©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Important Definitions Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior,

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Important Definitions

Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior, usually toward

some goal

Emotion: subjective feeling including arousal, cognitions, and expressions


Theories and Concepts of Motivation


Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation) Biological Theories:

1. Instinct--inborn, unlearned behaviors universal to species explain motivation

2. Drive-Reduction--internal tensions “push” toward satisfying basic needs

3. Arousal--motivated toward optimal level of arousal


Drive-Reduction Theory


ArousalTheory

• People seek an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance.


Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation Cont.) Psychosocial Theories:

1. Incentive--motivation results from the “pull” of external environmental stimuli

2. Cognitive--motivation affected by attributions and expectations


Biopsychosocial Theory:

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: interaction of biological, psychological, and social needs; lower motives (physiological and safety) must be met before higher needs (belonging, self-esteem)

Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation Cont.)


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


Social Motivation: Why make friends?

Evolutionary Psychology: Using Darwinian principles to explain human nature.

Being nice, making friends must have offered some fitness advantage for our ancestors

Evolution of niceness: Kin selection: being nice to those with similar

genetics


Kin selection

There are a number of examples of what appear to be altruistic behaviors among animals. Most are explainable as examples of kin selection.


Reciprocity: You scratch my back I’ll scratch yours

Non related individuals sometimes engage in reciprocal arrangements, vampire bats share blood, chimps groom for food


Indirect reciprocity: being nice to the nice

Some animals are sensitive to reputation and restrict reciprocal interactions to only those who have a history of playing fair


So why are humans friendly to each other?

Kin bias Reciprocal arrangements Reputational rewards


Human Mate Attraction

Using an evolutionary approach to explain why we are attracted to certain traits in members of the opposite sex.

Operates at level of “gut” attractions, not conscious evaluation

Identifies what types of attractions in members of opposite sex would have enhanced reproductive success in our ancestral past.

Argues that problems of optimizing reproductive success would have been different for males and females, and thus would have lead to somewhat different reproductive strategies and attractions.


Thomas Aquinas on Marriage

We observe that in those animals, dogs for instance, in which the female herself suffices for the rearing of the offspring, the male and female stay no time together after the sexual act. But in animals in which the female herself does not suffice for the rearing of the offspring, male and female dwell together after the sexual act so long as is necessary for the rearing and training of the offspring. This appears in birds whose young are incapable of their own food after they are hatched…Hence, whereas it is necessary in all animals for the male to stand by the female for such a time as the father’s concurrence is requisite for bringing up the progeny, it is natural for man to be tied to…one woman for a long period…(SCG B3 Q122).


Challenges to reproductive success: Males vs. Females

Advantages of being male: Cheap sperm: relatively low parental investment cost

Disadvantage:

low paternity certainty

Advantage of being female:

High maternity certainty

Disadvantage:

costly eggs: relatively high parental investment


Buss: Global study on mate attractionOver 10,000 subjects from over 30 countries across the globe.

Female attractions: decrease parental investment by getting good genes and copious resources

Male long-term mate attractions: increase paternity certainty, while maximizing reproductive output


Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates – desire for youth


Evolved Male Attractions: Beauty


Evolved Male Attractions: Chastity


Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates Summary

1. Youth/Beauty: increase reproductive value in single mate

2. Chastity/youth: increasing paternity certainty in offspring to be resourced


Evolved female attractions: Long-term matesAge


Evolved female attractions: long-term mates

Financial Prospects


Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates

Good genes


Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates

Good genes


Female evolved attractions: summary

1. Older mate/good financial prospects: status, stability, resources

2. Cues of masculinity: good genes 3. interaction with ovulatory cycle: evidence

for cuckoldry strategy?


Human mate attraction: Long term mates Males: young, beautiful,

sexually modest Reproductive value;

paternity certainty

Females: older, high-status (or potential), robust

Good genetics, stable secure source of resources.


Cross-cultural signally


Risks of step-parenting. Note: Violent step parents represent less than 1%

of step families


Darwinian strategy to happy marriage

For females: Men want paternity certainty, so avoid all jealousy-arousing behavior (don’t even look at other men). Also, take good care of his genes (offspring).

For males: Women want resources. All the money is hers. Avoid spending money in any way she dislikes.

For both: Both want health (good genes, fertility, etc.) Take care of yourselves. Have some kids – lower divorce rate among couples with kids.


Motivation and Behavior—Hunger and Eating Biological factors:

stomach, biochemistry, the brain

Note the size difference in these rats.

The rat on the left had the ventromedial area of its hypothalamus destroyed.


Motivation and Behavior—Hunger and Eating

Psychological factors: visual cues, cultural conditioning

Obesity is common for Pima Indians in U.S., but not for those living in nearby Mexico with traditional diet.


Hunger and Eating--Eating Disorders• Obesity appears to result from

numerous biological and psychosocial factors.

• Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are both characterized by an overwhelming fear of becoming obese and explained by multiple biological and psychosocial factors.


