Interpersonal relationships influence ethnic identification among Asian-American women

Group Processes & Intergroup Relations2014, Vol 17(1) 100 –109

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493485 17110.1177/1368430213493485Group Processes & Intergroup RelationsCheng et al.2013

1University of California, Irvine, USA2Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, USA3University of Michigan, USA

Corresponding author:Karen Cheng, Department of Informatics, University of California, Irvine, 5042 Donald Bren Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3440, USA. Email: [email protected]

How ethnic identity is affected by close relation-ships is practically relevant in the lives of many Americans. Ethnic diversity is increasing in many parts of the country, such that in states like Cali-fornia, there is now no one ethnic group that represents a majority of the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Living alongside, work-ing with, and marrying people of other ethnic backgrounds is a common experience for many Americans. Yet, maintaining a connection to one’s ethnic background is also valued among

many individuals (Cross & Cross, 2007; Phin-ney & Alipuria, 1990; Roberts et al., 1999; T. B.

Interpersonal relationships influence ethnic identification among Asian-American women

Karen Cheng,1,2 Terri Conley,3 and Ali Ziegler3

AbstractWe sought to examine the fluidity of ethnic identification and test shared reality’s hypothesis concerning the effects of interpersonal relationships on ethnic identification. To investigate the effects of ethnicity of spouse on ethnic identification, Asian-American women (66 from same-ethnicity marriages, 46 from mixed-ethnicity marriages) completed several measures of ethnic identification after thinking about positive aspects of their relationship with either their spouse or their mother. Women in same-ethnicity marriages reported equivalent levels of ethnic identification whether they thought about their mother or their spouse. Women in mixed-ethnicity marriages reported lower ethnic identification when they thought about their different-ethnicity spouse; but when thinking about their mother, they reported high ethnic identification equivalent to the levels reported by women in same-ethnicity marriages. Mediational analyses revealed that, consistent with shared reality theory, shared understanding of one’s ethnic identity with one’s spouse partially mediated the relationship between same- and different-ethnicity spouses and ethnic identification. Implications for theories of ethnic identity and for individuals in mixed-ethnicity romantic relationships are discussed.

Keywordsclose relationships, ethnic identity, shared reality

Paper received 30 November 2011; revised version accepted 13 May 2013.

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Cheng et al. 101

Smith & Silva, 2011). How do individuals manage their ethnic identification in a diverse, multicul-tural environment? And more specifically, how do individuals who married someone of a dif-ferent ethnicity experience ethnic identity in the daily context of their marriage and other close relationships?

Shared Reality Theory and Ethnic Identification Across RelationshipsShared reality theory (Hardin & Conley, 2001; Hardin & Higgins, 1996) offers a perspective on how close relationships with same- and different-ethnicity others influence one’s ethnic identifica-tion. The theory posits that people’s attitudes and beliefs about themselves are held strongly (a) to the extent that those beliefs are validated and shared with important others and (b) to the extent that those relationships are strong. Relationships, in turn, are established and maintained on the basis of shared experience and shared perspec-tives (consensus). One key element of the theory is the hypothesis that the desire to maintain a posi-tive relationship with a given person activates the attitudes and beliefs that are shared in that partic-ular relationship. That is, when people are moti-vated to maintain a relationship, they will try to think about attitudes and beliefs that they share with this person. Supporting this perspective, Sinclair, Dunn, and Lowery (2005) showed that children express racial attitudes that are similar to their parents if they reported liking their parents and wanting to be similar to them.

According to shared reality theory, then, the desire to maintain a relationship with a same-eth-nicity person should activate attitudes and beliefs that are relevant to their shared experiences, one of which would be a strong ethnic identification. Similarly, the desire to maintain a relationship with a different-ethnicity person activates atti-tudes and beliefs that are common to both per-sons, and those common attitudes often do not include strong ethnic identification. As a result, in those situations, one de-emphasizes one’s ethnic-ity, leading to lowered ethnic identification.

Up to this point, we have been presuming that two people of the same ethnic background will interpret and understand their ethnicity in the same way. However, that is not necessarily the case. For example, one person could understand her ethnicity to be a point of pride, whereas another person of the same ethnicity could per-ceive his ethnic background to be a source of shame. Importantly for shared reality theory, the specific mechanism by which the increase in eth-nic identification should occur is shared understand-ing of ethnicity. That is, both members of a same-ethnicity dyad would need to construe and interpret their ethnicity in the same way in order to maintain a strong relationship. However, mem-bers of a same-ethnicity dyad who have different interpretations of their ethnicity can, according to shared reality theory, reduce this tension by reducing the relative importance of ethnic iden-tity in the context of their relationship—expressed as lowered ethnic identification.

