., et al. (2004). Electrochemical destruction of chlorophenoxy herbicides by anodicoxidation and electro-Fenton using a boron-doped diamond electrode. Electrochimica Acta,49(25): p. 4487-4496.

Caizares, P., et al. (2009). A comparison between Conductive-Diamond ElectrochemicalOxidation and other Advanced Oxidation Processes for the treatment of syntheticmelanoidins. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 164(1): p. 120-125.


Pengaruh Gelombang pada Profil Kemiringan Pantai Pasir Buatan(Uji Model Fisik dan Studi Kasus Penanggulangan Erosi serta

Pendukung Konservasi Lingkungan Daerah Pantai)Nizam2, Oki Setyandito1, Nur Yuwono2, Radianta Triatmadja2

1Staf Pengajar Jurusan Teknik Sipil Fakultas Teknik Universitas Mataram NTB. KandidatDoktor, Program Studi Teknik Sipil,Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Gadjah Mada e-mail:

[email protected], Staf Pengajar pada Jurusan Teknik Sipil dan Lingkungan,Universitas Gadjah Mada

AbstrakMasalah utama di daerah pantai adalah erosi pantai yang terjadi akibat gempuran gelombang sertapembangunan konstruksi yang tidak akrab lingkungan. Salah satu usaha pengembangan daerah pantaiyang sedang dan telah dilaksanakan adalah pembangunan pantai buatan (artificial beach nourishment).Pada tulisan ini disajikan hasil penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh karakteristikgelombang (tinggi gelombang H, periode gelombang T dan panjang gelombang L) terhadap EquilibriumBeach Profile (EBP) atau final slope (nf) (profil) yang terbentuk terutama pada area swash zones.Uji model fisik 3-D dilakukan terhadap material penyusun pantai berupa pasir (d50 = 0,467 - 1,2 mm),dengan bangunan pelindung berupa gabungan groin I dan L. Model pantai pasir di tempatkan padakolam gelombang, dengan initial slope (n = 6) dan dikenai gelombang reguler konstan hingga kondisiEBP tercapai. Untuk setiap model uji dilakukan variasi tinggi gelombang (H) dan periodegelombang (T).Hasil penelitian menunjukkan EBP atau profil kemiringan stabil yang terbentuk dipengaruhi o

Jurnal Teknik Lingkungan Vol 4 No 1 Januari 2012 - Pengaruh Gelombang pada Profil Kemiringan Pantai Pasir Buatan (Uji Model Fisik dan Studi Kasus Penanggulangan Erosi serta Pendukung

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