Hunger and Eating--Eating Disorders


Motivation and Behavior—Achievement• Characteristics of a high need

for achievement (nAch):– Prefers moderately difficult tasks– Prefers clear goals with

competent feedback– Competitive– Prefers responsibility – Persistent– More accomplished


Theories and Concepts of Emotion Three Components of Emotion

1. Physiological-- arousal comes from brain (particularly the limbic system) and autonomic nervous system (ANS)


Physiological Component and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)


Three Components of Emotion (Continued)

2. Cognitive--thoughts, values and expectations

3. Behavioral--expressions, gestures, and body positions

Theories and Concepts of Emotion


Theories and Concepts of Emotion

Can you identify the social smile versus the genuine, “Duchenne” smile? Real smiles involve muscles around both the eyes and cheeks.


Theories and Concepts of Emotion-- Four Theories of Emotion James-Lange: emotions occur after

arousal Cannon-Bard: arousal and emotion occur

simultaneously Facial-Feedback: facial movements elicit

arousal and specific emotions Schachter’s Two-Factor: arousal leads to

search for label and then emotion occurs


Theories and Concepts of Emotion:

Overview of Four Theories

of Emotion


Can You Explain Why Pleasant Feelings Increase When Teeth Show?


Facial Feedback Hypothesis: changes in facial expression produce corresponding

changes in emotion Laird (1974): attached electrodes to students

faces to study facial muscles. Showed them cartoons. Ask subs to contract muscles to form either smile or frown. Those who smiled while seeing cartoons rated them as funnier.

Kleinke et al., (1998). Had subjects model either pictures, most either happy or sad. Rated emotions. Happy faces happier.

Zajonc (1993). Cool brain hypothesis


Facial expressions: Universal expressions of emotions

Paul Ekman (1970’s) series of cross-cultural studies looking for universals in facial expressions of emotions

Based on evolutionary principle that it would have been advantageous for a highly social species to be able to quickly read emotions from faces.


Universal Facial Expressions

Ekman & Friesen (1978) identified six universal facial expressions: joy, fear, anger, sadness, surprise and disgust.


Lying faces: Can we identify when a face is lying?

Ekaman Telling Lies (2001). microexpression: brief, fleeting facial expression of the opposite emotion to what the person is trying to convey

90% of deceivers produce reliable microexpression. 30% of truth-tellers also do.

Other cues: depersonalization of speech, departure from typical communication style.

Ekman’s advice: always play good cop Avner Less/Adolf Eichmann example.


MicroExpression Training Tools (METT) and Subtle Expression Training Tools (SETT) provide self instructional training to improve your ability to recognize facial expressions of emotion. In under an hour, METT will train you to see very brief (1/25th of a second) microexpressions of concealed emotion. SETT teaches you to recognize the subtlest signs of when an emotion is first beginning in another person.

*©Paul Ekman 2004


Schachter two factor theory of emotion

Two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive evalution

We take note of physio arousal and label arousal with emotional tag appropriate to situation.

Is it love or is it gas?


What Theory of Emotion is Portrayed in this Figure?


Happiness: An elusive emotion

Why humans aren’t designed to be happy 1. Hedonic treadmill: we quickly adapt to

new circumstances requiring ever greater “thrills” to achieve contentment (the more you have the more you want!)

2. Tendency to make upward rather than downward social comparisons

3. Asymmetry of affective experience effect: losing $50 dollars feels worse than finding $50 feels good.


Happiness: Does money buy happiness?

Yes and no: Enough money to establish a health and security, but past that no effect

Of greater importance: stability and depth of social relationships – marriage, family, community.






The secret to Happiness: Ancient wisdom

Here again, I saw emptiness under the sun: a lonely man without a friend, without a son or brother, toiling endlessly yet never satisfied with his wealth. Two are better than one; they receive a good reward for their toil, because, if one falls, the other can help his companion up again; but alas for the man who falls with no partner to help him up. (Eccles. 4:7-10).


Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion

Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation-- extrinsic rewards may lower interest and motivation.


Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion—Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic


Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion—The Polygraph

Polygraph: measures changes in emotional arousal, which in turn supposedly reflects lying versus truthfulness

The Polygraph


Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion- The Polygraph

The subject’s response on the GSR does rise in response to the second question. But remember that error rates on the polygraph range from 25% to 75%.


Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion—Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotional

Intelligence (EI): ability to know and manage one’s emotions, empathize, and maintain satisfying relationships


Culture, Evolution, and Emotion Cultural similarities and differences: 7

to10 culturally universal emotions, but each culture has its own display rules governing how, when, and where to express emotions

Role of evolution: strong biological, evolutionary basis for emotional expression and decoding


Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions


Pause and Reflect:

Check & Review1. According to the _____ theory of emotions,

we see a bear, our hearts race, and we run for cover. Then we feel afraid.

2. The _____ primarily measures arousal and the physiological component of emotions.


Psychology in Action (8e)

by Karen Huffman

PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation

End of Chapter 12: Motivation and Emotion

Karen Huffman, Palomar College

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Important Definitions Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior,

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