Interethnic Romantic Relationships and Ethnic IdentityIn the current research, we are interested in the ways in which ethnic identity may be influenced by close relationships with others. The strength of one’s ethnic identification appears to be associated with important interpersonal relationships in one’s life. That is, existing research supports the contention that positive, and desired, relationships with same-ethnicity people increase ethnic identi-fication (e.g., Carter, Sbrocco, Lewis, & Friedman, 2001; Hughes, Hagelskamp, Way, & Foust, 2009; Sanders Thompson, 1999; E. P. Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, & Seay, 1999). Across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, having a greater number of same-ethnicity friends is correlated with higher ethnic identification (Reynolds, 2007; Rosenthal & Feldman, 1992; Sanders Thompson, 1999; Saylor & Aries, 1999; E. P. Smith et al., 1999). Similarly, positive relationships with same-ethnicity family members are associated with higher levels of ethnic identification (Birman, Persky, & Chan, 2010; Carter et al., 2001; Demo &



102 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 17(1)

Hughes, 1990; Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 1998; Juang, Nguyen, & Lin, 2006; Liebkind, Jasinskaja-Lahti, & Solheim, 2004).

Of particular interest to us is how individuals in same-ethnic versus interethnic close relation-ships view their ethnic identities. Interracial close relationships are on the rise in the United States. For example, secondary analyses of the 2008 American Community Survey found that 47% of U.S.-born Asian-American men and 48% of U.S.-born Asian-American women who married in the previous year were married to someone of non-Asian descent (Qian & Lichter, 2011). And, 42% of U.S.-born Hispanic men and 41% of U.S.-born Hispanic women who married in the previous year married someone of non-Hispanic descent. Little is known about how ethnic identification may be affected by intimate relationships with people of different ethnicities. Though published studies address the ethnic identification of chil-dren of mixed-ethnicity marriages (e.g., Cheng & Klugman, 2010; LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; O’Donoghue, 2005; Qian, 2004), we are aware of no published studies that address how mixed-ethnicity marriage might affect the ethnic identification of the spouses themselves. A small number of studies show that people in mixed-ethnicity marriages report ethnicity to be an unimportant part of their relationship, but these studies did not include comparison groups of same-ethnicity married couples (Imamura, 1986; Kouri & Lasswell, 1993; Lewis, Yancey, & Bletzer, 1997; Porterfield, 1982; see also Gurung & Duong, 1999; Shibazaki & Brennan, 1998).

Regardless of whether people in same-ethnic relationships have stronger ethnic identities than those in mixed-ethnic relationships, interethnic relationships may pose a quandary for individuals who desire a very strong relationship with their romantic partner as well as a positive ethnic iden-tification. That is, we know that relationships with same-ethnicity others are associated with more positive ethnic identities. Because people typically spend a lot of time with their romantic partners, romantic relationships are likely a major source of positive ethnic identity for those involved in same-ethnic relationships.

Thus, people who are in interethnic relation-ships may need other same-ethnic relationships to maintain their positive ethnic identities. We suggest that parental relationships may provide an alternate avenue through which individuals in interethnic relationships could derive a positive ethnic identity.

Parental Relationships in AdulthoodAlthough our society and researchers who study relationships focus on the primacy of adult roman-tic relationships (see Whisman, 1997), relation-ships with parents are enduring and important throughout the life course (Conley, Moors, Ziegler, & Feltner, 2011; Cooney & Uhlenberg, 1992; Fingerman, 2001). Parental relationships appear to be especially important in determining and main-taining ethnic identification. For example, Yip and Fuligni (2002) found that the strength of partici-pants’ ethnic identities was strongly associated with the quality of their interpersonal relationships with their (same-ethnicity) parents. That is, on days when adolescents felt like a good son or daughter, they reported feeling “more Chinese.” Rosenthal and Hrynevich (1985) found that Greek-Australian and Italian-Australian adolescents reported that they felt most ethnic in the presence of family members. Likewise, ethnic identification reported by children and adolescents is positively correlated with their parents’ ethnic identification: parents who have strong ethnic identifications tend to have children with strong ethnic identifications (Barr & Neville, 2008; Hughes et al., 2006; Knight, Bernal, Garza, Cota, & Ocampo, 1993; Quintana & Vera, 1999; Rosenthal & Cichello, 1986; Sam, 1995; Thomas, 2000).

