Page 1
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-116-1©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.
MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT1212thth Edition Edition
Chapter 16Chapter 16
Motivation Theory and Practice
Page 2
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-2
Planning Ahead — Chapter 16 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence motivation?
2. What are the process theories of motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and motivation?
Page 3
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-3
Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard
1. Individual Needs and Motivation1. Hierarchy of needs theory2. ERG theory3. Two-factor theory4. Acquired needs theory
2. Process Theories of Motivation1. Equity theory2. Expectancy theory3. Goal-setting theory4. Self-efficacy theory
Page 4
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-4
Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard
3. Reinforcement Theory1. Reinforcement strategies2. Positive reinforcement3. Punishment
4. Motivation and Job Design1. Job simplification2. Job enrichment3. Alternative work schedules
Page 5
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-5
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work
Page 6
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-6
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Needs– Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires
of an individual – Explain workplace behavior and attitudes – Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior – Good managers and leaders facilitate employee
need satisfaction
Page 7
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-7
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory– Developed by Abraham Maslow – Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace
behavior and attitudes – Lower-order needs:
• Physiological, safety, and social needs • Desires for physical and social well being
– Higher-order needs:• Esteem and self-actualization needs
• Desire for psychological growth and development
Page 8
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-8
Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
Page 9
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-9
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory– Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
– Progression principle• A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied
Page 10
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-10
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory– Developed by Clayton Alderfer – Three need levels
Page 11
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-11
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory– Any/all needs can influence behavior at
one time – Frustration-regression principle
• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated
Page 12
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-12
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Two-factor theory– Developed by Frederick Herzberg – Hygiene factors:
• Elements of the job context • Sources of job dissatisfaction
– Satisfier factors:• Elements of the job content • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
Page 13
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-13
Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Page 14
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-14
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory– Developed by David McClelland – People acquire needs through their life
experiences – Needs that are acquired:
Page 15
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-15
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory– Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
– People high in (nAch) prefer work that:• Involves individual responsibility for results • Involves achievable but challenging goals • Provides feedback on performance
Page 16
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-16
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory– Need for Power (nPower)
• Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people
• Personal power versus social power
– People high in (nPower) prefer work that:• Involves control over other persons • Has an impact on people and events • Brings public recognition and attention
Page 17
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-17
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory– Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons
– People high in (nAff) prefer work that:• Involves interpersonal relationships • Provides for companionship• Brings social approval
Page 18
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-18
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
• Process theories of motivation …– How people make choices to work hard or not – Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences • Available rewards • Possible work outcomes
• Types of process theories:– Equity theory – Expectancy theory – Goal-setting theory
Page 19
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-19
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory– Developed by J. Stacy Adams – When people believe that they have been treated
unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation
• Perceived inequity • Perceived equity
Page 20
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-20
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory– People respond to perceived negative inequity by
changing …• Work inputs • Rewards received • Referent’s inputs or outcomes• Comparison points • Situation
Page 21
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-21
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy theory– Developed by Victor Vroom – Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance
• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes
Page 22
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-22
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory– Developed by Edwin Locke – Properly set and well-managed task goals can be
highly motivating – Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work • Clarify performance expectations • Establish a frame of reference for feedback • Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management
Page 23
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-23
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Page 24
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-24
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory – Participation in goal setting
• unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting • management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation • when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist
Page 25
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-25
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory – a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task– Capability directly affects motivation
• higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy • self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting
Page 26
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-26
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory – Enactive mastery
• person gains confidence through positive experience
– Vicarious modeling• learning by observing others
– Verbal persuasion• encouragement from others that one can perform a task
– Emotional arousal • high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
Page 27
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-27
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory – Focuses on the impact of external environmental
consequences on behavior – Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not
Page 28
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-28
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Operant conditioning:– Developed by B.F. Skinner – Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences
Page 29
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-29
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Operant conditioning strategies:– Positive reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
– Negative reinforcement• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence
Page 30
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-30
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Operant conditioning strategies:– Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence
– Extinction• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence
Page 31
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-31
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
– Law of contingent reinforcement —• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
– Law of immediate reinforcement —• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more
reinforcement value it has
Page 32
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-32
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Page 33
Place Slide Title Text Here
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-33
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of reinforcement:– Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs – Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically – Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement – Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more
permanent – Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it