In sum, correlational evidence suggests that parental relationships can foster strong ethnic identities in children. We know of no experimen-tal evidence that tests this claim, however. Because relationships with parents promote a positive ethnic identity, we suggest that relation-ships with parents may be a prominent way to maintain ethnic identification for people in interethnic romantic relationships.



Cheng et al. 103

The Present StudyThis study experimentally investigated the impact of relationship salience (with romantic partners or parents) on ethnic identification among indi-viduals in same- or interethnic relationships. Using shared reality theory, we predicted that when the positive aspects of people’s relationship with their spouse are made salient, they will be more highly identified with their own ethnicity if the spouse is of the same ethnicity but will be less identified with their own ethnicity if the spouse is of a different ethnicity. However, when the posi-tive aspects of a relationship with a parent (i.e., a person of the same ethnicity) are made salient, it was predicted that people would be highly identi-fied with their ethnicity, regardless of whether their marriage is same- or mixed-ethnicity. Perceptions of relative shared understanding of ethnicity with spouse and with mother were also assessed to test shared reality theory’s claim that shared understanding is the mechanism by which a salient same-ethnicity relationship increases ethnic identification and a salient different-eth-nicity relationship decreases ethnic identification.

To test these predictions, ethnic identification was assessed among people in same- and mixed-ethnicity marriages after they were induced to think of positive aspects of their relationship with either their spouse or their parent. In addi-tion, we tested whether shared reality’s proposed mechanism of shared understanding of ethnicity mediates the effects of relationship salience on ethnic identification. The mediational analyses were conducted to ensure that more than just a shared ethnic background is necessary for two people to have a shared reality; they must also have a similar understanding of ethnicity. This makes sense in light of the fact that ethnic iden-tity can be experienced in a variety of ways, and no ethnic identity is entirely homogenous.

Method

OverviewAsian-American women from same- and mixed-ethnicity marriages completed measures of ethnic

identification after being instructed to think of either their relationship with their mother or with their spouse (either same or different ethnicity). The study was a 2 (ethnicity of spouse: same-, dif-ferent- ethnicity) x 2 (experimentally manipulated salient relationship: spouse, mother) between-sub-jects factorial design.

Participants. Participants were 118 married Asian-American women, recruited through campus newspaper ads, flyers on campus, and snowballing to participate in an online study of family relation-ships and cultural identity. Participation was restricted to currently married women of Chinese, Japanese, or Korean descent. These groups were chosen because of the high concentration of these populations in the study location. Participation was limited to those who were biologically related to their mothers and only identified with one ethnic-ity; this was done to ensure that participants identi-fied with the same ethnicity as their mother, without revealing to participants the design of the study. Furthermore, we required that participants’ mothers be alive, so that we could compare partici-pants’ current relationship with their spouses with their current relationship with their mothers. The sample included 112 women, 46 (41%) were in mixed-ethnicity marriages and 66 (59%) were in same-ethnicity marriages (see Table 1 for cross-tabulation of participant ethnicity and spouse eth-nicity). The average participant age was 32 years.

MaterialsExperimental manipulation questions. Positive rela-tionship salience (which primes a desire to main-tain a positive relationship with a given individual) was manipulated with two questions. The first question was: “Think about your relationship with your spouse [mother]. In what ways is your rela-tionship with him [her] unique and special? What characteristics of your relationship make you and your spouse [mother] feel close to each other?” The second question was “The people who are important to us affect our lives in tremendous ways. Think about how your spouse [mother] has shaped you as a person. Please describe one way in




which your spouse [mother] has positively affected the person that you are today. For example, what positive personal characteristics do you have now because of your spouse [mother] and how did he [she] help you gain those characteristics?”

Ethnic identification. Ethnic identification was measured by the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (α = .85; MEIM; Phinney, 1992). This measure is comprised of four subscales. Three of the subscales, Affirmation and Belonging (five items), Ethnic Identity Achievement (seven items), and Ethnic Behaviors (two items) were administered to the participants. All items were responded to on a 7-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Mean scores were calculated for each subscale and across all the items for the overall MEIM score. The fourth subscale, Other Group Orientation scale, was not included because it does not measure an individ-ual’s connection with her own ethnicity, which is our interest in the current study.

Shared understanding of ethnicity. The degree to which participants perceived their spouse and mother to share an understanding of ethnicity was

assessed with author-constructed scales. Seven items assessed shared understanding of ethnicity with spouse, and seven items assessed shared understanding of ethnicity with mother (α = .73, .88, respectively). These items were responded to on a 7-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Mean scores were calculated for each scale. Examples of the items include “My spouse is able to relate to the experiences I have had as a member of my ethnic group” and “My mother and I don’t see eye-to-eye on how I should be con-nected to my ethnic group” (reverse-coded).

ProcedurePotential participants were screened by telephone or email; those who met the criteria described in the Participants section, were given the link to the online survey and a password with which to access the survey. They were then randomly assigned to receive the open-ended questions about their spouse or the open-ended questions about their mother.

The entire survey took approximately 1 hour to complete. Participants were given $10 com-pensation and entered in a drawing for a roman-tic dinner for two after they completed the survey.

Results

Sample CharacteristicsParticipants with same-ethnicity spouses did not statistically differ from participants with different-ethnicity spouses on any demographic variables.

Analytic StrategyFirst, we conducted analyses of variance on the MEIM. These ANOVAs were followed with planned comparisons to more specifically test our hypotheses. Next we conducted mediational anal-yses to determine whether shared understanding of ethnic identity mediated the relationship between same- or different-ethnicity of the spouse and ethnic identification.

Table 1. Cross-tabulation of participant ethnicity and spouse ethnicity.

Spouse ethnicity

Participant ethnicity

Chinese Korean Japanese

(n = 70) (n = 22) (n = 20)

Chinese 45 5 4Japanese 4 1 10Korean 1 11 2Filipino 1 – –½ same Asian ½ different Asian 1 – 1½ same Asian ½ White 2 – 1White 13 5 1Black 1 – –Latino 1 – 1Native American 1 – –



Cheng et al. 105

Effects of relationship salience on ethnic identifica-tion. We conducted a 2 (type of romantic rela-tionship: same- vs. different ethnicity) x 2 (prime: romantic relationship salience vs. relationship with mother salience), on the MEIM, F(1, 114) = 4.31, p = .006, η2 = .11.

We then tested the specific prediction that people who thought about their different- ethnicity spouse would report lower ethnic iden-tification than people who thought about their same-ethnicity spouse or people who thought about their mother. This was accomplished through planned contrasts. As shown in Figure 1, the predicted pattern of results was significant, t(108) = 3.83, p < .001, d = .74. Specifically, addi-tional t tests confirmed that women in mixed-ethnicity marriages instructed to think of their different-ethnicity spouse reported significantly lower ethnic identification (M = 4.66) than women in mixed-ethnicity marriages instructed

to think of their mother (M = 5.32, t(44) = 2.5, p < .01, d = .75) or women in same-ethnicity mar-riages instructed to think of either their same-ethnicity spouse (M = 5.36, t(60) = 3.43, p < .01, d = .88) or their mother (M = 5.42, t(54) = 3.33, p < .01, d = .90). Ethnic identification in the latter three conditions did not differ significantly from one another (see Figure 1).

Shared understanding of ethnicity as mediator. Media-tional analyses were conducted to test whether shared understanding of ethnicity with mother or shared understanding of ethnicity with spouse mediated the effects of spouse’s ethnicity on eth-nic identification and of relationship salience on ethnic identification. To test for mediation, it must first be shown that spouse’s ethnicity (or relationship salience) significantly predicts ethnic identification, and with a second regression, that spouse’s ethnicity (or relationship salience) sig-nificantly predicted the proposed mediator (Baron & Kenny, 1986). In a third regression, the proposed mediator and spouse’s ethnicity (or relationship salience) are tested as predictors of ethnic identification. Support for mediation is found when the beta coefficient of the proposed mediator remains significant while the beta coef-ficient for spouse’s ethnicity (or relationship sali-ence) drops to nearly zero and becomes nonsignificant. Finally, the modified Sobel test assesses the statistical significance of the media-tion effect.

Analyses indicated that perceived shared understanding of ethnicity with spouse mediated the differences in level of ethnic identification between women with different-ethnicity spouses (M = 4.95) and women with same-ethnicity spouses (M = 5.38). As shown in Figure 2, women with different-ethnicity spouses (M = 4.76) per-ceived their spouses to understand their ethnicity less than women with same-ethnicity spouses (M = 5.65). Perceived shared understanding of eth-nicity with spouse, in turn, significantly predicted level of ethnic identification. When spouse’s eth-nicity and perceived shared understanding of eth-nicity with spouse were both entered as predictors, it was shown that perceived shared understanding

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Spouse IsDifferent-Ethnicity

Spouse IsSame-Ethnicity

MEIM

Spouse Is Salient

Mother Is Salient

Figure 1. Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) as a function of spouse’s ethnicity and rela-tionship salience.




mediated the effects of spouse’s ethnicity on eth-nic identification, as measured by MEIM, Sobel z = −4.91, p < .001 (see Figure 2).

General DiscussionThese findings provide experimental evidence that level of ethnic identification can vary across situations, and particularly, that it varies system-atically as a function of the relative salience of one’s relationships with same- and different- ethnicity others. As predicted by shared reality theory, people who thought about the desirable aspects of their relationship with their different-ethnicity spouse reported lower ethnic identifica-tion than people who thought about the desirable aspects of their relationship with their same- ethnicity spouse and people who thought about the desirable aspects of their relationship with their same-ethnicity mother. Thus, the results of this study also support shared reality theory’s claim that perceived shared understanding of ethnicity in the salient relationship is the mecha-nism that explains situational differences in levels of ethnic identification. Greater shared under-standing of ethnicity with one’s spouse accounted for the higher ethnic identification of people with a same-ethnicity spouse compared to people with a different-ethnicity spouse.

Understanding that shared reality theory is dependent on a shared understanding helps in explaining how shared ethnic background does not automatically equate to shared reality. Rather, individuals must apply similar understandings of their shared ethnic identity in order to have a shared reality. While this may seem somewhat intuitive, emphasizing the importance of shared

understanding is critical so as not to assume that all individuals of the same ethnicity necessarily share one reality.

Future DirectionsSeveral future studies can more completely address the issues raised here. First, we suggest recruiting a large enough sample to make com-parisons among people who have spouses of a variety of different ethnicities. In particular, do people of color who have a different-ethnicity spouse who is White (and, thus, a member of the dominant culture in the United States) feel more disconnected from their identity than people dat-ing a member of another Asian group? We might conjecture that it would be more difficult to develop a shared understanding of ethnic identity with a member of a culturally dominant ethnic group. Moreover, an Asian American married to an Asian American of different ethnic back-ground may elicit fewer conspicuous encounters surrounding one’s ethnic identity than an Asian American married to a White person.

Second, a productive future study might compare the valence of relationship primes. When thinking about negative aspects of one’s relationship with a same-ethnicity spouse, one’s ethnic identity may actually decrease among those in same-ethnicity marriages. However, we should not show these effects for those in mixed-ethnicity marriages. Among those in mixed-ethnicity marriages, the effects should be mediated by the extent to which they perceive a shared understanding of ethnicity with their spouse. Such a study could provide another test of shared reality theory.

Spouse isdifferent-

ethnicity vs.same-ethnicity

Shared Understandingof Ethnicity with

Spouse

MultigroupEthnic Identity

Measure(-.25*).05, ns

-.50* .61*

Figure 2. Mediational analysis of effect of spouse’s ethnicity on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure.



Cheng et al. 107

Finally, this study was conducted on a conven-ience sample. It would be useful to examine these dynamics in a broader range of ethnic groups and among a representative sample.

Implications for Multicultural SocietiesThese data suggest that individuals in multicultural societies will likely amplify or reduce their degree of ethnic identification depending upon the rela-tionships that they are attempting to foster. Based on shared reality theory, these are normal pro-cesses and not a product of a fractured identity.

In addition, these data speak to the value of nonromantic relationships in helping maintain strong and positive ethnic identities. Although romantic relationships are often promoted above all others (see, for example, the number of jour-nal articles that address romantic relationships vs. those that address adult parental relationships or friendships; Whisman, 1997), these data also sug-gest the limits to any single relationship in helping people create positive views of themselves and their identities. By surrounding themselves with friends and family members of their own ethnic background, people in interracial marriages can maintain strong ties to their culture.

Finally these data also suggest the importance of seeking a shared understanding of one’s ethnic identity with important people in our lives of dif-ferent ethnic backgrounds. Helping others under-stand our experience of ethnicity, based on shared reality theory, should also help to strengthen these relationships.

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Interpersonal relationships influence ethnic identification among Asian-American women

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